1.
Charles Rosen (painter)
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Charles Rosen was an American painter who lived for many years in Woodstock, New York. In the 1910s he was acclaimed for his Impressionist winter landscapes and he became dissatisfied with this style and around 1920 he changed to a radically different cubist-realist style. He became recognized as one of the leaders of the Woodstock artists colony, Charles Rosen was born on a farm in Reagantown, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania on 28 April 1878. When he was sixteen he opened a studio in West Newton. Most of his photographs were of deceased miners, Rosen then worked for a photography business in Salem, Ohio, and in 1898 moved to New York City. He planned to become a newspaper illustrator and he studied painting at the National Academy of Design under Francis Coates Jones. He also took classes at the New York School of Art under William Merritt Chase and he became interested in landscape painting in 1902 at DuMonds outdoor classes in Old Lyme, Connecticut. In 1903 Rosen married Mildred Holden and they moved to the vicinity of New Hope, Pennsylvania, which became their home for seventeen years. Rosen became known for his snow scenes. His early work was compared to Edward Willis Redfield, the leader of the group of impressionist artists at New Hope. He was also a friend of the artists Daniel Garber, William Langson Lathrop, sometimes they were spontaneous, thrown off quickly, and sometimes carefully worked. Some paintings were full of movement and others were serenely calm, some are almost monochrome while some explode with color. In 1914 Rosen made the first of several visits to Vinalhaven Island on the coast of Maine, the rugged landscape was the subject of several paintings. In 1916 the National Academy awarded Rosen the Inness Gold Medal and he was given seven one-man shows and was elected to the National Academy. In 1916 Rosen and six other artists formed The New Hope Group to arrange for exhibitions of their work, the others in this group were Rae Sloan Bredin, Morgan Colt, Daniel Garber, William Langson Lathrop and Robert Spencer. Rosen was starting to feel that Impressionism belonged to the past and he taught at the Art Students League of New York summer school in Woodstock, New York in 1918. He was an instructor and then director of the school until 1921. One of Rosens students there was the Canadian André Charles Biéler, in 1920 Rosen moved permanently to Woodstock with his wife and their two daughters
2.
Given name
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A given name is a part of a persons personal name. It identifies a person, and differentiates that person from other members of a group, such as a family or clan. The term given name refers to the fact that the name usually is bestowed upon a person and this contrasts with a surname, which is normally inherited, and shared with other members of the childs immediate family. Given names are used in a familiar and friendly manner in informal situations. In more formal situations the surname is commonly used, unless it is necessary to distinguish between people with the same surname. The idioms on a basis and being on first-name terms allude to the familiarity of addressing another by a given name. The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe. The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is used in East Asia, as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India. The order given name - fathers family name - mothers family name is used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain using given name - mothers family name - fathers family name, under the common Western naming convention, people may have one or more forenames. If more than one, there is usually a main forename for everyday use, sometimes however two or more forenames may carry equal weight. There is no particular ordering rule for forenames – often the main forename is at the beginning, a childs given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a ceremony, with family. In most jurisdictions, a name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate. In western cultures, people normally retain the same name throughout their lives. However, in some cases names may be changed by petitioning a court of law. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions, in France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, like in Sweden, restrict the spelling of names, parents may choose a name because of its meaning
3.
Juilliard School
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The Juilliard School located in the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, New York City, is a performing arts conservatory established in 1905. It is informally referred to as Juilliard, the school trains about 850 undergraduate and graduate students in dance, drama, and music. It is widely regarded as one of the leading music schools. In 2016, QS Quacquarelli Symonds ranked it as the worlds best institution for Performing Arts in their global ranking of the discipline. The Institute opened in the former Lenox Mansion, Fifth Avenue and 12th Street and it moved in 1910 to 120 Claremont Avenue in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, onto a property purchased from Bloomingdale Insane Asylum. In 1920, the Juilliard Foundation was created, named after textile merchant Augustus D. Juilliard, in 1924, the foundation purchased the Vanderbilt family guesthouse at 49 E. 52nd Street and established the Juilliard Graduate School. In 1926, the Juilliard School of Music was created through a merger of the Institute of Musical Art, the two schools shared a common Board of Directors and President but retained their distinct identities. The conductor and music-educator Frank Damrosch continued as the Institutes dean, in 1937, Hutcheson succeeded Erskine as president of the two institutions, a job he held until 1945. In 1946, the Institute of Musical Art and the Juilliard Graduate School completely merged to form a single institution, the president of the school at that time was William Schuman, the first winner of the Pulitzer Prize for Music. Schuman established the Juilliard String Quartet in 1946 and the Dance Division in 1951, William Schuman graduated from Columbias Teachers College and attended the Juilliard Summer School in 1932,1933 and 1936. While attending Juilliard Summer School, he developed a dislike for traditional music theory and ear training curricula, finding little value in counterpoint. L&M was Schumans reaction against more formal theory and ear training, the general mandate was to give the student an awareness of the dynamic nature of the materials of music. The quality and degree of each students education in harmony, music history or ear training was dependent on how each composer-teacher decided to interpret this mandate, William Schuman resigned as president of Juilliard after being elected president of Lincoln Center in 1962. Peter Mennin, another composer with experience at the Peabody Conservatory, was elected as his successor. Mennin made significant changes to the L&M program—ending ear training and music history, in 1968, Mennin hired John Houseman to manage a new Drama Division, and in 1969 oversaw Juilliards relocation from Claremont Avenue to Lincoln Center. Polisis many accomplishments include philanthropic successes, broadening of the curriculum, in 2001, the school established a jazz performance training program. In 1999, the Juilliard School was awarded the National Medal of Arts, in 2006, Juilliard received a trove of precious music manuscripts from board chair and philanthropist Bruce Kovner. Many of the manuscripts had been unavailable for generations,2, and manuscripts of Brahmss Symphony No.2 and Piano Concerto No.2
4.
