1.
Benjamin Henry Latrobe
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Benjamin Henry Boneval Latrobe was a British subject and neoclassical architect. It is the first Roman Catholic Cathedral constructed in the United States, Latrobe also designed the largest structure in America at the time, the Merchants Exchange in Baltimore. Latrobe emigrated to the U. S. in 1796, initially settling in Virginia where he worked on the Virginia State Penitentiary in Richmond, Latrobe then moved to Philadelphia where he established his practice. Latrobe spent the years of his life in New Orleans, Louisiana working on a waterworks project. Latrobe has been called the Father of American Architecture and he was also the uncle of Charles La Trobe, who was the first Lieutenant-Governor of Victoria in Australia. Latrobe was born on May 1,1764, at the Fulneck Moravian Settlement, near Pudsey in the city of Leeds, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England. His parents were the Reverend Benjamin Latrobe, a leader of the Moravian Church who was of Huguenot ancestry, Antes was born in the American colony of Pennsylvania, but was sent to England by her father, a wealthy landowner, to attend a Moravian school at Fulneck. Latrobes father, who was responsible for all Moravian schools and establishments in Britain, had a circle of friends in the higher ranks of society. He stressed the importance of education, scholarship, and the value of exchange, while Latrobes mother instilled in her son a curiosity. From a young age, Benjamin Henry Latrobe enjoyed drawing landscapes and he was a brother of Moravian leader and musical composer Christian Ignatius Latrobe. In 1776, at the age of 12, Latrobe was sent away to a Moravian School at Niesky in Upper Lusatia, near the border of the German principalities of Saxony and Prussia, where his brother was studying. At age 18, he spent several months traveling around Germany, Latrobe may also have served briefly in the Austrian Imperial Army, and suffered some injuries or illness. After recovering, he embarked on a continental Grand Tour, visiting eastern Saxony, Paris, Italy, and other places. Through his education and travels, Latrobe mastered German, French, ancient and modern Greek, and Latin, had advanced ability in Italian and Spanish, Latrobe was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815. His son, Benjamin Henry Latrobe, II, also worked as a civil engineer, in 1827, he joined the newly organized Baltimore and Ohio Railroad and designed the longest, most challenging bridge on its initial route, the curving Thomas Viaduct. Another son, John Hazelhurst Boneval Latrobe, was a civic leader, lawyer, author, historian, artist, inventor, intellectual. Latrobe Park in south Baltimore is named for the family, as is Latrobe Park, New Orleans, Latrobe returned to England in 1784, and was apprenticed to John Smeaton, an engineer known for designing Eddystone Lighthouse. Then in 1787 or 1788, he worked in the office of neoclassical architect S. P. Cockerell for a brief time, in 1790, Latrobe was appointed Surveyor of the Public Offices in London, and established his own private practice in 1791
2.
Thomas Ustick Walter
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Thomas Ustick Walter was an American architect, the dean of American architecture between the 1820 death of Benjamin Latrobe and the emergence of H. H. Richardson in the 1870s. He was the fourth Architect of the Capitol and responsible for adding the north and south wings, Walter was one of the founders and second president of the American Institute of Architects. Born in 1804 in Philadelphia, Walter was the son of mason and bricklayer Joseph S. Walter, Walter received early training in a variety of fields including masonry, mathematics, physical science, and the fine arts. At 15, Walter entered the office of William Strickland, studying architecture and mechanical drawing, Walter was commissioned by Spruce Street Baptist Church to design its new building at 418 Spruce Street. The 1829 building is home to the Society Hill Synagogue. Walters first major commission was Moyamensing Prison, the Philadelphia County Prison, designed as a humane model in its time, the prison was built between 1832 and 1835. Walter also designed the First Presbyterian Church of West Chester, which opened its doors in January 1834, in March 1834, the Walter-designed Wills Eye Hospital opened on the southwest corner of 18th and Race Streets in Philadelphia. He first came to recognition for his design of Girard College for Orphans in Philadelphia. Walter also designed mansions, banks, churches, the hotel at Brandywine Springs, in 1836, he designed the Bank of Chester County at West Chester, Pennsylvania, a decade later, he designed the 1846 Chester County Courthouse in Greek Revival style. In Lexington, Virginia, he designed the Lexington Presbyterian Church in 1843, the same year he designed the Chapel of the Cross in Chapel Hill, North Carolina. In Norfolk, Virginia, he designed the Norfolk Academy in 1840, the Tabb Street Presbyterian Church was erected at Petersburg, Virginia in 1843. It has also suggested that Walter designed the Second Empire-styled Quarters B and Quarters D at Admirals Row in Brooklyn. Georges Hall, residence of Matthew Newkirk, president of the Philadelphia, Walter also designed the Garrett-Dunn House in Philadelphias Mt. Airy neighborhood, which was destroyed by fire after being struck by lightning on August 2,2009. Among his smaller designs was the 1839 Newkirk Viaduct Monument, commissioned by the PW&B to mark the completion of the first rail line south from Philadelphia, the most famous of Walters constructions is the dome of the U. S. Capitol. By 1850, the expansion of the United States had caused a space shortage in the Capitol. Walter was selected to design extensions for the Capitol and his plan more than doubled the size of the existing building and added the familiar cast-iron dome. There were at least six draftsmen in Walters office, headed by Walters chief assistant, August Schoenborn and it appears that he was responsible for some of the fundamental ideas in the Capitol structure. These included the curved ribs and an ingenious arrangement used to cantilever the base of the columns
3.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
4.
Massachusetts Bay Colony
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Territory claimed but never administered by the colonial government extended as far west as the Pacific Ocean. The earlier Dutch colony of New Netherlands disputed many of these claims, arguing that they held rights to lands beyond Rhode Island up to the side of Cape Cod. The Massachusetts Bay Colony began in 1628 and was the second attempt at colonization. The colony was successful, with about 20,000 people migrating to New England in the 1630s, the population was strongly Puritan, and its governance was dominated by a small group of leaders who were strongly influenced by Puritan religious leaders. Its governors were elected, and the electorate were limited to freemen who had been examined for their religious views, as a consequence, the colonial leadership exhibited intolerance to other religious views, including Anglican, Quaker, and Baptist theologies. The colonists initially had decent relationships with the local Indian populations and these led first to the Pequot War and then to King Philips War, after which most of the Indians in southern New England made peace treaties with the colonists. The colony was successful, engaging in trade with England. A shortage of currency in the colony prompted it to establish a mint in 1652. Political differences with England after the English Restoration led to the revocation of the charter in 1684. King James II established the Dominion of New England in 1686 to bring all of the New England colonies under firmer crown control, Sir William Phips arrived in 1692 bearing the charter and formally took charge of the new province. The political and economic dominance of New England by the state of Massachusetts was made possible in part by the early dominance in these spheres by the Massachusetts Bay colonists. The total Indian population in 1620 has been estimated to be 7,000 with the population of New England at 15–18,000, the land-use patterns of the natives included plots cleared for agricultural purposes, and woodland territories for the hunting of game. Land divisions between the tribes were well understood, during the early 17th century, several European explorers charted the area, including Samuel de Champlain and John Smith. Plans began in 1606 for the first permanent British settlements on the east coast of North America, on April 10,1606, King James I of England granted a charter forming two joint-stock companies. Under this charter, the first Colony and the second Colony were to be ruled by a Council composed of 13 individuals in each colony, the charter provided for an additional council of 13 persons to have overarching responsibility for the combined enterprise. No name was given to either the company or council governing the respective colonies, the first Colony ranged from the 34th- to 41st-degree latitude north, the second Colony ranged from the 38th- to 45th-degree latitude. The London Company proceeded to establish Jamestown, the Plymouth Company under the guidance of Sir Ferdinando Gorges covered the more northern area, including present-day New England, and established the Sagadahoc Colony in 1607 in present-day Maine. The experience proved exceptionally difficult for the 120 settlers, however, Gorges noted that there was no more speech of settling plantations in those parts for a number of years
5.
Massachusetts State House
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The building houses the Massachusetts General Court and the offices of the Governor of Massachusetts. The building, designed by noted architect Charles Bulfinch, was completed in 1798 and it is considered a masterpiece of Federal architecture and among Bulfinchs finest works, and was designated a National Historic Landmark for its architectural significance. The building is situated on 6.7 acres of land on top of Beacon Hill in Boston and it was built on land once owned by John Hancock, Massachusettss first elected governor. Before the current State House was completed in 1798, Massachusettss government house was the Old State House on Court Street, for the buildings design, architect Charles Bulfinch made use of two existing buildings in London, William Chamberss Somerset House, and James Wyatts Pantheon. A major expansion of the building was completed in 1895. The architect for the annex was Bostonian Charles Brigham, in 1917, the east and west wings, designed by architects Sturgis, Bryant, Chapman & Andrews, were completed. In July 2016, Governor Charlie Baker proposed to the legislature to sell 300 square feet of permanent easement on the west side of the State House lawn to a neighboring condominium. The land in question was once owned by John Hancock. The original wood dome, which leaked, was covered with copper in 1802 by Paul Reveres Revere Copper Company, Revere was the first American to roll copper successfully into sheets in a commercially viable manner. The dome was first painted gray and then light yellow before being gilded with gold leaf in 1874. During World War II, the dome was painted once again, in 1997, at a cost of more than $300,000, the dome was re-gilded, in 23k gold. In front of the building is a statue of General Joseph Hooker. Other statues in front of the building include Daniel Webster, educator Horace Mann, the statues of Anne Hutchinson and Mary Dyer are located on the lawns below the east and west wings. The original red-brick Bulfinch building contains the Governors offices with the Massachusetts Senate occupying the former House of Representatives Chamber under the dome, the Massachusetts House of Representatives occupies a chamber on the west side of the Brigham addition. Hanging over this chamber is the Sacred Cod, which was given to the House of Representatives in 1784 by a Boston merchant, the Sacred Cod symbolizes the importance of the fishing industry to the early Massachusetts economy. The second floor under the dome is decorated by murals painted by artist Edward Brodney, Brodney won a competition to paint the first mural in a contest sponsored by the Works Progress Administration in 1936. It is entitled Columbia Knighting Her World War Disabled, Brodney could not afford to pay models, and friends and family posed. The model for Columbia was Brodneys sister Norma Brodney Cohen, in 1938, he painted a second mural under the dome called World War Mothers
6.
First Harrison Gray Otis House
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The First Harrison Gray Otis House is a historic house museum and National Historic Landmark at 141 Cambridge Street in the West End of Boston, Massachusetts. The house, built in 1795-96, was the first of three designed by Charles Bulfinch and built for Massachusetts politician Harrison Gray Otis. It is notable as one of the earliest three-story brick houses came to represent the Federal style of architecture. The house is now the headquarters of Historic New England, a preservation organization. The house is the simplest of the three designed by Bulfinch for Otis, the design is said to be inspired by a William Bingham house that Bulfinch saw in 1789 in Philadelphia, which was in turned derived from a house in London. The house is three stories tall, five wide, with elegant string courses. Todays graceful entrance was added after 1801, above it is a fine Palladian window, and above that a lunette. The third floor is very short, ceilings are just over 6 feet tall, the floor plan follows a typical central hall plan, with two rooms on either side of the central hallway. The kitchen was in an ell, the house was purchased in 1916 by the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities for use as its headquarters. It was originally located about 40 feet forward of its present location, the original cellar was lost during this move. The house is now connected to a group of row houses on Lynde Street, the house underwent a careful restoration in 1960, overseen by Abbott Lowell Cummings. It is open year-round for tours, list of National Historic Landmarks in Boston National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts Historic New England, Otis House Museum,1796
7.
Old State House (Connecticut)
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The Old State House in Hartford, Connecticut is generally believed to have been designed by noted American architect Charles Bulfinch as his first public building. The State House is currently managed by the Office of Legislative Management of the Connecticut General Assembly, the exterior building and the Senate have been restored to its original Federal style, the Representatives chamber is Victorian, and the halls and courtroom are Colonial Revival. The Hartford State House is, in appearance, very similar to the Town Hall of Liverpool, England, built in the mid-18th century, however, all materials came from the United States. Its first story is 20 feet high and constructed from Portland, the second and third stories are brick patterned in Flemish bond. The State House has been modified somewhat since it was first built, an original stone spiral staircase behind the northern arch, designed by Asher Benjamin, led to the second and third floors, it no longer exists. In 1814, the Hartford Convention was held there, in 1839, the start of the Amistad trial was held there. The building had been in danger of closing in 2008 due to financial constraints, State and Hartford officials have recently signed a 99-year lease placing Connecticuts Old State House under new management. The lease puts the city-owned historic building under the control of the state Office of Legislative Management and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1960. Exhibits focus on the history of Hartford and important events in Connecticut history, visitors can also tour the original legislative rooms. The Museum of Natural and Other Curiosities is located on the floor of the Old State House. The museum features a recreation of Joseph Stewards original 1798 collection of natural history displays, over the years, several eyewitnesses have claimed to experience paranormal activity inside the building. In 2009, the Old State House was investigated by the investigators of TAPS on episode 524 of the Sci Fi Channel program Ghost Hunters, the episode aired on December 9,2009. Following the investigation, TAPS announced that they captured audio of strange sounds inside the building, before giving a final verdict of haunted or not, the team plans to head back to the Old State House for a more in depth investigation. So until then, this remains open
8.
Faneuil Hall
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Faneuil Hall, located near the waterfront and todays Government Center, in Boston, Massachusetts, has been a marketplace and a meeting hall since 1743. It was the site of speeches by Samuel Adams, James Otis. Now it is part of Boston National Historical Park and a stop on the Freedom Trail. It is sometimes referred to as the Cradle of Liberty, in 2008, Faneuil Hall was rated number 4 in Americas 25 Most Visited Tourist Sites by Forbes Traveler. There was an opposition to market houses, and although a vote of thanks was passed unanimously. Funded in part by profits from trading, the building was begun in Dock Square in September of the same year. It was built by artist John Smibert in 1740–1742 in the style of an English country market, with a ground floor serving as the market house. According to Sean Hennessey, a National Park Service spokesman, some of Bostons early slave auctions were located near Faneuil Hall, in 1761 the hall was destroyed by fire, nothing but the brick walls remaining. It was rebuilt by the town in 1762, in 1775, during the British occupation of Boston, it was used for a theatre. In 1806, the hall was expanded by Charles Bulfinch, doubling its height and width. Four new bays were added, to seven in all, the open arcades were enclosed. Bulfinch applied Doric brick pilasters to the two floors, with Ionic pilasters on the third floor. This renovation added galleries around the hall and increased its height. Neighboring Quincy Market was constructed in 1824-26, Faneuil Hall was entirely rebuilt of noncombustible materials in 1898–1899. On October 9,1960 the building was designated a National Historic Landmark, the ground floor and basement were altered in 1979. The Hall was restored again in 1992 and in 1994 designated as a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission. It was designed by Benjamin Thompson and Associates and managed by Ashkenazy Acquisition Corp. its success in the late 1970s led to the emergence of similar marketplaces in other U. S. cities, chappelle was a Boston legislator from 1883-1886. On the front page of The New York Age newspaper on Saturday, on November 7,1979, Faneuil Hall was the site of Sen. Edward M. Kennedys speech declaring his candidacy for president
9.
University Hall (Harvard University)
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University Hall is a white granite building designed by the great early American architect Charles Bulfinch and built by the noted early engineer Loammi Baldwin, Jr. It is located in Harvard Yard on the campus of Harvard University in Cambridge and it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1970 for its architectural significance. The hall was designed by Bulfinch, class of 1781, and it consists of a partial basement story, plus three full stories raised above ground as well as an additional story set within the roofline. The long east and west facades are similar, and symmetrically arranged with two entrances per facade, each flanked by pilasters, smaller north and south facades present rows of windows. Total construction cost was $65,000 of which $53,000 was paid by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, University Halls first floor contained the College Commons until 1849. The building also contained a library and philosophical apparatus, as well as a chapel within the second, a massive portico with stone pillars was added to the western facade soon after completion, but removed in 1842. In 1849 the first floor was partitioned into classrooms, in 1867 the chapel was partitioned as well, in 1896 the chapel was restored and used for meetings of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. In 1924 Daniel Chester Frenchs bronze statue of John Harvard was moved to the western façade from its location near Memorial Hall. In 1969, Harvard students took over the hall and occupied it for 18 hours in protest of Harvards stance on the Vietnam War, the demonstration ended only when Massachusetts state police arrived to remove the students from the building. List of National Historic Landmarks in Massachusetts National Register of Historic Places listings in Cambridge, Massachusetts
10.
United States Capitol
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The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol Building or Capitol Hill, is the home of the United States Congress, and the seat of the legislative branch of the U. S. federal government. It sits atop Capitol Hill at the end of the National Mall in Washington. Though not at the center of the Federal District, the Capitol forms the origin point for the Districts street-numbering system. The original building was completed in 1800 and was subsequently expanded, like the principal buildings of the executive and judicial branches, the Capitol is built in a distinctive neoclassical style and has a white exterior. Both its east and west elevations are referred to as fronts, though only the east front was intended for the reception of visitors. In 2014, scaffolding was erected around the dome for a project scheduled to be completed by early 2017. All exterior scaffolding was removed by the end of summer 2016, prior to establishing the nations capital in Washington, D. C. the United States Congress and its predecessors had met in Philadelphia, New York City, and a number of other locations. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress brought together delegates from the colonies in Philadelphia, followed by the Second Continental Congress, Congress requested that John Dickinson, the Governor of Pennsylvania, call up the militia to defend Congress from attacks by the protesters. In what became known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, Dickinson sympathized with the protesters and refused to remove them from Philadelphia. As a result, Congress was forced to flee to Princeton, New Jersey, on June 21,1783, and met in Annapolis, Maryland, the United States Congress was established upon ratification of the United States Constitution and formally began on March 4,1789. New York City remained home to Congress until July 1790, when the Residence Act was passed to pave the way for a permanent capital. As part of the legislation, Philadelphia was chosen as a capital for ten years, until the nations capital in Washington. Pierre Charles LEnfant was given the task of creating the city plan for the new capital city, in reviewing LEnfants plan, Thomas Jefferson insisted the legislative building be called the Capitol rather than Congress House. The word Capitol comes from Latin and is associated with the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on Capitoline Hill, the connection between the two is not, however, crystal clear. In spring 1792, United States Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson proposed a competition to solicit designs for the Capitol and the Presidents House. The prize for the competition was $500 and a lot in the Federal City, the most promising of the submissions was by Stephen Hallet, a trained French architect. However, Hallets designs were overly fancy, with too much French influence, a late entry by amateur architect William Thornton was submitted on January 31,1793, to much praise for its Grandeur, Simplicity, and Beauty by Washington, along with praise from Thomas Jefferson. Thornton was inspired by the east front of the Louvre, as well as the Paris Pantheon for the portion of the design
11.