Moriz Rosenthal
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Moriz Rosenthal was a Polish pianist and composer. Rosenthal was born in Lemberg, Austria-Hungary, where his father was professor at the chief academy, at eight years of age he commenced his piano studies under Galoth. In 1872, Rosenthal became a pupil of Karol Mikuli, Chopins pupil and editor, at the age of twelve he became a pupil of Rafael Joseffy in Vienna. His debut occurred in Vienna in 1876 and his success was instantaneous, and after a tour of Roumania he was made Court Pianist of Roumania when he was fourteen years of age. From 1878 to 1879 he studied with Liszt at Weimar and Rome and he was associated with the great Hungarian master until 1886, when Liszt died at Bayreuth. His virtuosity guided by a probing intellect was nonpareil, in 1912 he was made Kammervirtuoso for the Emperor of Austria. As Liszts pupil, Rosenthal made appearances in St. Petersburg, Paris and his general education, however, was not neglected, and in 1880 Rosenthal qualified to take the philosophical course at the University of Vienna. Six years later he resumed his career with the piano, achieving brilliant success in Leipzig, and in Boston, where he made his U. S. debut in 1888 and he taught at the Curtis Institute of Music from 1926-1928. From 1939, he taught in his own school in New York City. Rosenthal recorded less than three hours worth of music, what he did record, however, is considered some of the most legendary piano-playing ever captured. Surviving examples include, in addition to conventional discs, a quantity of American Piano Company piano rolls. Rosenthals usually malicious wit was legendary, when he heard Vladimir Horowitz blaze through the octave passages of Tchaikovskys First Piano Concerto at his Vienna debut, he remarked, He is an Octavian, but not Caesar. In similar vein, after hearing Ignacy Jan Paderewski, whose reputation had preceded him, Rosenthal said, Yes, he plays well, I suppose, but hes no Paderewski. A colleague once played Rosenthals arrangement of Chopins Minute Waltz in thirds at a recital, towards the end of his life Rosenthal lived at the Great Northern Hotel in New York, which he referred to as more Northern than Great. His pupils included Charles Rosen and Robert Goldsand, an anthology of Rosenthals autobiographical writings was published as Moriz Rosenthal, In Word and Music, which also contains a CD of representative and unpublished recordings
5.
Franz Liszt
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Franz Liszt was a prolific 19th-century Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor, music teacher, arranger, organist, philanthropist, author, nationalist and a Franciscan tertiary. Liszt gained renown in Europe during the nineteenth century for his prodigious virtuosic skill as a pianist. As a composer, Liszt was one of the most prominent representatives of the New German School and he left behind an extensive and diverse body of work in which he influenced his forward-looking contemporaries and anticipated many 20th-century ideas and trends. Franz Liszt was born to Anna Liszt and Adam Liszt on October 22,1811, in the village of Doborján in Sopron County, in the Kingdom of Hungary, Liszts father played the piano, violin, cello and guitar. He had been in the service of Prince Nikolaus II Esterházy and knew Haydn, Hummel, at age six, Franz began listening attentively to his fathers piano playing and showed an interest in both sacred and Romani music. Adam began teaching him the piano at age seven, and Franz began composing in an elementary manner when he was eight and he appeared in concerts at Sopron and Pressburg in October and November 1820 at age 9. After the concerts, a group of wealthy sponsors offered to finance Franzs musical education in Vienna, There Liszt received piano lessons from Carl Czerny, who in his own youth had been a student of Beethoven and Hummel. He also received lessons in composition from Antonio Salieri, then director of the Viennese court. Liszts public debut in Vienna on December 1,1822, at a concert at the Landständischer Saal, was a great success and he was greeted in Austrian and Hungarian aristocratic circles and also met Beethoven and Schubert. In spring 1823, when his one-year leave of absence came to an end, Adam Liszt therefore took his leave of the Princes services. At the end of April 1823, the returned to Hungary for the last time. At the end of May 1823, the family went to Vienna again, towards the end of 1823 or early 1824, Liszts first composition to be published, his Variation on a Waltz by Diabelli, appeared as Variation 24 in Part II of Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Liszts inclusion in the Diabelli project—he was described in it as an 11 year old boy, born in Hungary—was almost certainly at the instigation of Czerny, his teacher, Liszt was the only child composer in the anthology. After his fathers death in 1827, Liszt moved to Paris, to earn money, Liszt gave lessons in piano playing and composition, often from early morning until late at night. His students were scattered across the city and he often had to long distances. Because of this, he kept uncertain hours and also took up smoking, the following year he fell in love with one of his pupils, Caroline de Saint-Cricq, the daughter of Charles Xs minister of commerce, Pierre de Saint-Cricq. Her father, however, insisted that the affair be broken off, Liszt fell very ill, to the extent that an obituary notice was printed in a Paris newspaper, and he underwent a long period of religious doubts and pessimism. He again stated a wish to join the Church but was dissuaded this time by his mother and he had many discussions with the Abbé de Lamennais, who acted as his spiritual father, and also with Chrétien Urhan, a German-born violinist who introduced him to the Saint-Simonists
6.
Johannes Brahms
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Johannes Brahms was a German composer and pianist of the Romantic period. Born in Hamburg into a Lutheran family, Brahms spent much of his life in Vienna. Brahms composed for orchestra, chamber ensembles, piano, organ. A virtuoso pianist, he premiered many of his own works and he worked with some of the leading performers of his time, including the pianist Clara Schumann and the violinist Joseph Joachim. Many of his works have become staples of the concert repertoire. An uncompromising perfectionist, Brahms destroyed some of his works and left others unpublished, Brahms has been considered, by his contemporaries and by later writers, as both a traditionalist and an innovator. His music is rooted in the structures and compositional techniques of the Classical masters. While many contemporaries found his music too academic, his contribution and craftsmanship have been admired by subsequent figures as diverse as Arnold Schoenberg, the diligent, highly constructed nature of Brahmss works was a starting point and an inspiration for a generation of composers. Embedded within his meticulous structures, however, are deeply romantic motifs, Brahmss father, Johann Jakob Brahms, was from the town of Heide in Holstein. The family name was sometimes spelt Brahmst or Brams, and derives from Bram. Against the familys will, Johann Jakob pursued a career in music, arriving in Hamburg in 1826, where he work as a jobbing musician. In 1830, he married Johanna Henrika Christiane Nissen, a seamstress 17 years older than he was, in the same year he was appointed as a horn player in the Hamburg militia. Eventually he became a player in the Hamburg Stadttheater and the Hamburg Philharmonic Society. As Johann Jakob prospered, the family moved over the years to better accommodation in Hamburg. Johannes Brahms was born in 1833, his sister Elisabeth had been born in 1831, Fritz also became a pianist, overshadowed by his brother he emigrated to Caracas in 1867, and later returned to Hamburg as a teacher. Johann Jakob gave his son his first musical training, Johannes also learnt to play the violin, from 1840 he studied piano with Otto Friedrich Willibald Cossel. Cossel complained in 1842 that Brahms could be such a good player, at the age of 10, Brahms made his debut as a performer in a private concert including Beethovens quintet for piano and winds Op.16 and a piano quartet by Mozart. He also played as a solo work an étude of Henri Herz, by 1845 he had written a piano sonata in G minor
7.