Maine State House
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The Maine State House in Augusta, Maine is the state capitol of the State of Maine. The building was completed in 1832, one year after Augusta became the capital of Maine, built using Maine granite, the State House was based on the design of the Massachusetts State House. Governor Paul LePage and the Maine Legislature convene at the State House, when Maine separated from Massachusetts and became a state in 1820, a number of cities and towns sought the honor of becoming the state capital. The principal aspirants were Portland, Brunswick, Hallowell, Waterville, Belfast, Wiscasset, the first capital of Maine was Portland, but it moved to Augusta because of its more central location. The Legislature passed and Governor Enoch Lincoln signed the bill establishing Augusta as the capital in 1832, the building was designed by the renowned architect Charles Bulfinch of Boston, and in its original form resembles his Massachusetts State House. Construction was of granite from Hallowell quarries and took three years to complete, the Maine Legislature held its first session in the new state Capitol on January 4,1832. The interior of the Capitol was remodeled in 1852 and again in 1860 to provide room for state departments. In 1890–1891, a large wing was added to the rear of the building to accommodate the State Library. Major remodeling of the Capitol during 1909–1910 established the present-day appearance of the building and it was enlarged according to designs by G. Henri Desmond, necessitating the demolition of almost all the old buildings save the front and rear walls. While the noble Bulfinch front was preserved, the length of the building was doubled to 300 feet by extending the north and south wings, a dome rising to a height of 185 feet was built to replace the original cupola. A gilt copper statue of Minerva, the female figure of Wisdom, by William Clark Noble of Gardiner. The House of Representatives occupies the third and fourth floors of the north wing, the governors office is located in renovated space on the second floor at the rear of the central portion of the Capitol along with the Hall of Flags and the law library. The governors office overlooks the massive, granite State Office Building located to the west of the State House, a recently renovated tunnel connects the State House and the State Office Building. The tunnel houses several Maine wildlife scenes, a side tunnel leads to a cold war fallout shelter, large enough to house the Maine senate, house and various other officials and aides. Construction of the shelter started on May 5,1983, under the pretense of renovation, completed September 3,1985, at the south side of the Capitol grounds, the Maine State Library, Maine State Museum and Maine State Archives are housed in a modern building. Throughout the building are portraits of governors and other men and women who have served Maine throughout its history as a province and a state. To the north, across from the State House, is the Executive Mansion, more known as The Blaine House. The State House was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, for its importance in the history of the state and it is the only known work of Charles Bulfinch for which a complete set of architectural drawings has survived
12.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
13.
Architect
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An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
14.
Architecture
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Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
15.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
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United States Capitol rotunda
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The United States Capitol rotunda is the central rotunda of the United States Capitol in Washington, D. C. Located below the Capitol dome, it is the tallest part of the Capitol and has described as its symbolic. The rotunda is surrounded by corridors connecting the House of Representatives, to the south of the rotunda is the semi-circular National Statuary Hall, which until 1857 was the House of Representatives chamber. To the northeast of the rotunda is the Old Senate Chamber, used by the Senate until 1859 and by the Supreme Court of the United States until 1935. The rotunda is 96 feet in diameter and rises 48 feet to the top of its walls and 180 feet 3 inches to the canopy of the dome, the dome is surmounted by the American Statue of Freedom. It is also used for ceremonial events authorized by concurrent resolution, the doctor and architect William Thornton was the winner of the contest to design the Capitol in 1793. Thornton had first conceived the idea of a central rotunda, however, due to lack of funds or resources, oft-interrupted construction, and the British attack on Washington during the War of 1812, work on the rotunda did not begin until 1818. The rotunda was designed in the style and was intended to evoke the design of the Pantheon. The sandstone rotunda walls rise 48 feet above the floor, everything above this—the Capitol dome–was designed in 1854 by Thomas U, Walter, the fourth Architect of the Capitol. Walter had also designed the Capitols north and south extensions, in 1862, Walter asked painter Constantino Brumidi to design a picture 65 feet in diameter, painted in fresco, on the concave canopy over the eye of the New Dome of the U. S. Capitol. At this time, Brumidi may have added a watercolor canopy design over Walters tentative 1859 sketch, the dome was being finished in the middle of the American Civil War and was constructed from fireproof cast iron. During the Civil War, the rotunda was used as a hospital for Union soldiers. The dome was completed in 1866. Originally the crypt had an open ceiling into the rotunda, visitors can still see the holes in the stone circle that marked the rim of the open space in the rotunda floor. In January 2013, the Architect of the Capitol announced a four-year, $10 million project to repair and conserve the Capitol Domes exterior, the dome and rotunda, which were last conserved in 1960, are showing significant signs of rust and disrepair. There is a danger that decorative ironwork could fall from the rotunda to the space below, without immediate repair, safety netting will be installed. Eight niches in the rotunda hold large, framed historical paintings, all are oil-on-canvas and measure 12 by 18 feet. Four of these are scenes from the American Revolution, painted by John Trumbull and these are Declaration of Independence, Surrender of General Burgoyne, Surrender of Lord Cornwallis, and General George Washington Resigning his Commission
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United States Capitol dome
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The United States Capitol dome is the dome situated above the United States Capitol which reaches upwards to 288 feet in height and 96 feet in diameter. The dome was designed by Thomas U, Walter, the fourth Architect of the Capitol, and constructed between 1855 and 1866 at a cost of $1,047,291. The dome is not stone, but cast iron painted to appear to be made of the same stone as the main capitol building. It is actually two domes, one inside the other, and the weight is 14.1 million pounds. The iron for the dome was cast by the foundry of Janes, Fowler, Kirtland & Company, owned by Adrian Janes in the Bronx, New York. The origin of the first dome began with the Capitol design contest sponsored by Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, at the behest of President George Washington, the winner of the contest, Doctor William Thornton, called for a dome in his original design for the building. Most vividly, Thornton drew upon the Roman Pantheon for inspiration with the Neoclassical dome, in 1822, Bulfinch requested funds for the construction of the center of the building, and President Monroe signed off on an appropriation of $120,000. Set at the crown of the dome was an oculus 24 feet wide. Bulfinch completed the project in 1823, for more than two decades, the green copper dome of the Capitol greeted visitors to the nations capitol, until the 1850s. Due to the growth of the United States and the expansion and addition of new states, under the guidance of the fourth Architect of the Capitol, Thomas U. Walter, extensions were built onto the north and south wings of the building, in the process, the new, longer building made the original Bulfinch dome appear aesthetically displeasing. Congress, after lobbying by Walter and Montgomery C, meigs, passed legislation to build a bigger dome in 1855. The current cast iron dome of the United States Capitol is the dome to sit above the building. Plans began in May 1854 to build a new cast-iron dome for the United States Capitol, sold on the aesthetics of a new dome, as well as the utility of a fire-proof one. Influenced by the domes of Europe, Walter paid particular attention to the Pantheon of Paris, St Pauls Cathedral in London. The upper part of the drum was enriched with decorated pilasters upholding a bracketed attic, crowning the composition was a statue standing on a slender, columned tholus. Walter drafted a seven-foot drawing of the design and displayed it in his office. A year later, on March 3,1855, President Franklin Pierce signed off on the appropriation of $100,000 to build the dome
18.
Architecture of the United States
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The architecture of the United States demonstrates a broad variety of architectural styles and built forms over the countrys history of over four centuries of independence and former British rule. Architecture in the United States is as diverse as its multicultural society and has shaped by many internal and external factors. As a whole it represents a rich eclectic and innovative tradition, the oldest surviving nonimported structures on the territory that is now known as the United States were made by the Ancient Pueblo People of the four corners region. The Tiwa speaking people have inhabited Taos Pueblo continuously for over 1000 years, the related Chacoan civilization built extensive public architecture in northwestern New Mexico from CE700 –1250 until drought forced them to relocate. Other Native American architecture is known from traditional structures, such as houses, wigwams, tipis. Images by Theodor de Bry of local Algonquian villages Pomeiooc and Secoton in what later became coastal North Carolina survive from the late 16th century. Artist and cartographer John White stayed at the short-lived Roanoke Colony for 13 months and recorded over 70 watercolor images of people, plants. The remote location of the Hawaiian Islands from North America gave ancient Hawaii a substantial period of precolonial architecture, early structures reflect Polynesian heritage and the refined culture of Hawaii. Post-contact late-19th-century Hawaiian architecture shows various influences such as the Victorian, Georgian. When the Europeans settled in North America, they brought their architectural traditions, the oldest buildings in America have examples of that. Construction was dependent upon the available resources, wood and brick are the most common elements of English buildings in New England, the Mid-Atlantic, and coastal South. The colonizers appropriated the territories and sites for new forts, dwellings, missions, churches, Spanish colonial architecture was built in Florida and the Southeastern United States from 1559 to 1821. The conch style is represented in Pensacola, Florida, adorning houses with balconies of wrought iron, as appears in the mostly Spanish-built French Quarter of New Orleans, fires in 1788 and 1794 destroyed the original French structures in New Orleans. Many of the present buildings date to late-18th-century rebuilding efforts. The two earliest continuously occupied European settlements in the United States are St. Augustine, Florida founded in 1565 and Santa Fe, the Castillo de San Marcos fort 1672–1695 is St. Augustines oldest surviving structure. It and the California missions are the vestiges of 17th-century Spanish colonial architecture in the present day United States. Spanish exploration of the North American deserts, the present day Southwestern United States, the conquistador Francisco Vásquez de Coronado crossed this region in search of the mythical cities of gold. Instead they found the ancient culture and architecture of the Pueblo people, the Pueblo people built dwellings of adobe, a sun-dried clay brick, with exposed wooden ceiling beams
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Boston Latin School
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The Boston Latin School is a public exam school in Boston, Massachusetts. Established on April 23,1635, it is the oldest school as well as the first public school in the United States and its curriculum follows that of the 18th century Latin-school movement, which holds the classics to be the basis of an educated mind. Four years of Latin are mandatory for all pupils who enter the School in the 7th grade, in 2007, the School was named one of the top twenty high schools in the United States by U. S. News & World Report magazine. It is a part of Boston Public Schools, the School was named a 2011 Blue Ribbon School of Excellence, the U. S. Department of Educations highest award. As of 2016, the School is listed under the medal list. Puritan leaders themselves were accustomed to the highest educational standards, with most of their ministers having graduated from Oxford or Cambridge University in England, in early years they were not funded by tax dollars, but rather by donations and land rentals. A school established in nearby Dedham thus became the first tax supported public school years later. English was not the dominant language of the world at time. Therefore, the learning of Latin was also a priority, as it was with grammar schools in England, seventeenth-century schoolboys throughout Europe, Catholic or Protestant, learned Latin, and which explains the Latin in Boston Latin. The ability to read at least Cicero and Virgil was a requirement of all colonial colleges, Boston Latin prepared many students for admission to Harvard, with a total of seven years being devoted to the classics, and providing almost one seventh of Harvard members during just one period. However, most graduates of Boston Latin did not go on to college since business and professions did not require collegiate training, which more basic learning provided for. The Schools first class was in single figures, but it now has 2,400 pupils drawn from all parts of the City of Boston and it has produced four Harvard presidents, four Massachusetts governors, and five signers of the United States Declaration of Independence. Benjamin Franklin and Louis Farrakhan are among its well-known dropouts, the School originally began as the South Grammar School, and was specifically modeled after the Boston Grammar School in Lincolnshire, England, from where many of Bostons original settlers derived. Current students assert with pride that Harvard College, founded a year later in 1636, was created for Boston Latins first graduates to attend, more than 99% of Boston Latins approximately 400 annual graduates are accepted by at least one four-year college. The Latin School admitted only students and hired only male teachers from its founding in 1635. The Schools first female student was not until the 19th century, with Helen Magill White as the schools first female graduate, however, soon after Whites graduation in 1877, the Girls Latin School, was founded. For nearly a century, all qualified female students would attend that all-girls institution and it was not until 1972 that Boston Latin would admit its first co-educational class. Female teachers predated female students at Boston Latin, in 1967 the school appointed Marie Frisardi Cleary and Juanita Ponte as the first two women in its academic faculty
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Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
21.
Grand Tour
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The custom flourished from about 1660, until the advent of large-scale rail transport in the 1840s, and was associated with a standard itinerary. It served as a rite of passage. With nearly unlimited funds, aristocratic connections and months to roam, they commissioned paintings, perfected their language skills, in addition, it provided the only opportunity to view specific works of art, and possibly the only chance to hear certain music. A Grand Tour could last from months to several years. It was commonly undertaken in the company of a Cicerone, a guide or tutor. The legacy of the Grand Tour lives on to the day and is still evident in works of travel. In essence, the Grand Tour was neither a scholars pilgrimage nor a one, though a pleasurable stay in Venice. Catholic Grand Tourists followed the routes as Protestant Whigs. Pompeo Batoni made a career of painting English milordi posed with graceful ease among Roman antiquities, many continued on to Naples, where they viewed Herculaneum and Pompeii, but few ventured far into southern Italy or Malta, and fewer still to Greece, still under Turkish rule. Rome for many centuries had been the goal of pilgrims, especially during Jubilee when they visited the Seven Pilgrim Churches of Rome. This is partly because he asked Inigo Jones, not yet established as an architect but already known as a traveller and masque designer. Larger numbers of tourists began their tours after the Peace of Münster in 1648, lasselss introduction listed four areas in which travel furnished an accomplished, consummate Traveller, the intellectual, the social, the ethical, and the political. The idea of travelling for the sake of curiosity and learning was an idea in the 17th century. Thus, one could use up the environment, taking from it all it offers, travel, therefore, was necessary for one to develop the mind and expand knowledge of the world. Consciously adapted for intellectual self-improvement, Gibbon was revisiting the Continent on a larger and more liberal plan, the typical 18th-century sentiment was that of the studious observer travelling through foreign lands reporting his findings on human nature for those unfortunate enough to have stayed home. Recounting ones observations to society at large to increase its welfare was considered an obligation, the Grand Tour offered a liberal education, and the opportunity to acquire things otherwise unavailable at home, lending an air of accomplishment and prestige to the traveller. The trappings of the Grand Tour, especially portraits of the traveller painted in iconic continental settings, became the obligatory emblems of worldliness, gravitas, the less well-off could return with an album of Piranesi etchings. The perhaps in Gibbons opening remark cast a shadow over his resounding statement
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Europe
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Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
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Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
24.
Neoclassical architecture
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Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century. In its purest form, it is a style derived from the architecture of classical antiquity, the Vitruvian principles. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro, Neoclassical architecture is still designed today, but may be labelled New Classical Architecture for contemporary buildings. In Central and Eastern Europe, the style is referred to as Classicism. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée, the many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates the eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullées ideas and Edmund Burkes conception of the sublime, the baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. The most popular was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell, the book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book featured the work of Inigo Jones. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain, at the forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic architect earl, Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, in 1729, he and William Kent, designed Chiswick House. This House was a reinterpretation of Palladios Villa Capra, but purified of 16th century elements and this severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of the Palladianism. In 1734 William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of Englands finest examples of Palladian architecture with Holkham Hall in Norfolk, the main block of this house followed Palladios dictates quite closely, but Palladios low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicising vein was also detectable, to a degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris. This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for S, by the mid 18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of Classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to the 1750s, in France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann. The style was adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden. A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the Napoleonic Empire, in France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style, and the second in the styles called Directoire or Empire. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine II the Great in St. Petersburg, indoors, neoclassicism made a discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum. These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved an audience in the 1760s
25.
Christopher Wren
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Sir Christopher Wren PRS is one of the most highly acclaimed English architects in history. The principal creative responsibility for a number of the churches is now commonly attributed to others in his office. Other notable buildings by Wren include the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, the Wren Building, the main building at the College of William and Mary, Virginia, is attributed to Wren. Educated in Latin and Aristotelian physics at the University of Oxford, Wren was a notable anatomist, astronomer, geometer and he was a founder of the Royal Society, and his scientific work was highly regarded by Isaac Newton and Blaise Pascal. Wren was born in East Knoyle in Wiltshire, the surviving son of Christopher Wren Sr. and Mary Cox. Christopher Sr. was at time the rector of East Knoyle. Their son Christopher was born in 1632 then, two later, another daughter named Elizabeth was born. Mary must have died shortly after the birth of Elizabeth, although there does not appear to be any surviving record of the date, through Mary Cox, however, the family became well off financially for, as the only heir, she had inherited her fathers estate. As a child Wren seemd consumptive, although a sickly child, he would survive into robust old age. He was first taught at home by a tutor and his father. After his fathers appointment as Dean of Windsor in March 1635, his family spent part of each year there. He spent his first eight years at East Knoyle and was educated by the Rev. William Shepherd and it was a tough time in his life, but one which would go on to have a significant impact upon his later works. Some of Wrens youthful exercises preserved or recorded showed that he received a grounding in Latin. According to Parentalia, he was initiated in the principles of mathematics by Dr William Holder, who married Wrens elder sister Susan in 1643. His drawing was put to use in providing many of the anatomical drawings for the anatomy textbook of the brain, Cerebri Anatome, published by Thomas Willis. During this time period, Wren manifested an interest in the design and it was probably through Holder that Wren met Sir Charles Scarburgh whom Wren assisted in his anatomical studies. On 25 June 1650, Wren entered Wadham College, Oxford, where he studied Latin and it is anachronistic to imagine that he received scientific training in the modern sense. However, Wren became closely associated with John Wilkins, the Warden of Wadham, the Wilkins circle was a group whose activities led to the formation of the Royal Society, comprising a number of distinguished mathematicians, creative workers and experimental philosophers
26.
Robert Adam
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Robert Adam FRSE FRS FSA FSA FRSA was a British neoclassical architect, interior designer and furniture designer. He was the son of William Adam, Scotlands foremost architect of the time, with his older brother John, Robert took on the family business, which included lucrative work for the Board of Ordnance, after Williams death. In 1754, he left for Rome, spending five years on the continent studying architecture under Charles-Louis Clérisseau. On his return to Britain he established a practice in London, here he developed the Adam Style, and his theory of movement in architecture, based on his studies of antiquity and became one of the most successful and fashionable architects in the country. Adam held the post of Architect of the Kings Works from 1761 to 1769, Robert Adam was a leader of the first phase of the classical revival in England and Scotland from around 1760 until his death. He influenced the development of Western architecture, both in Europe and in North America, Adam designed interiors and fittings as well as houses. He served as the member of Parliament for Kinross-shire from 1768 to 1774, Adam was born on 3 July 1728 at Gladney House in Kirkcaldy, Fife, although the family moved to Edinburgh later that same year. As a child he was noted as having a feeble constitution, in autumn 1743 he matriculated at Edinburgh University, and compulsory classes for all students were, the Greek language, logic, metaphysics and Natural philosophy. Students could choose three subjects, Adam attended classes in mathematics, taught by Colin Maclaurin, and anatomy. His studies were interrupted by the arrival of Bonnie Prince Charlie and his Highlanders, at the end of the year, Robert fell seriously ill for some months, and it seems unlikely that he returned to university, having completed only two years of study. On his recovery from illness in 1746, he joined his elder brother John as apprentice to his father and he assisted William Adam on projects such as the building of Inveraray Castle and the continuing extensions of Hopetoun House. Williams position as Master Mason to the Board of Ordnance also began to generate much work, William Adam died in June 1748, and left Dowhill, a part of the Blair Adam estate which included a tower house, to Robert. On William Adams death, John Adam inherited both the business and the position of Master Mason to the Board of Ordnance. He immediately took Robert into partnership, later to be joined by James Adam, the Adam Brothers first major commission was the decoration of the grand state apartments on the first floor at Hopetoun House, followed by their first new build at Dumfries House. For the Board of Ordnance, the brothers were the contractor at Fort George. In the winter of 1749–1750, Adam travelled to London with his friend and he took the opportunity for architectural study, visiting Wilton, designed by Inigo Jones, and the Queens Hermitage in Richmond by Roger Morris. His sketchbook of the trip shows an continuing interest in gothic architecture. Among his friends at Edinburgh were the philosophers Adam Ferguson and David Hume, other Edinburgh acquaintances included Gilbert Elliot, William Wilkie, John Home and Alexander Wedderburn
27.