Josef Hofmann
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Josef Casimir Hofmann was a Polish American virtuoso pianist, composer, music teacher, and inventor. Josef Hofmann was born in Podgórze, in Austro-Hungarian Galicia in 1876, Hofmann was of partial Jewish ancestry. His father was the composer, conductor and pianist Kazimierz Hofmann, Anton Rubinstein took Hofmann as his only private student in 1892 and arranged the debut of his pupil in Hamburg, Germany in 1894. Hofmann toured and performed extensively over the next 50 years as one of the most celebrated pianists of the era, in 1913, he was presented with a set of keys to the city of St. Petersburg, Russia. As a composer, Hofmann published over one hundred works, many of those under the pseudonym Michel Dvorsky and he made the United States his base during World War I and became a US citizen in 1926. In 1924, he became the first head of the department at the inception of the Curtis Institute of Music, Philadelphia. He was instrumental in recruiting illustrious musicians such as Efrem Zimbalist, Fritz Reiner, Marcella Sembrich, Hofmanns pupils included Jean Behrend, Abram Chasins, Abbey Simon, Shura Cherkassky, Ezra Rachlin, Nadia Reisenberg, and Harry Kaufman. While not a pupil, Jorge Bolet benefited from Hofmanns interest, in 1937, the 50th anniversary of his New York debut performance was celebrated with gala performances including a Golden Jubilee recital at the Metropolitan Opera, New York City. In 1938 he was forced to leave the Curtis Institute of Music over financial, in the years from 1939 to 1946, his artistic eminence deteriorated, in part due to family difficulties and alcoholism. In 1946, he gave his last recital at Carnegie Hall, home to his 151 appearances and he spent his last decade in Los Angeles in relative obscurity, working on inventions and keeping a steady correspondence with associates. As an inventor, Hofmann had over 70 patents, and his invention of pneumatic shock absorbers for cars, Hofmann died of pneumonia on February 16,1957 in Los Angeles. He was survived by four children and his second wife, Betty Short, had previously been one of his pupils. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California, the Josef Hofmann Piano Competition, co-sponsored by the American Council for Polish Culture and the University of South Carolina Aiken was established in his honor in 1994. Anton Rubinstein heard the seven-year-old Hofmann play Beethovens C minor Piano Concerto in Warsaw, at that age, Hofmann gave concerts in Germany, France, Holland, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, and Great Britain. In 1887, an American tour was arranged and after three months of performances that included fifty recitals, seventeen of which were at the Metropolitan Opera House, yet soon after, the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children stepped in, citing the boys fragile health. However, as per the contract that had paid Hofmann $10,000, the contract was rendered void by Alfred Corning Clark who donated $50,000 and, in turn, legally forbade Hofmann to perform in public until he turned 18 years old. The final segment of the tour was cancelled and the returned to Potsdam. This marked the end of Hofmanns child prodigy years, in 1892, Rubinstein accepted Hofmann as his only private pupil, the two meeting for 42 sessions in Dresdens Hotel dEurope
8.
The Guardian
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The Guardian is a British daily newspaper, known from 1821 until 1959 as the Manchester Guardian. Along with its sister papers The Observer and The Guardian Weekly, The Guardian is part of the Guardian Media Group, the Scott Trust became a limited company in 2008, with a constitution to maintain the same protections for The Guardian. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than to the benefit of an owner or shareholders, the Guardian is edited by Katharine Viner, who succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. In 2016, The Guardians print edition had a daily circulation of roughly 162,000 copies in the country, behind The Daily Telegraph. The newspaper has an online UK edition as well as two international websites, Guardian Australia and Guardian US, the newspapers online edition was the fifth most widely read in the world in October 2014, with over 42.6 million readers. Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million British readers, notable scoops include the 2011 News International phone hacking scandal, in particular the hacking of murdered English teenager Milly Dowlers phone. The investigation led to the closure of the UKs biggest selling Sunday newspaper, and one of the highest circulation newspapers in the world, in 2016, it led the investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing the then British Prime Minister David Camerons links to offshore bank accounts. The Guardian has been named Newspaper of the Year four times at the annual British Press Awards, the paper is still occasionally referred to by its nickname of The Grauniad, given originally for the purported frequency of its typographical errors. The Manchester Guardian was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle and they launched their paper after the police closure of the more radical Manchester Observer, a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they better than those that do. When the government closed down the Manchester Observer, the champions had the upper hand. The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, the prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty. Warmly advocate the cause of Reform, endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and. Support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, in 1825 the paper merged with the British Volunteer and was known as The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer until 1828. The working-class Manchester and Salford Advertiser called the Manchester Guardian the foul prostitute, the Manchester Guardian was generally hostile to labours claims. The Manchester Guardian dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators –, if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. CP Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised and he was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylors son in 1907. Under Scott, the moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886
9.
Washington Heights, Manhattan
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Washington Heights is a neighborhood in the northern portion of the New York City borough of Manhattan. In the 18th century, only the portion of the island was settled by Europeans. Among the many unspoiled tracts of land was the highest spot on the island, when the Revolutionary War came to New York, the British had the upper hand. General George Washington and troops from his Continental Army camped on the ground, calling it Fort Washington. The Continental Army retreated from its location after their defeat on November 16,1776, the British took the position and renamed it Fort Knyphausen in honor of Wilhelm von Knyphausen, the leader of the Hessians, who had taken a major part in the British victory. Their location was in the now called Bennett Park. Fort Washington had been established as a position to prevent British vessels from sailing north on the Hudson River. Fort Lee, across the river, was its twin, built to assist in the defense of the Hudson Valley, the progress of the battle is marked by a series of bronze plaques along Broadway. On July 9,1776, when New Yorks Provincial Congress assented to the Declaration of Independence, A rowdy crowd of soldiers, marched down Broadway to Bowling Green, where they toppled the statue of George III erected in 1770. The head was put on a spike at the Blue Bell Tavern, the tavern was later used by Washington and his staff when the British evacuated New York, standing in front of it as they watched the American troops march south to retake New York. By 1856 the first recorded home had been built on the site of Fort Washington, the Moorewood residence was there until the 1880s. The property was purchased by Richard Carman and sold to James Gordon Bennett Sr. for an estate in 1871. Bennetts descendants later gave the land to the city to build a park honoring the Revolutionary War encampment, Bennett Park is a portion of that land. Lucius Chittenden, a New Orleans merchant, built a home on land he bought in 1846 west of what is now Cabrini Boulevard and it was known as the Chittenden estate by 1864. Bucking named his home Pinehurst on land near the Hudson, a title that survives as Pinehurst Avenue, the series of ridges overlooking the Hudson were sites of villas in the 19th century, including the extensive property of John James Audubon. At the turn of the 20th century the woods started being chopped down to make way for homes, the cliffs that are now Fort Tryon Park held the mansion of Cornelius Kingsley Garrison Billings, a retired president of the Chicago Coke and Gas Company. He purchased 25 acres and constructed Tryon Hall, a Louis XIV-style home designed by Gus Lowell and it had a galleried entranceway from the Henry Hudson Parkway that was 50 feet high and made of Maine granite. In 1917, Billings sold the land to John D. Rockefeller Jr. for $35,000 per acre, Tryon Hall was destroyed by fire in 1925
10.