William Chambers (architect)
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Sir William Chambers RA was a Scottish-Swedish architect, based in London. Among his best-known works are Somerset House, London, and the pagoda at Kew, Chambers was a founder member of the Royal Academy. William Chambers was born on 23 February 1723 in Gothenburg, Sweden, between 1740 and 1749 he was employed by the Swedish East India Company making three voyages to China where he studied Chinese architecture and decoration. Returning to Europe, he studied architecture in Paris and spent five years in Italy, then, in 1755, he moved to London, where he established an architectural practice. He worked for Augusta, Dowager Princess of Wales making fanciful garden buildings at Kew and he developed his Chinese interests further with his Dissertation on Oriental Gardening, a fanciful elaboration of contemporary English ideas about the naturalistic style of gardening in China. His more serious and academic Treatise on Civil Architecture published in 1759 proved influential on builders and it included ideas from the works of many 16th- and 17th-century Italian architects then still little known in Britain. His influence was transmitted through a host of younger architects trained as pupils in his office, including Thomas Hardwick, who helped him build Somerset House. He was the rival of Adam in British Neoclassicism. Chambers was more international in outlook and was influenced by continental neoclassicism when designing for British clients, a second visit to Paris in 1774 confirmed the French cast to his sober and conservative refined blend of Neoclassicism and Palladian conventions. From around 1758 to the mid-1770s, Chambers concentrated on building houses for the nobility, in 1766 Chambers was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. His initial plans for an oval courtyard, connected to three smaller, narrow rectangular courts, were soon modified into a simpler rectalinear scheme. On 10 December 1768 the Royal Academy was founded and he was appointed the Academys first Treasurer. Chambers died in London in 1796, also designed two garden temples, similar to those at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Within Kew Gardens, some of his buildings are lost, those remaining being the ten-storey Pagoda, the Orangery, the Ruined Arch, the Temple of Bellona, the Pagoda, in Pagoda Gardens, Blackheath, London is attributed to Chambers. A three-storey house built as a pavilion for the Duke and Duchess of Buccleuch, caroline of Brunswick lived here after her separation from her husband, the Prince Regent, in 1799. Somerset House in London, his most famous building, which absorbed most of his energies over a period of two decades The gilded state coach that is used at coronations. Hedsor House, Buckinghamshire, the seat of Lord Boston, equerry to George III, for James Caulfeild, 1st Earl of Charlemont, he designed Charlemont House and the Casino at Marino, as well as the chapel and public theatre in Trinity College, Dublin. He is also associated with Gothic additions to Milton Abbey in Dorset, wick House, Richmond Hill, commissioned in 1771 by painter Sir Joshua Reynolds
28.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
29.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
30.
Mentorship
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Mentorship is a relationship in which a more experienced or more knowledgeable person helps to guide a less experienced or less knowledgeable person. The mentor may be older or younger than the person being mentored and it is a learning and development partnership between someone with vast experience and someone who wants to learn. The person in receipt of mentorship may be referred to as a protégé, a protégée, an apprentice or, in the 2000s, the mentor may be referred to as a godfather/godmother or a rabbi. Mentoring is a process always involves communication and is relationship-based. Mentoring in Europe has existed since at least Ancient Greek times, the roots of the practice are lost in antiquity. The word itself was inspired by the character of Mentor in Homers Odyssey, though the actual Mentor in the story is a somewhat ineffective old man, the goddess Athena takes on his appearance in order to guide young Telemachus in his time of difficulty. Mainstream business literature subsequently adopted the terms and concepts, promoting them as pathways to success for all career climbers, in 1970 these terms were not in the general American vocabulary, by the mid-1990s they had become part of everyday speech. The focus of mentoring is to develop the person and so the techniques are broad. Sowing, mentors are often confronted with the difficulty of preparing the learner before he or she is ready to change. Sowing is necessary when you know that what you say may not be understood or even acceptable to learners at first, catalyzing, when change reaches a critical level of pressure, learning can escalate. Here the mentor chooses to plunge the learner right into change, provoking a different way of thinking, showing, this is making something understandable, or using your own example to demonstrate a skill or activity. You show what you are talking about, you show by your own behavior, harvesting, here the mentor focuses on picking the ripe fruit, it is usually used to create awareness of what was learned by experience and to draw conclusions. The key questions here are, What have you learned, leadership authors Jim Kouzes and Barry Z. Multiple mentors, A new and upcoming trend is having multiple mentors and this can be helpful because we can all learn from each other. Having more than one mentor will widen the knowledge of the person being mentored, there are different mentors who may have different strengths. Profession or trade mentor, This is someone who is currently in the trade/profession you are entering and they know the trends, important changes and new practices that you should know to stay at the top of your career. A mentor like this would be someone you can discuss ideas regarding the field, industry mentor, This is someone who doesnt just focus on the profession. This mentor will be able to give insight on the industry as a whole, whether it be research, development or key changes in the industry, you need to know
31.
Robert Mills (architect)
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Mills studied in Charleston, South Carolina, as a student of Irish architect James Hoban—who later designed the White House, which became the official home of US presidents. Both Hoban and Mills were Freemasons, born in Charleston, South Carolina, Mills moved to Philadelphia in 1802 where he became an associate and student of Benjamin Henry Latrobe. At the age of 19, Mills, a graduate of College of Charleston, left Charleston for Washington, DC, to work with his friend, during this time, Robert met Thomas Jefferson, who became the first full term resident of the new Presidential home. Some Philadelphia buildings that Mills designed are Washington Hall, Samson Street Baptist Church, and he also designed the Upper Ferry Bridge covering. Mills designed the First Presbyterian Church in Augusta, Georgia in 1807, in 1808 Mills created blueprints for a prison used mostly for reform. In 1811 the prison was constructed in Mt. Holly, New Jersey, with the possible exception of neighbor, Eastern States Penitentiary, it is the most significant prison building in the United States says the Historic Burlington County Prison Museum Association. In 1812, Mills designed the Monumental Church in Richmond, Virginia which was built to commemorate the death of 72 people in the Richmond Theatre. Moving to Baltimore, Mills designed St. John Eager Howard, baltimores signature landmark began construction in 1815 and was completed in 1829. In 1820, Robert Mills was appointed as acting commissioner of the Board of Public Works in South Carolina, in 1823, he was the superintendent of public buildings. In the next few years, he designed buildings in South Carolina including court houses, the campus of the University of South Carolina, jails. In 1825, he authored an Atlas of the State of South Carolina, one year later, he published Statistics of South Carolina. He reputedly designed the Old Horry County Courthouse, Union County Jail, in 1836 Robert Mills won the competition for the design of the Washington Monument on the future Mall of the National Capital, Washington D. C. which is his best known work. Construction began in 1848, but was interrupted in 1854, construction of the monument resumed in 1879 and was dedicated in 1885, thirty years after the architects death. He also designed the Department of Treasury building, east of the Executive Mansion and several federal buildings in Washington. Patent Office Building, patterned after the Parthenon and the old General Post Office, in South Carolina, Mills designed county courthouses in at least 18 counties, some of the public buildings in Columbia, and a few private homes. He also designed portions of the Landsford Canal, Chester County, Robert Mills was an early advocate of fireproof construction. A fire in Kingstree, South Carolina Building which had designed by Mills. A fire also destroyed much of the Lancaster County, South Carolina Courthouse in August 2008, Mills died in Washington, D. C. in 1855 and was buried at the Congressional Cemetery there in the District of Columbia
32.
Columbia Rediviva
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Columbia Rediviva was a privately owned ship under the command of John Kendrick, along with Captain Robert Gray, best known for going to the Pacific Northwest for the maritime fur trade. The Rediviva was added to her name upon a rebuilding in 1787, since Columbia was privately owned, she did not carry the prefix designation USS. Early authorities claim the ship was built in 1773 by James Briggs at Hobart’s Landing on North River, in Norwell, Massachusetts, later historians say she was built in Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1787. In 1790 she became the first American ship to circumnavigate the globe, during the first part of this voyage, she was accompanied by the Lady Washington which served as tender for the Columbia. In 1792 Captain Gray entered the Columbia River and named it after the ship, the river and its basin, in turn, lent its name to the surrounding region, and subsequently to the British colony and Canadian province located in part of this region. The ship was decommissioned and salvaged in 1806, a replica of Lady Washington is homeported at Grays Harbor Historical Seaport in Aberdeen, Washington. Simeon Woodruff, under the command of Kendrick, serving September to November 1787. A former gunners mate during the voyage of Captain James Cook. Joseph Ingraham, under the command of Kendrick, in 1790 he was captain of Hope that competed with the Columbia in the fur trade. Robert Haswell, under the command of Gray in 1791–93 during the voyage to the Pacific Northwest. Contained within the hull is Below Decks, which is an exhibit of artifacts from the 18th Century that passengers can visit while on board. In 1969, the name was used for the Command/Service Module of Apollo 11, in 1981, the name was re-used for the Space Shuttle Columbia by NASA. Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Third Series, Vol.53, Columbia Rediviva Hit and Run History, The Columbia Expedition
33.
Robert Gray (sea captain)
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In the course of those voyages, Gray explored portions of that coast and, in 1790, completed the first American circumnavigation of the world. Perhaps his most remembered accomplishment from his explorations was his coming upon and then naming of the Columbia River, Grays earlier and later life are both comparatively obscure. He was born in Tiverton, Rhode Island, and may have served in the Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War, after his two famous voyages, he carried on his career as a sea captain, mainly of merchantmen in the Atlantic. Gray died at sea in 1806, near Charleston, South Carolina, many geographic features along the Oregon and Washington coasts bear Grays name, as do numerous schools in the region. Robert Gray was born in Tiverton, Rhode Island, on May 10,1755, little is known of his early life. He is known to have served in the Triangular trade of South Carolina, on September 30,1787, Robert Gray and Captain John Kendrick left Boston, to trade along the north Pacific coast. Captain Gray commanded Lady Washington and Captain Kendric commanded Columbia Rediviva and they were sent by Boston merchants including Charles Bulfinch. Bulfinch had read Cook’s Journals, published in 1784, that in part discussed his success selling sea otter pelts in Canton, bulfinch’s learning of Cooks pelt-trading solved this problem, so New England sea merchants could trade with China profitably. Gray might have been the first American to visit the Northwest Coast, on the voyage of Kendrick and Gray, the ships cargo included blankets, knives, iron bars, and other trade goods. Both ships had official letters from Congress and passports from Massachusetts for their trading voyage, Kendrick and Gray sailed around Cape Horn at the southern tip of South America, first stopping at the Cape Verde Islands and the Falkland Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. In January after passing Cape Horn, the ships encountered a storm separated the two vessels and damaged the Columbia Rediviva. The damage forced Kendrick to sail for the nearest port, Juan Fernandez, Juan Fernandez was a Spanish port under the control of Don Blas Gonzalez commandant of the garrison. There, the Columbia was repaired before sailing for the northwest coast, meanwhile, Gray reached the coast in August. Upon reaching the coast, Gray ran aground attempting to enter a river near 46°N latitude, here the ship was attacked by natives, with the ship losing one crew member before freeing itself and proceeding north. On September 17,1788, the Lady Washington with Gray in command reached Nootka Sound, the Columbia arrived soon after and the two ships wintered at Nootka Sound. They were still in the vicinity when Esteban José Martínez arrived in early May,1789, a number of British merchant ships soon arrived, as well, and conflict between the Spanish and British resulted in the Nootka Crisis, which almost resulted in war between the two nations. Martínez seized a number of ships, including the Princess Royal, the two American ships were left alone, although Martínez captured a third American ship, the Fair American, when it arrived at Nootka Sound in the fall of 1789. Robert Gray witnessed much of the Nootka Incident, during their trading along the coastlines of what is now British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California, the two explored many bays and inland waters
34.
Thomas Bulfinch
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Thomas Bulfinch was an American writer born in Newton, Massachusetts, best known for the book Bulfinchs Mythology. Bulfinch belonged to a merchant family of modest means. His father was Charles Bulfinch, the architect of the Massachusetts State House in Boston and parts of the U. S. Capitol in Washington, Bulfinch supported himself through his position at the Merchants Bank of Boston. The original volume was dedicated to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and described on the page as an attempt to popularize mythology. In his preface, Bulfinch outlined his purpose, which was an attempt to solve this problem, by telling the stories of mythology in such a manner as to make them a source of amusement. We have endeavored to tell them correctly, according to the ancient authorities, the index at the end will adapt it to the purposes of a reference, and make it a Classical Dictionary for the parlor. His obituary noted that the contents were expurgated of all that would be offensive, the versions Bulfinch gives for the classical myths are those in Ovid and Virgil. His Norse myths are abridged from a work by Paul Henri Mallet, Bulfinchs versions of these myths are still being taught in many American public schools. Bulfinch was the product of Boston Latin School, Phillips Exeter Academy and Harvard College, marie Sally Cleary, Myths for the Millions. Thomas Bulfinch, His America, and His Mythology Book, frankfurt am Main, Peter Lang,2007
35.
Hollis Street Church
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The Hollis Street Church in Boston, Massachusetts, was a Congregational and Unitarian church. It merged with the South Congregational Society of Boston in 1887, in the early years of the church, pew-holders included Benjamin Church, Caleb Davis, and Benjamin West. A fire in 1787 destroyed the church building, architect Charles Bulfinch designed the replacement in 1788. In 1810-1811, a brick building replaced Bulfinchs wood structure, the wooden age yields to the brick, comfort now aspires to elegance. The old Bulfinch building was purchased by the Union Religious Society of Braintree, taken down piece by piece, floated on a raft to Braintree and rebuilt on Quincy Ave near Commercial St. next to the railroad tracks. The church design was altered and a new bell, forged by Paul Revere, was placed in the clock tower. First services were held in the church in November 1810, by 1825, some of the congregation sought to create another church to alleviate overcrowding, and so established the South Congregational Society. In 1883-1884 the church erected a new building in the Back Bay area of Boston, on Newbury Street at Exeter Street. It was designed by architect George Meacham, in 1887 the New Hollis Street Church congregation joined the South Congregational Society, which in 1925 merged with the First Church of Boston. The old Hollis Street building was sold, and later became the Hollis Street Theatre, mather Byles Ebenezer Wight Samuel West Horace Holley John Pierpont David Fosdick Thomas Starr King George Leonard Chaney Henry Bernard Carpenter. Hollis Street Church, 1762-1877, a historical discourse
36.
Beacon Hill, Boston
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Beacon Hill is a historic neighborhood in Boston, Massachusetts. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Bostons Beacon Hill neighborhood is 9,023 and it is a neighborhood of Federal-style rowhouses and is known for its narrow, gaslit streets and brick sidewalks. Today, Beacon Hill is regarded as one of the most desirable, like many similarly named areas, the neighborhood is named for the location of a former beacon atop the highest point in central Boston. The beacon was used to warn the residents of an invasion, Beacon Hill is bound by Storrow Drive, and Cambridge, Bowdoin, Park and Beacon Streets. It is about one square, and situated along the riverfront of the Charles River Esplanade to the west, just north of Boston Common. The block bound by Beacon, Tremont and Park Streets is included as well, Beacon Hill has three sections, the south slope, the north slope and the Flat of the Hill, which is a level neighborhood built on landfill. It is west of Charles Street and between Beacon Street and Cambridge Street, the name trimount later morphed into Tremont, as in Tremont Street. Between 1807 and 1832 Beacon Hill was reduced from 138 feet in elevation to 80 feet, the shoreline and bodies of water such as the Mill Pond had a massive filling, increasing Bostons land mass by 150%. Charles Street was one of the new roads created from the project, before the hill was reduced substantially, Beacon Hill was located just behind the current site of the Massachusetts State House. According to the 2010 U. S. Census, the population of Bostons Beacon Hill neighborhood is 9,023 and this reflects a slight decrease from the 2000 Census. According to 2007-2011 American Community Survey estimates, of the 5,411 households in Beacon Hill,27. 3% were family households and 72.7 were non-family households, of the 1,479 family households 81. 6% were married couple families. 36. 6% of married families were with related children under the age of 18 and 63. 4% were with no related children under age 18. Other family types make up 18. 4% of Beacon Hills population, with 90. 8% being female householder with no husband present, the first European settler was William Blaxton, also spelled Blackstone. In 1625 he built a house and orchard on Beacon Hills south slope, roughly at the location of Beacon, the settlement was a preformal arrangement. In 1630 Boston was settled by the Massachusetts Bay Company, the southwestern slope was used by the city for military drills and livestock grazing. In 1634 a signal beacon was established on the top of the hill, sailors and British soldiers visited the north slope of Beacon Hill during the 17th and 18th centuries. As a result, it became an area for Boston residents. Fringe activities occurred on Mount Whoredom, the backslope of Beacon Hill, Beacon Street was established in 1708 from a cow path to the Boston Common
37.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
38.
Federal Street Theatre
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The Federal Street Theatre, also known as the Boston Theatre, was located at the corner of Federal and Franklin streets in Boston, Massachusetts. It was the first building erected purposely for theatrical entertainments in the town of Boston, the original building was designed by Charles Bulfinch. It was the first professionally designed American theater by a native architect and it occupied land formerly owned by Thomas Brattle, Edward H. Robbins and William Tudor. In 1798 fire destroyed the theatre, it was rebuilt the same year, the second building existed through 1852. Management included Charles S. Powell, John Steel Tyler, John Hodgkinson, John Brown Williamson, John Sollee, Giles Leonard Barrett, musicians affiliated with the theatre included Trille La Barre, Peter Von Hagen Sr. R. Leaumont, and Gottlieb Graupner. 1794 Feb.3 – Tragedy of Gustavus Vasa Feb, – The Child of Nature and The Agreeable Surprise April – The Chapter of Accidents, and Midas, a burletta 1795 – Judith Sargent Murrays The Medium, or Happy Tea-Party, debuts 2 March 1795. Judith Sargent Murray wrote the first two plays by an American, male or female, to be performed in Boston,1796 March 9 – Judith Sargent Murrays The Traveller Returned, debuts. John OKeefes Farmer, with Susanna Rowson 1802 A young Hawaiian called Bill performed in the pantomime The Death of Captain Cook, March 22-29 – Deborah Sampson Gannett spoke about her time in the Continental Army and exhibited the manual exercise with her rifle that she learned during her service. Each night, before her speech and exhibition, the company performed a play. They were The Will, or a School for Daughters, King Henry the IVth with the Humors of Sir John Falstaff, The Way to Get Married,1832 – Shakespeares Richard III, with Charles Kean. 1834 – Jonathan Harrington 1845 – Alonzo Potter gave his first series of twelve Lowell Lectures, the Theater was filled to overflowing. His topic was on the Psychological argument to illustrate the being,1846 – James Sheridan Knowles Hunchback, with Charles Kean and Ellen Kean. 1847 – Alonzo Potter gave his series of twelve Lowell Lectures on the philosophy of man. 1848 – Alonzo Potter gave his series of twelve Lowell Lectures to a packed auditorium. 1849 – Alonzo Potter gave his series of twelve Lowell Lectures to an admiring throng. A Season in Federal Street, J. B. Williamson, proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society 65, 9–74. Cf. especially p.361, article on the Federal Street Theatre, the First Boston Theatre, on Federal Street, Built 1793, finally discontinued 1852. Charles Bulfinch, Architect, Old-Time New England, v.36, the American Playhouse in the Eighteenth Century, pp. 121–27
39.