Upper West Side
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The Upper West Side is sometimes also considered by the real estate industry to include the neighborhood of Morningside Heights. Like the Upper East Side, the Upper West Side is an affluent, primarily residential area with many of its residents working in areas of Midtown. Conversely, the Upper East Side is traditionally perceived to be home to commercial, the Upper West Side, along with the Upper East Side, is considered to be among New York Citys wealthiest neighborhoods. Upper West Side is bounded on the south by 59th Street, Central Park to the east, and its northern boundary is somewhat less obvious. Although it has historically been cited as 110th Street, which fixes the neighborhood alongside Central Park, it is now considered to be 125th Street. The area north of West 96th Street and east of Broadway is also identified as Manhattan Valley, the overlapping area west of Amsterdam Avenue to Riverside Park was once known as the Bloomingdale District. From west to east, the avenues of the Upper West Side are Riverside Drive, West End Avenue, Broadway, Amsterdam Avenue, Columbus Avenue, with the building of Lincoln Center, its name, though perhaps not the reality, was stretched south to 58th Street. This is a reversion to the historical name. The long high bluff above useful sandy coves along the North River was little used or traversed by the Lenape people, in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the Upper West Side-to-be contained some of colonial New Yorks most ambitious houses, spaced along Bloomingdale Road. It became increasingly infilled with smaller, more villas in the first half of the nineteenth century. Its name was a derivation of the given to the area by Dutch settlers to New Netherland, likely from Bloemendaal. The Dutch Anglicized the name to Bloomingdale or the Bloomingdale District and it consisted of farms and villages along a road known as the Bloomingdale Road. Bloomingdale Road was renamed The Boulevard in 1868, as the farms and villages were divided into building lots, by the 18th century it contained numerous farms and country residences of many of the citys well-off, a major parcel of which was the Apthorp Farm. Within the confines of the modern-day Upper West Side, the road passed through areas known as Harsenville, Stryckers Bay, Bloomingdale, in the latter half of the 19th century, was the name of a village that occupied the area just south of 110th street. Much of the riverfront of the Upper West Side was a shipping, transportation, the Hudson River Railroad line right-of-way was granted in the late 1830s to connect New York City to Albany, and soon ran along the riverbank. One major non-industrial development, the creation of Central Park in the 1850s and 60s, parts of the neighborhood became a ragtag collection of squatters housing, boarding houses, and rowdy taverns. In 1868, the city began straightening and grading the section of the Bloomingdale Road from Harsenville north and it retained that name until the end of the century, when the name Broadway finally supplanted it. Development of the neighborhood lagged even while Central Park was being out in the 1860s and 70s
11.
Princeton University
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Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
12.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
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The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians is an encyclopedic dictionary of music and musicians. Along with the German-language Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart, it is one of the largest reference works on Western music, in recent years it has been made available as an electronic resource called Grove Music Online, which is now an important part of Oxford Music Online. A Dictionary of Music and Musicians was first published in four volumes edited by George Grove with an Appendix edited by J. A. Fuller Maitland in the fourth volume, an Index edited by Mrs. E. Wodehouse was issued as a separate volume in 1890. In 1900, minor corrections were made to the plates and the series was reissued in four volumes. The original edition and the reprint are now available online. Grove limited the chronological span of his work to begin at 1450 while continuing up to the present day, the second edition, in five volumes, was edited by Fuller Maitland and published from 1904 to 1910, this time as Groves Dictionary of Music and Musicians. The individual volumes of the edition were reprinted many times. An American Supplement edited by Waldo Selden Pratt and Charles N. Boyd was added in 1920 and this edition removed the first editions beginning date of 1450, though important earlier composers and theorists are still missing from this edition. These volumes are now freely available online. The third edition, also in five volumes, was a revision of the 2nd edition. The fourth edition, also edited by Colles, was published in 1940 in five volumes, in addition to the American Supplement, MacMillan also published a Supplementary Volume edited by Colles. The fifth edition, in nine volumes, was edited by Eric Blom and this was the most thoroughgoing revision of the work since its inception, with many articles rewritten in a more modern style and a large number of entirely new articles. Many of the articles were written by Blom personally, or translated by him, an additional Supplementary Volume, prepared for the most part by Eric Blom, followed in 1961. Blom died in 1959, and the Supplementary Volume was completed by Denis Stevens, the fifth edition was reprinted in 1966,1968,1970,1973, and 1975. The next edition was published in 1980 under the name The New Grove Dictionary of Music and its senior editor was Stanley Sadie with Nigel Fortune also serving as one of the main editors for the publication. It was reprinted with minor corrections each subsequent year until 1995, in the mid-1990s, the hardback set sold for about $2,300. A paperback edition was reprinted in 1995 which sold for $500, the second edition under this title was published in 2001, in 29 volumes. It was also available by subscription on the internet in a service called Grove Music Online
13.
Joseph Haydn
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Joseph Haydn was an Austrian composer of the Classical period. Haydn spent much of his career as a musician for the wealthy Esterházy family at their remote estate. Until the later part of his life, this isolated him from other composers and trends in music so that he was, as he put it, yet his music circulated widely and for much of his career he was the most celebrated composer in Europe. He was a friend and mentor of Mozart, a teacher of Beethoven, Joseph Haydn was born in Rohrau, Austria, a village that at that time stood on the border with Hungary. His father was Mathias Haydn, a wheelwright who served as Marktrichter. Haydns mother Maria, née Koller, had worked as a cook in the palace of Count Harrach. Neither parent could read music, however, Mathias was a folk musician. According to Haydns later reminiscences, his family was extremely musical. Haydns parents had noticed that their son was musically gifted and knew that in Rohrau he would have no chance to obtain serious musical training, Haydn therefore went off with Frankh to Hainburg 12 kilometres away, he never again lived with his parents. Life in the Frankh household was not easy for Haydn, who later remembered being frequently hungry and he began his musical training there, and could soon play both harpsichord and violin. The people of Hainburg heard him sing treble parts in the church choir, Haydn passed his audition with Reutter, and after several months of further training moved to Vienna, where he worked for the next nine years as a chorister. Haydn lived in the Kapellhaus next to the cathedral, along with Reutter, Reutters family, and the other four choirboys, the choirboys were instructed in Latin and other school subjects as well as voice, violin, and keyboard. Reutter was of help to Haydn in the areas of music theory and composition. However, since St. Stephens was one of the musical centres in Europe. Like Frankh before him, Reutter did not always bother to make sure Haydn was properly fed, by 1749, Haydn had matured physically to the point that he was no longer able to sing high choral parts. Empress Maria Theresa herself complained to Reutter about his singing, calling it crowing, one day, Haydn carried out a prank, snipping off the pigtail of a fellow chorister. This was enough for Reutter, Haydn was first caned, then summarily dismissed and he had the good fortune to be taken in by a friend, Johann Michael Spangler, who shared his familys crowded garret room with Haydn for a few months. Haydn immediately began his pursuit of a career as a freelance musician and he was also briefly in Count Friedrich Wilhelm von Haugwitzs employ, playing the organ in the Bohemian Chancellery chapel at the Judenplatz
14.
Fulbright Program
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The program was established to increase mutual understanding between the people of the United States and other countries through the exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. It is one of the most prestigious scholarships in the world, the Fulbright Program provides 8,000 grants annually to undertake graduate study, advanced research, university lecturing, and classroom teaching. The Fulbright Program is administered by cooperating organizations like the Institute of International Education and it operates in over 160 countries around the world. The U. S. Department of States Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs sponsors the Fulbright Program from an appropriation from the U. S. Congress. Additional direct and in-kind support comes from governments, foundations, corporations. In each of 49 countries, a bi-national Fulbright Commission administers, in countries without a Fulbright Commission but that have an active program, the Public Affairs Section of the U. S. Embassy oversees the Fulbright Program. More than 360,000 persons have participated in the program since it began, fifty-four Fulbright alumni have won Nobel Prizes, eighty-two have won Pulitzer Prizes. In 1945, Senator J. William Fulbright proposed a bill to use the proceeds from selling surplus U. S. government war property to international exchange between the U. S. and other countries. The bill devised a plan to forgo the debts foreign countries amassed during the war and it was through the belief that this program would be an essential vehicle to promote peace and mutual understanding between individuals, institutions and future leaders wherever they may be. If we do not want to die together in war, we must learn to live together in peace. On August 1,1946, President Harry S. Truman signed the bill into law, since it began, the program has operated on a bi-national basis, each country active in the Fulbright Program has entered into an agreement with the U. S. government. The first countries to sign agreements were Cuba in 1947 and Burma, the Philippines, Educational exchange can turn nations into people, contributing as no other form of communication can to the humanizing of international relations. The Fulbright Program works two ways, U. S. citizens may receive funding to go to a foreign country, citizens may come to the U. S. Fulbright grants are offered in almost all academic disciplines except clinical medical research involving patient contact. Fulbright grantees fields of study span the arts, humanities, social sciences, mathematics, natural and physical sciences. Student Program offers fellowships for U. S. graduating seniors, graduate students, young professionals and artists to research, study, the Fulbright Foreign Student Program enables graduate students, young professionals and artists from abroad to conduct research and study in the United States. Some scholarships are renewed after the year of study. This program is currently on hiatus, the Fulbright-mtvU Fellowships award up to four U. S. students the opportunity to study the power of music as a cultural force abroad. Fellows conduct research for one year on projects of their own design about a chosen musical aspect
15.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
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The Massachusetts Institute of Technology is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, often cited as one of the worlds most prestigious universities. Researchers worked on computers, radar, and inertial guidance during World War II, post-war defense research contributed to the rapid expansion of the faculty and campus under James Killian. The current 168-acre campus opened in 1916 and extends over 1 mile along the bank of the Charles River basin. The Institute is traditionally known for its research and education in the sciences and engineering, and more recently in biology, economics, linguistics. Air Force and 6 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT, the school has a strong entrepreneurial culture, and the aggregated revenues of companies founded by MIT alumni would rank as the eleventh-largest economy in the world. In 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a Conservatory of Art and Science, but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Rogers, a professor from the University of Virginia, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. The Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars, two days after the charter was issued, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MITs first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865, in 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay. MIT was informally called Boston Tech, the institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, the curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership, during these Boston Tech years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president Charles W. Eliots repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard Colleges Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard, in its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually the MIT Corporation approved an agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme, the neoclassical New Technology campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious Mr. Smith, starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of production and processing
16.
Robert Schumann
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Robert Schumann was a German composer and influential music critic. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, Schumann left the study of law, intending to pursue a career as a virtuoso pianist. He had been assured by his teacher Friedrich Wieck that he could become the finest pianist in Europe, Schumann then focused his musical energies on composing. Works such as Carnaval, Symphonic Studies, Kinderszenen, Kreisleriana, and his writings about music appeared mostly in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, a Leipzig-based publication which he jointly founded. In 1840, Schumann married Friedrich Wiecks daughter Clara, against the wishes of her father, following a long and acrimonious legal battle, which found in favor of Clara and Robert. Clara also composed music and had a concert career as a pianist. After a suicide attempt in 1854, Schumann was admitted to an asylum, at his own request. Diagnosed with psychotic melancholia, Schumann died two years later in 1856 without having recovered from his mental illness, Schumann was born in Zwickau, in the Kingdom of Saxony, the fifth and last child of Johanna Christiane and August Schumann. Schumann began receiving general musical and piano instruction at the age of seven from Johann Gottfried Kuntzsch, the boy immediately developed a love of music and worked at creating musical compositions himself, without the aid of Kuntzsch. Even though he often disregarded the principles of composition, he created works regarded as admirable for his age. At age 14, Schumann wrote an essay on the aesthetics of music and also contributed to a volume, edited by his father, titled Portraits of Famous Men. While still at school in Zwickau, he read the works of the German poet-philosophers Schiller and Goethe, as well as Byron and the Greek tragedians. His most powerful and permanent literary inspiration was Jean Paul, a German writer whose influence is seen in Schumanns youthful novels Juniusabende, completed in 1826, and Selene. Schumanns interest in music was sparked by seeing a performance of Ignaz Moscheles playing at Karlsbad and his father, who had encouraged the boys musical aspirations, died in 1826 when Schumann was 16. Neither his mother nor his guardian thereafter encouraged a career in music, in 1828 Schumann left school, and after a tour during which he met Heinrich Heine in Munich, he went to Leipzig to study law. In 1829 his law studies continued in Heidelberg, where he became a member of Corps Saxo-Borussia Heidelberg. During Eastertide 1830 he heard the Italian violinist, violist, guitarist, in July he wrote to his mother, My whole life has been a struggle between Poetry and Prose, or call it Music and Law. During his studies with Wieck, it has claimed that Schumann permanently injured a finger on his right hand
17.
Goldberg Variations
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The Goldberg Variations, BWV988, is a work written for harpsichord by Johann Sebastian Bach, consisting of an aria and a set of 30 variations. First published in 1741, the work is considered to be one of the most important examples of variation form, the Variations are named after Johann Gottlieb Goldberg, who may have been the first performer. The Count was often ill and had sleepless nights, at such times, Goldberg, who lived in his house, had to spend the night in an antechamber, so as to play for him during his insomnia. But since at this time all his works were models of art. Yet he produced only a work of this kind. Thereafter the Count always called them his variations and he never tired of them, and for a long time sleepless nights meant, Dear Goldberg, do play me one of my variations. Bach was perhaps never so rewarded for one of his works as for this, the Count presented him with a golden goblet filled with 100 louis-dor. Nevertheless, even had the gift been a thousand times larger, Forkel wrote his biography in 1802, more than 60 years after the events related, and its accuracy has been questioned. The lack of dedication on the page also makes the tale of the commission unlikely. Goldbergs age at the time of publication has also cited as grounds for doubting Forkels tale, although it must be said that he was known to be an accomplished keyboardist. Williams contends that the Forkel story is entirely spurious, arnold Schering has suggested that the aria on which the variations are based was not written by Bach. More recent scholarly literature suggests there is no basis for such doubts. Rather unusually for Bachs works, the Goldberg Variations were published in his own lifetime, the publisher was Bachs friend Balthasar Schmid of Nuremberg. Schmid printed the work by making engraved copper plates, thus the notes of the first edition are in Schmids own handwriting, the edition contains various printing errors. The title page, shown in the figure above, reads in German, / Denen Liebhabern zur Gemüths- / Ergetzung verfertiget von / Johann Sebastian Bach / Königl. Hoff- / Compositeur, Capellmeister, u. Directore / Chori Musici in Leipzig, / Nürnberg in Verlegung / Balthasar Schmids Keyboard exercise, consisting of an ARIA with diverse variations for harpsichord with two manuals. The term Clavier Ubung had been assigned by Bach to some of his previous keyboard works. Klavierübung part 1 was the six partitas, part 2 the Italian Concerto and French Overture, although Bach also called his variations Klavierübung, he did not specifically designate them as the fourth in this series
18.