Franklin Place
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Constructed early in Bulfinch’s career, Franklin Place came after he had seen the possibilities of modern architecture in Europe and had determined to reshape his native city. It was the first important urban housing scheme undertaken in the United States, however, years of decline and the push of industry into the area forced its demolition in 1858. The name “Tontine” derives from a financial scheme originated by Neapolitan banker Lorenzo de Tonti, money for the enterprise was to be raised by selling shares of stock to the members of the public, who would later share in the profits from the sale of the homes. The proposals for subscription, and the plans of the Houses, may be seen at the office of Mr. JOHN MARSTON, State-Street. ”The cornerstone was laid on August 8, and the crescent was completed the following year. Building began with less than 50% of the shares taken up, Bulfinch completed the project, including its complementary file of four double houses facing across the grass plot, but in so doing sacrificed both his and his wife’s fortunes. As events proved, the Crescent was far too ambitious an idea for either the man or the times, and he and his family were ruined by his determination to finish it at all costs. ”Bulfinch’s first attempt to introduce monumental town planning into Boston, the Crescent was an interesting failure, unlike any other building in America. Its western edge intersected today’s Hawley Street, and on the east it ended near Federal Street, until the American Revolution, Boston still had enough space in most locations to accommodate single dwellings with small gardens. However, as land began to rise, many newer dwellings began to be built with their narrow ends to the street. With his long row of attached houses, Bulfinch gambled that wealthy individuals would not mind living in cramped quarters. The plan, which featured two rooms on each floor offset by a hallway with main and service staircases, was traditional with London row-house builders since the 17th century. Indeed, the Neoclassical façade of the Adam brothers’ Royal Society of Arts building in London was another inspiration for the central building, the houses’ brick exterior walls were painted gray to simulate masonry and the architectural detail, apparently all of wood, was painted white. Delicate decorative devices were present on the handsome three-floor houses, each 27’ wide, the identical doorways were spaced two to a porch. Each floor consisted of two rooms, described by Massachusetts Magazine as “spacious and lofty”, with a hallway on one side containing both the main and service stairways. Once finished, the Crescent received unanimous praise from contemporaries, asher Benjamin claimed it “gave the first impulse to good taste, and to architecture, in this part of the country. The four double houses in Franklin Place substituted for the half of what was planned as a double crescent separated by an oval of grass. This solution, although less successful, was dictated by difficulties in acquiring sufficient land adjoining the estate of Thomas Barrell for the execution of the original scheme. It is also evident that Bulfinch’s approaching financial ruin precluded the construction of anything so costly as the northern crescent. As it was, the architect was hopelessly in debt when he began building on the side of Franklin Place
40.
John Wood, the Younger
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John Wood, the Younger was an English architect, working principally in the city of Bath, Somerset. He was the son of the architect John Wood, the Elder and his designs were highly influential during the 18th century and the Royal Crescent is considered to be one of the best examples of Georgian Neo-Classical architecture in Britain. John Wood was born in 1728, the year his father moved to Bath and he was trained by his father and as a young man worked on several of his father’s projects such as Liverpool Town Hall. In either 1752 or early 1753 he married Elizabeth Brock and they had two sons together and at least eight daughters. Wood died at Eagle House, Batheaston on 16 June 1781 and was buried beside his father in the chancel at St Mary’s Church and he was deeply in debt, partly due to financial conditions relating to his father’s earlier building speculations. Wood began his independent career by developing and extending his father’s work in Bath and his first major project consisted of completing the Circus. His next achievement was the design and build of Gay Street to connect Queen Square, Wood spent the next decades designing new buildings, terraces and architectural set-pieces for the city of Bath. It appears that he did not share his father’s interest in druidism and freemasonry, during the 1770s a new more severe neo-classical style was becoming fashionable. Wood pioneered this new style in such as the Hot Bath, the Royal Crescent. These buildings contrasted with the decorated and embellished style preferred by his father. Whilst John Wood the Elder’s Circus includes superimposed orders and a detailed frieze, the site Wood chose for the Royal Crescent also shows that he was interested in creating a proto-romantic dialogue between his buildings and the surrounding countryside. Previous buildings and set-pieces in Bath were all intensely urban and inward looking whereas the Royal Crescent was fully open and looked out on to open fields. This is not always apparent today, but when it was built in 1775 the crescent was situated right on the edge of the city with no buildings to block residents’ views of the countryside. The Royal Crescent is among the greatest examples of Georgian architecture to be found in the United Kingdom and is a Grade I listed building, outside Bath, his most notable works include Buckland House in Buckland, Oxfordshire and the General Infirmary in Salisbury. In 1781 he published A Series of Plans for Cottages or Habitations of the Labourer, John Wood the Younger is a key figure, not only in the history of Bath, but also in the history of British 18th-century architecture. When John Wood the Elder died, Queen Square and the Circus were isolated showpieces in Bath and his son connected these buildings and went on to create and inspire a new city quarter filled with elegant Palladian and neo-classical structures. Wood’s clean, neo-classical style inspired other Georgian and Regency era architects in Bath such as John Pinch the Elder, John Pinch the Younger, the Royal Crescent is his greatest achievement and was one of the first designs of its type. It was imitated in Bath and also in later English towns such as Buxton, Brighton, Bristol and London
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Royal Crescent
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The Royal Crescent is a row of 30 terraced houses laid out in a sweeping crescent in the city of Bath, England. Although some changes have made to the various interiors over the years. The 500-foot-long crescent has 114 Ionic columns on the first floor with an entablature in a Palladian style above and it was the first crescent of terraced houses to be built and an example of rus in urbe with its views over the parkland opposite. Many notable people have lived or stayed in the Royal Crescent since it was first built over 240 years ago. The street that is today as The Royal Crescent was originally named The Crescent. It is claimed that the adjective Royal was added at the end of the 18th century after Prince Frederick, Duke of York and he initially rented number one and later bought number 16. The Royal Crescent is close to Victoria Park and linked via Brock Street to The Circus which had designed by John Wood. The land on which the Royal Crescent stands was bought from Sir Benet Garrard of the Garrard baronets, between 1767 and 1775 John Wood designed the great curved façade with Ionic columns on a rusticated ground floor. This architecture, described as Queen Anne fronts and Mary-Anne backs and it was the first crescent of terraced houses to be built and an example of rus in urbe with its views over the parkland opposite. The ha-ha is designed so as not to interrupt the view from Royal Victoria Park and it is not known whether it was contemporary with the building of the Royal Crescent, however it is known that when it was first created it was deeper than it is at present. The railings between the crescent and the lawn were included in the Heritage at Risk Register produced by English Heritage but have restored and removed from the register. In the late 19th century five cast iron columns with decorative scrollwork were added. In 1921, architect Robert Tor Russell used the Crescent as a source of inspiration to design the central district of Connaught Place, New Delhi. During the Bath Blitz of World War II, known as the Baedecker Raids or Baedeker Blitz, some damage occurred. After World War II, during a period of redevelopment which is described as the Sack of Bath, during the 20th century many of the houses which had formerly been the residences of single families with maids or other staff were divided into flats and offices. However, the tradition of distinguished gentlefolk retiring to the crescent continued, the whole crescent was designated as a Grade I listed building in 1950. Number 16 became a guest house in 1950 and it was sold in 1978 to John Tham, the chairman of the London Sloane Club, and restored. It was later purchased by Von Essen Hotels, which became insolvent in 2011, in September 2011 it was expected that London & Regional Properties would purchase the hotel, but negotiations ended in January 2012 without a deal
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Hartford, Connecticut
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Hartford is the capital of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, as of the 2010 Census, Hartfords population was 124,775, making it Connecticuts third-largest city after the coastal cities of Bridgeport and New Haven. Census Bureau estimates since then have indicated Hartfords subsequent fall to fourth place statewide as a result of sustained growth in the coastal city of Stamford. Nicknamed the Insurance Capital of the World, Hartford houses many insurance company headquarters, founded in 1635, Hartford is among the oldest cities in the United States. In 1868, resident Mark Twain wrote, Of all the towns it has been my fortune to see this is the chief. Following the American Civil War, Hartford was the richest city in the United States for several decades, today, Hartford is one of the poorest cities in the nation with 3 out of every 10 families living below the poverty line. In sharp contrast, the Hartford metropolitan area is ranked 32nd of 318 metropolitan areas in total economic production, various tribes, all part of the loose Algonquin confederation, lived in or around present-day Hartford. The area was referred to as Suckiaug, meaning Black Fertile River-Enhanced Earth, the first Europeans known to have explored the area were the Dutch, under Adriaen Block, who sailed up the Connecticut in 1614. Dutch fur traders from New Amsterdam returned in 1623 with a mission to establish a trading post, the original site was located on the south bank of the Park River in the present-day Sheldon/Charter Oak neighborhood. This fort was called Fort Hoop, or the House of Hope, in 1633, Jacob Van Curler formally bought the land around Fort Hoop from the Pequot chief for a small sum. It was home to perhaps a couple families and a few dozen soldiers, the area today is known as Dutch Point, and the name of the Dutch fort, House of Hope, is reflected in the name of Huyshope Avenue. The fort was abandoned by 1654, but its neighborhood in Hartford is still known as Dutch Point, the Dutch outpost, and the tiny contingent of Dutch soldiers that were stationed there, did little to check the English migration. The Dutch soon realized they were vastly outnumbered, the House of Hope remained an outpost, but it was steadily swallowed up by waves of English settlers. The English began to arrive 1637, settling upstream from Fort Hoop near the present-day Downtown, the settlement was originally called Newtown, but was changed to Hartford in 1637 in honor of Stones hometown of Hertford, England. Hooker also created the town of Windsor. The etymology of Hartford is the ford where harts cross, the Seal of the City of Hartford features a male deer, which in full maturity was referred to by the medieval hunting term hart. The fledgling colony along the Connecticut River had issues with the authority by which it was to be governed because it was outside of the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys charter. Historians suggest that Hookers conception of self-rule embodied in the Fundamental Orders went on to inspire the Connecticut Constitution, today, one of Connecticuts nicknames is the Constitution State
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American Academy of Arts and Sciences