The Art of Fugue
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The Art of Fugue, BWV1080, is an incomplete work of unspecified instrumentation by Johann Sebastian Bach. Written in the last decade of his life, The Art of Fugue is the culmination of Bachs experimentation with monothematic instrumental works. This work consists of 14 fugues and 4 canons in D minor, each using some variation of a principal subject. The governing idea of the work, as put by Bach specialist Christoph Wolff, was an exploration in depth of the possibilities inherent in a single musical subject. The word contrapunctus is often used for each fugue, the earliest extant source of the work is an autograph manuscript of the early 1740s, containing 12 fugues and 2 canons. This autograph is typically referred to by its number of P200 in the Berlin State Library. Three manuscripts for pieces that appear in the edition were bundled with P200 at some point before its acquisition by the library. The revised version was published in May 1751, slightly less than a year after Bachs death. In addition to changes in the order, notation, and material of pieces which appeared in the autograph, it contained 2 new fugues,2 new canons, a second edition was published in 1752, but differed only in its addition of a preface by Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg. In spite of its revisions, the edition of 1751 contained a number of glaring editorial errors. The majority of these may be attributed to Bachs relatively sudden death in the midst of publication, the anomalous character of the published order and the Unfinished Fugue have engendered a wide variety of theories which attempt to restore the work to that state originally intended by Bach. The Art of Fugue is based on a subject, which each canon. In the order in which occur in the printed edition of 1751, the groups. Contrapunctus I, 4-voice fugue on subject, play principal subject or play whole contrapunctus 2. Contrapunctus II, 4-voice fugue on subject, accompanied by a French style dotted rhythm motif. Contrapunctus III, 4-voice fugue on principal subject in inversion, employing intense chromaticism, Contrapunctus V, Has many stretto entries, as do Contrapuncti VI and VII, play principal subject 6. The dotted rhythm, enhanced by these little rising and descending groups, suggests what is called French style in Bachs day, Contrapunctus VII, a 4 per Augmentationem et Diminutionem, Uses augmented and diminished versions of the main subject and its inversion. Double and triple fugues, employing two and three respectively,8
19.
Ludwig van Beethoven
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Ludwig van Beethoven was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western art music, he one of the most famous. His best-known compositions include 9 symphonies,5 piano concertos,1 violin concerto,32 piano sonatas,16 string quartets, his great Mass the Missa solemnis, and one opera, Fidelio. At the age of 21 he moved to Vienna, where he began studying composition with Joseph Haydn and he lived in Vienna until his death. By his late 20s his hearing began to deteriorate, and by the last decade of his life he was almost completely deaf. In 1811 he gave up conducting and performing in public but continued to compose, many of his most admired works come from these last 15 years of his life. Beethoven was the grandson of Ludwig van Beethoven, a musician from the town of Mechelen in the Duchy of Brabant in the Flemish region of what is now Belgium, who at the age of twenty moved to Bonn. Ludwig was employed as a singer at the court of the Elector of Cologne, eventually rising to become, in 1761. The portrait he commissioned of himself towards the end of his life remained proudly displayed in his grandsons rooms as a talisman of his musical heritage. Ludwig had one son, Johann, who worked as a tenor in the musical establishment and gave keyboard. Johann married Maria Magdalena Keverich in 1767, she was the daughter of Johann Heinrich Keverich, Beethoven was born of this marriage in Bonn. There is no record of the date of his birth, however. Of the seven children born to Johann van Beethoven, only Ludwig, the second-born, caspar Anton Carl was born on 8 April 1774, and Nikolaus Johann, the youngest, was born on 2 October 1776. Beethovens first music teacher was his father and he later had other local teachers, the court organist Gilles van den Eeden, Tobias Friedrich Pfeiffer, and Franz Rovantini. Beethovens musical talent was obvious at a young age, some time after 1779, Beethoven began his studies with his most important teacher in Bonn, Christian Gottlob Neefe, who was appointed the Courts Organist in that year. Neefe taught Beethoven composition, and by March 1783 had helped him write his first published composition, Beethoven soon began working with Neefe as assistant organist, at first unpaid, and then as a paid employee of the court chapel conducted by the Kapellmeister Andrea Luchesi. His first three piano sonatas, named Kurfürst for their dedication to the Elector Maximilian Friedrich, were published in 1783, Maximilian Frederick noticed Beethovens talent early, and subsidised and encouraged the young mans musical studies. Maximilian Fredericks successor as the Elector of Bonn was Maximilian Francis, the youngest son of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, echoing changes made in Vienna by his brother Joseph, he introduced reforms based on Enlightenment philosophy, with increased support for education and the arts
20.
Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)
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Ludwig van Beethovens Piano Sonata No.29 in B♭ major, Op.106 is a piano sonata widely viewed as one of the most important works of the composers third period and among the greatest piano sonatas. Completed in 1818, it is considered to be Beethovens most technically challenging piano composition. The Hammerklavier also set a precedent for the length of solo compositions, the sonatas name comes from Beethovens later practice of using German rather than Italian words for musical terminology. It comes from the page of the work, Große Sonate für das Hammerklavier. The more sedate Sonata No.28 in A major, Op.101 has the same description, but the epithet has come to apply to the Sonata No.29 only. Hammerklavier was part of the title to specify that the work was not to be played on the harpsichord, the work also makes extensive use of the una corda pedal, with Beethoven giving for his time unusually detailed instructions when to use it. The first movement opens with a series of fortissimo B♭ major chords, after the first subject is spun out for a while, the opening set of fortissimo chords are stated again, this time followed by a similar rhythm on the unexpected chord of D major. This ushers in the lyrical second subject in the submediant. A third and final musical subject appears after this, which hints at G minor by chromatic alterations of the scale degree. The exposition ends with a largely stepwise figure in the treble clef in a high register, the development section opens with a statement of this final figure, except with alterations from the major subdominant to the minor, which fluidly modulates to E♭ major. Directly after, the expositions first subject is composed in fugato, the fugato ends with a section featuring non-fugal imitation between registers, eventually resounding in repeated D major chords. The final section of the development begins with an alteration of D♮ to D♯. The music progresses to the key of B major, in which the third. In keeping with Beethovens exploration of the potentials of sonata form, the coda repetitively cites motives from the opening statement over a shimmering pedal point and disappears into pianississimo until two fortissimo B♭ major chords conclude the movement. The brief second movement includes a variety of harmonic and thematic material. The scherzos theme – which Rosen calls a form of the first movements first subject – is at once playful, lively. The scherzo, in B♭ major, maintains the standard form by repeating the sections an octave higher in the treble clef. The trio, marked semplice, is in the minor, B♭ minor
21.
Claude Debussy
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Achille-Claude Debussy, known since the 1890s as Claude-Achille Debussy or Claude Debussy, was a French composer. He and Maurice Ravel were the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music and he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 1903. He was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Debussys music is noted for its sensory content and frequent usage of nontraditional tonalities. The prominent French literary style of his period was known as Symbolism, Debussy, the oldest of five children, was born Achille-Claude Debussy on 22 August 1862 in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France. His father, Manuel-Achille Debussy, owned a shop there, his mother. The family moved to Paris in 1867, but in 1870 Debussys pregnant mother fled with Claude to his aunts home in Cannes to escape the Franco-Prussian War. At the age of seven, he began lessons with an Italian violinist in his early 40s named Jean Cerutti. In 1871 he drew the attention of Marie Mauté de Fleurville, Debussy always believed her, although there is no independent evidence to support her claim. His talents soon became evident, and in 1872, at age ten, Debussy entered the Paris Conservatoire and he also became a lifelong friend of fellow student and distinguished pianist Isidor Philipp. After Debussys death, many pianists sought Philipps advice on playing his works, Debussy was experimental from the outset, favouring dissonances and intervals that were not taught at the Academy. Like Georges Bizet, he was a brilliant pianist and a sight reader. However, Debussy never once won a competition, and his personal opinion on competitions are that it is rather. The rules are taught in places called Conservatories, Art Schools, the contests, preceded by strict training, take place once a year and the umpires of the game are members of the institute —Monsieur Croche. The pieces he played in public at this time included sonata movements by Beethoven, Schumann and Weber,2, a movement from the Piano Concerto No. 1, and the Allegro de concert, during the summers of 1880,1881, and 1882, he accompanied Nadezhda von Meck, the wealthy patroness of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, as she travelled with her family in Europe. Despite von Mecks closeness to Tchaikovsky, the Russian master appears to have had effect on Debussy. In September 1880 she sent his Danse bohémienne for Tchaikovskys perusal, a month later Tchaikovsky wrote back to her, It is a pretty piece. Not a single idea is expressed fully, the form is terribly shriveled, Debussy did not publish the piece, and the manuscript remained in the von Meck family, it was eventually sold to B
22.
Arnold Schoenberg
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Arnold Franz Walter Schoenberg or Schönberg was an Austrian composer, music theorist, and painter. He was associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, by 1938, with the rise of the Nazi Party, Schoenbergs works were labeled degenerate music, because he was Jewish. He moved to the United States in 1934, Schoenbergs approach, both in terms of harmony and development, has been one of the most influential of 20th-century musical thought. Many European and American composers from at least three generations have consciously extended his thinking, whereas others have reacted against it. Schoenberg was known early in his career for simultaneously extending the traditionally opposed German Romantic styles of Brahms, later, his name would come to personify innovations in atonality that would become the most polemical feature of 20th-century art music. In the 1920s, Schoenberg developed the technique, an influential compositional method of manipulating an ordered series of all twelve notes in the chromatic scale. He also coined the term developing variation and was the first modern composer to embrace ways of developing motifs without resorting to the dominance of a melodic idea. Schoenbergs archival legacy is collected at the Arnold Schönberg Center in Vienna, Arnold Schoenberg was born into a lower middle-class Jewish family in the Leopoldstadt district of Vienna, at Obere Donaustraße 5. His father Samuel, a native of Bratislava, was a shopkeeper and he took only counterpoint lessons with the composer Alexander Zemlinsky, who was to become his first brother-in-law. In his twenties, Schoenberg earned a living by orchestrating operettas, while composing his own works and he later made an orchestral version of this, which became one of his most popular pieces. Strauss turned to a more conservative idiom in his own work after 1909, Mahler adopted him as a protégé and continued to support him, even after Schoenbergs style reached a point Mahler could no longer understand. Mahler worried about who would look after him after his death, Schoenberg, who had initially despised and mocked Mahlers music, was converted by the thunderbolt of Mahlers Third Symphony, which he considered a work of genius. Afterward he spoke of Mahler as a saint, in 1898 Schoenberg converted to Christianity in the Lutheran church. According to MacDonald this was partly to strengthen his attachment to Western European cultural traditions and he would self-identify as a member of the Jewish religion later in life. In October 1901, he married Mathilde Zemlinsky, the sister of the conductor and composer Alexander von Zemlinsky and he and Mathilde had two children, Gertrud and Georg. Gertrud would marry Schoenbergs pupil Felix Greissle in 1921, during the summer of 1908, his wife Mathilde left him for several months for a young Austrian painter, Richard Gerstl. This period marked a change in Schoenbergs work. This was the first composition without any reference at all to a key, also in this year, he completed one of his most revolutionary compositions, the String Quartet No
23.
Anton Webern
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Anton Friedrich Wilhelm von Webern was an Austrian composer and conductor. As an exponent of atonality and twelve-tone technique, Webern exerted influence on contemporaries Luigi Dallapiccola, Křenek, Weberns music was among the most radical of its milieu, both in its concision and in its rigorous and resolute apprehension of twelve-tone technique. Webern was born in Vienna, then Austria-Hungary, as Anton Friedrich Wilhelm von Webern and he was the only surviving son of Carl von Webern, a civil servant, and Amelie who was a competent pianist and accomplished singer—possibly the only obvious source of the future composers talent. He never used his middle names and dropped the von in 1918 as directed by the Austrian governments reforms after World War I and he lived in Graz and Klagenfurt for much of his youth. Webern memorialized the Preglhof in a diary poem An der Preglhof and in the tone poem Im Sommerwind, once Weberns father sold the estate in 1912, Webern referred to it nostalgically as a lost paradise. Art historian Ernst Dietz, Weberns cousin and at time a student at Graz, may have introduced Webern to the work of Arnold Böcklin and Giovanni Segantini. Segantinis work was an inspiration for Weberns 1905 single-movement string quartet. In 1902 Webern began attending classes at Vienna University, there he studied musicology with Guido Adler, writing his thesis on the Choralis Constantinus of Heinrich Isaac. He studied composition under Arnold Schoenberg, writing his Passacaglia, op.1 as his piece in 1908. He met Alban Berg, who was also a pupil of Schoenberg and these two relationships would be the most important in his life in shaping his own musical direction. After graduating, he took a series of conducting posts at theatres in Ischl, Teplitz, Danzig, Stettin, there he helped run Schoenbergs Society for Private Musical Performances from 1918 through 1922 and conducted the Vienna Workers Symphony Orchestra from 1922 to 1934. Letters document their correspondence in many subsequent years, and she would in turn provide him with facilities to private lessons as a convenience to Webern, his family. As early as 1933, an Austrian gauleiter on Bayerischer Rundfunk mistakenly and his familys financial situation deteriorated until, by August 1940, his personal records reflected no monthly income. It was thanks to the Swiss philanthropist Werner Reinhart that Webern was able to attend the premiere of his Variations for Orchestra, op.30 in Winterthur. Reinhart invested all the financial and diplomatic means at his disposal to enable Webern to travel to Switzerland, in return for this support, Webern dedicated the work to him. On the other, some private correspondence attests to his Nazi sympathies, Weberns patriotism led him to endorse the Nazi regime in a series of letters to Joseph Hueber, who was serving in the army and himself held such views. Webern described Hitler on May 2,1940 as this man who created the new state of Germany. Only later did Krasner himself realize how self-admittedly foolhardy he had been and in danger he had placed himself
24.