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Dædalus, the Academys quarterly journal, is widely regarded as one of the worlds leading intellectual journals. The Academy is headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Academy was established by the Massachusetts legislature on May 4th,1780. Its purpose, as described in its charter, is to cultivate every art and science which may tend to advance the interest, honor, dignity, and happiness of a free, independent, and virtuous people. The sixty-two incorporating fellows represented varying interests and high standing in the political, professional, the first class of new members, chosen by the Academy in 1781, included Benjamin Franklin and George Washington as well as several foreign honorary members. The initial volume of Academy Memoirs appeared in 1785, and the Proceedings followed in 1846, in the 1950s the Academy launched its journal Daedalus, reflecting its commitment to a broader intellectual and socially-oriented program. The Academy has sponsored a number of awards throughout its history and its first award, established in 1796 by Benjamin Thompson, honored distinguished work on heat and light and provided support for research activities. Additional prizes recognized important contributions in the sciences, social sciences, since the second half of the twentieth century, policy research has become a central focus of the Academy. In the late 1950s, arms control emerged as a concern of the Academy. The Academy also served as the catalyst in establishing the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, in 2002, the Academy established a visiting scholars program in association with Harvard University. More than 60 academic institutions from across the country have become Affiliates of the Academy to support this program, robert Oppenheimer, Willa Cather, T. S. Eliot, Edward R. Murrow, Jonas Salk, Eudora Welty, and Duke Ellington. Astronomer Maria Mitchell was the first woman to be elected to the Academy, the current membership encompasses over 4,900 Fellows and 600 Foreign Honorary Members on the roster, including more than 250 Nobel laureates and more than 60 Pulitzer Prize winners. The current membership is divided into five classes and twenty-four sections, Class I – Mathematical and Physical Sciences Section 1. Applied Mathematics and Statistics Section 2, astronomy and Earth Science Section 5. Engineering Sciences and Technologies Section 6, computer Sciences Class II – Biological Sciences Section 1. Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology Section 2, cellular and Developmental Biology, Microbiology and Immunology Section 3. Neurosciences, Cognitive Sciences, and Behavioral Biology Section 4, evolutionary and Population Biology and Ecology Section 5. Medical Sciences, Clinical Medicine, and Public Health Class III – Social Sciences Section 1, Social and Developmental Psychology and Education Section 2. Political Science, International Relations, and Public Policy Section 4, archaeology, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography and Demography Class IV – Arts and Humanities Section 1
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Joseph Barrell (merchant)
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Joseph Barrell was a merchant in Boston, Massachusetts in the 18th century. During the American Revolution he owned ships commissioned as privateers, such as the Vengeance, in 1792 Barrell was elected to the board of Massachusetts branch of the newly established Bank of the United States, along with George Cabot, Jonathan Mason Jr. and Fisher Ames. As a merchant Barrell imported goods from overseas, for instance, the Hannah, commanded by William Haydon, sailed in May 1780, probably from Amsterdam, loaded with cargo for Barrell in Boston, German steel. China ware, earthen pots, house brushes, spices, linens, velvets, writing paper, childrens toys, wafers, flat-irons, tea and tea-kettles, Barrells notable wealth also derived from his activities as contractor to the French fleet. The Columbia thus became the first American vessel to circumnavigate the globe, leaving Boston on September 30,1787, while this voyage was not profitable, the Columbia immediately set out on a second, more successful voyage under Gray which lasted until 1793. The voyages of the Columbia established the pattern for the Boston-northwest coast-China-Boston trade. In civic life, Barrell was appointed to a town committee in 1789 to plan festivities in honor of George Washingtons visit to Boston. Along with the Boston selectmen, the committee was charged with devising the most suitable ways for the inhabitants of this town to express their affection, in 1764 Barrell married Anna Pierce, known to her contemporaries as Nancy Barrell, their children included Joseph Barrell Jr. After Nancy died, he wed Hannah Fitch, children included Hannah Barrell, immensely wealthy merchant, bought a house on Summer Street in Boston and built a lovely garden that was quite famous. By 1791, the Revd William Bentley was able to write in his diary and his garden is beyond any example I have seen. A young grove is growing in the ground, in the middle of which is a pond, decorated with four ships at anchor. The Chinese manner is mixed with the European in the house which fronts the house. In the apartment above are his flowers more freely admitted to the air, the squares are decorated with marble figures as large as life. The gardens extended back to Franklin Place, in 1793, he asked Charles Bulfinch, a family friend, to design a country house on the side of a hill looking down across the river, over Boston, and on out into the harbour beyond. This was one of Bulfinchs first commissions, and the design and resulting beauty of the house helped establish his reputation as an architect of great talent. The new place was called Pleasant Hill, and it too became very famous because of the magnificent house Bulfinch had created, the gardens here were terraced down the slope to a wilderness of poplar trees and a small pond stocked with fish. Anna Ticknor recalled visiting there as a child and described her experience this way, to take fruit and coffee, and wander about the grounds. A vision of one such scene lives in my memory, seen through the vista of sixty years a glow still lingers on the scene
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Harrison Gray Otis House
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There are three houses named the Harrison Gray Otis House in Boston, Massachusetts. All were built by noted American architect Charles Bulfinch for the man, Federalist lawyer. The first Otis house, built in 1796, is located at 141 Cambridge Street and it is now a National Historic Landmark, and a historic house museum owned and operated by Historic New England. The 2nd Harrison Gray Otis House is located at 85 Mount Vernon Street and it is a large, square, Federal-style mansion in densely developed Beacon Hill, built in 1800-1802. The house was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, in this house Bulfinch has made the first floor with his characteristic recessed brick arches, here ornamented with Chinese fretwork balconies in iron. The facade has four bays, with somewhat odd use of Corinthian pilasters on the 2nd, there is a roof balustrade and a largish, octagonal cupola. The 3rd Harrison Gray Otis House is located at 45 Beacon Street, completed in 1806, it is now the home of the American Meteorological Society. This is the last and largest of the houses, also built in the Federal style, and its four stories are organized into five bays. The center entrance has a small, rectangular portico with delicate pairs of Ionic fluted columns, the modest ground floor, now faced in stone, originally had the recessed brick arches typical of Bulfinch houses. When built, the house was freestanding, surrounded by the Boston Common, National Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts
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Harrison Gray Otis (politician)
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Harrison Gray Otis, was a businessman, lawyer, and politician, becoming one of the most important leaders of the United States first political party, the Federalists. He was a member of the Otis family, one of the wealthiest men of Boston during his time, Otis was reportedly worth at least US$800,000 in 1846, which in 2014 would be equivalent to $6.5 Billion. Otis was born in Boston, Massachusetts on October 8,1765 to Elizabeth and his aunt was Mercy Otis Warren, a well-known poet. A descendant was Montgomery Harrison Ritchie, who died in the American Civil War and was the first husband of Cornelia Wadsworth Ritchie Adair. In 1794 he was elected to the Massachusetts legislature, and in 1796 was appointed by President George Washington to be U. S. Attorney for Massachusetts, in 1797, he was elected U. S. Representative from Massachusetts as a Federalist and an advocate for centralized government. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, in subsequent years, Otis was elected U. S. Senator from Massachusetts, and then Mayor of Boston, overall, it led to the demise of the Federalists, and Otiss political ambitions suffered. Otis subsequently defended the convention in his Letters Developing the Character and Views of the Hartford Convention, Otis was involved in a major financial scandal during the site selection for the Massachusetts State House. Boston was determined to remain the state capitol, and appointed Otis to a committee to purchase land. He did so, and also arranged his own private purchase of 18.5 acres adjoining from the agent of John Singleton Copley. After a decade of legal arguments, the sale was upheld, and Otis, Otis was an overseer of Harvard University from 1810 to 1823, and a fellow of the university from 1823 to 1825, as well as one of the original incorporators of the Boston Bank. In 1812, Otis also became a member of the American Antiquarian Society. During the course of his career, he not one. He died in Boston on October 28,1848, and is buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Harrison Gray Otis House Timeline of Boston, 1790s-1830s Samuel Eliot Morison, Harrison Gray Otis, 1765–1848, The Urbane Federalist,1913. Rev. ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin,1969, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
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St. Stephen's Church (Boston, Massachusetts)
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St. Stephens Church, formerly the New North Church, is a Roman Catholic church located at 401 Hanover Street in the North End of Boston, Massachusetts. It is the last remaining church in Boston designed by Charles Bulfinch and its cornerstone was laid on September 23,1802, and the building dedicated on May 2,1804. Three days later the Columbian Centinel wrote, Bulfinch’s specifications show that the church was designed nearly square, a transverse section exhibits roof framing similar to that of Holy Cross Church. Some of the timber of the old church was used, and when the Bulfinch building was restored in 1964-65, the underpinning was found to be entirely sound. However, the roof was less skillfully constructed, and severe leakage was arrested only after the pitch was sharpened, the church cost $26,570, nearly all of which was raised by the sale of pews. Charles Shaw judged it “a commodious brick building”, while William Bentley, in 1862, with the North End’s composition greatly changed by an influx of Irish Catholics, the church was sold to Bishop Fitzpatrick of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Boston and renamed St. Stephen’s. In the conversion the weathervane was removed, a peak built over the original domed cupola in the manner of Holy Cross Church, and a cross and clock added. Either at this time or after the fire of 1897, the windows in the altar were blocked up. When Hanover Street was widened in 1870 the edifice was moved back 16 feet, the Church is now the home church for the Missionary Society of St. James the Apostle. In 1964 Cardinal Cushing authorized the restoration of the church, including the lowering of the building upon its original foundation and the reconstruction of the Bulfinch cupola. Chester F. Wright was architect for the rebuilding and the work was done by Isaac Blair & Co. the same firm that had raised and moved the church almost a century earlier. George E. Ryan wrote of the work, The interior is not entirely faithful to the Bulfinch design, although the pulpit. The brownstone pilasters in the façade were meant to be painted white to simulate marble, as in a number of surviving houses on Beacon Hill. At one time, Mayor John Honey Fitz Fitzgerald was a parishioner of St. Stephen’s, his daughter Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy was baptized here in 1890, national Register of Historic Places listings in northern Boston, Massachusetts Kirker, Harold. The Architecture of Charles Bulfinch, pp. 168–172, cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press,1969
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