Igor Stravinsky
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Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky was a Russian-born composer, pianist, and conductor. He is widely considered one of the most important and influential composers of the 20th century, Stravinskys compositional career was notable for its stylistic diversity. His Russian phase which continued with such as Renard, The Soldiers Tale. The works from this tended to make use of traditional musical forms, drawing on earlier styles. In the 1950s, Stravinsky adopted serial procedures, Stravinsky was born on 17 June 1882 in Oranienbaum, a suburb of Saint Petersburg, the Russian imperial capital, and was brought up in Saint Petersburg. It is believed that Stravinsky’s ancestry is traceable back to the 17th and 18th centuries, to the bearers of the Soulima, ivan Sulima, was a famous Ukrainian hetman 1628–1635. Stravinskys family branch most likely came from Stravinskas, polonized Lithuanian land owners and it is still unclear to when exactly the Soulima part of the surname was dropped. Stravinsky recalled his schooldays as being lonely, later saying that I never came across anyone who had any attraction for me. Stravinsky began piano lessons as a boy, studying music theory. In 1890, he saw a performance of Tchaikovskys ballet The Sleeping Beauty at the Mariinsky Theatre, despite his enthusiasm for music, his parents expected him to study law. Stravinsky enrolled at the University of Saint Petersburg in 1901, Stravinskys father died of cancer that year, by which time his son had already begun spending more time on his musical studies than on law. Thereafter, he concentrated on studying music, in 1905, he began to take twice-weekly private lessons from Rimsky-Korsakov, whom he came to regard as a second father. These lessons continued until Rimsky-Korsakovs death in 1908, in 1905 Stravinsky was betrothed to his cousin Katherine Gavrylivna Nosenko, whom he had known since early childhood. Diaghilev was sufficiently impressed by Fireworks to commission Stravinsky to carry out some orchestrations and then to compose a ballet score. The early period of Igor Stravinsky’s work would be incomplete without a research of his life while in Ukraine. From approximately 1890 till 1914 the composer was frequently visiting Ustyluh, town in Volyn Oblast and he spent most of his summers there and that’s where he met his cousin, Katherine Nosenko who he married in 1906. In 1907 Stravinsky designed and built his own house in Ustyluh where his own family stayed often during summer times until 1914 and his new Ukrainian home he called “My heavenly place”. In this house Igor Stravinsky worked on his seventeen early compositions, among which were orchestral fantasy Fireworks, ballets Firebird, Petrushka, currently, after its renovation this house is the only composers house-museum opened to the public
25.
Elliott Carter
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Elliott Cook Carter Jr. was an American composer who was twice awarded the Pulitzer Prize. He studied with Nadia Boulanger in Paris in the 1930s, then returned to the United States, after an early neoclassical phase, his style shifted to an emphasis on atonality and rhythmic complexity. His compositions are known and performed throughout the world, they include orchestral, chamber music, solo instrumental and he was productive in his later years, publishing more than 40 works between the ages of 90 and 100, and over 20 more after he turned 100 in 2008. He completed his last work, Epigrams for piano trio, on August 13,2012, Elliott Cook Carter Jr. was born in Manhattan on December 11,1908, the son of a wealthy lace importer. Carters father was Elliott Carter Sr. and his mother was the former Florence Chambers, as a teenager, he developed an interest in music, and received encouragement in this regard from Charles Ives. While he was a student at the Horace Mann School, he wrote an letter to Ives. In 1924, a 15-year-old Carter was in the audience when Pierre Monteux conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra in the New York première of The Rite of Spring, according to a 2008 report. When Carter attended Harvard, starting in 1926, Ives took him under his wing and made sure he went to the BSO concerts conducted by Serge Koussevitzky, although Carter majored in English at Harvard College, he also studied music there and at the nearby Longy School of Music. His professors at Harvard included Walter Piston and Gustav Holst and he sang with the Harvard Glee Club and did graduate work in music at Harvard, from which he received a masters degree in music in 1932. He then went to Paris to study with Nadia Boulanger at the École Normale de Musique de Paris, Carter worked with Boulanger from 1932 to 1935, and in that year received a doctorate in music. Later that same year, he returned to the US and wrote music for the Ballet Caravan, on July 6,1939, Carter married Helen Frost-Jones. They had one child, a son, David Chambers Carter, from 1940 to 1944, he taught in the program, including music, at St. Johns College in Annapolis, Maryland. During World War II, he worked for the Office of War Information and he later held teaching posts at the Peabody Conservatory, Columbia University, Queens College, New York, Yale University, Cornell University and the Juilliard School. In 1967, he was appointed a member of the American Academy of Arts, in 1981, he was awarded the Ernst von Siemens Music Prize, in 1985 the National Medal of Arts. In 1983 Carter was awarded the Edward MacDowell Medal for outstanding contribution to the arts by the MacDowell Colony and he lived with his wife in the same apartment in Greenwich Village from the time they bought it in 1945 to her death in 2003. Carter composed his only opera What Next. in 1997-1998 at the behest of conductor Daniel Barenboim for the Berlin State Opera. The work premiered in Berlin in 1999 and had its first staging in the United States at the Tanglewood Music Festival in 2006 under the baton of James Levine. He later considered writing operas on the themes of suicide and a story by Henry James
26.
Pierre Boulez
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Pierre Louis Joseph Boulez CBE was a French composer, conductor, writer and organiser of institutions. He was one of the dominant figures of the classical music world. Born in Montbrison in the Loire district of France, the son of an engineer, Boulez studied at the Paris Conservatoire with Olivier Messiaen and he began his professional career in the late 1940s as Music Director of the Renaud-Barrault theatre company in Paris. As a young composer in the 1950s he quickly became a figure in avant-garde music, playing an important role in the development of integral serialism. From the 1970s onwards he pioneered the transformation of instrumental music in real time. In parallel with his activities as a composer Boulez became one of the most prominent conductors of his generation and he made frequent guest appearances with many of the worlds other great orchestras, including the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra, the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and the London Symphony Orchestra. His recorded legacy is extensive and he received 26 Grammy Awards, Pierre Boulez died at his home in Baden-Baden on 5 January 2016, aged 90. Pierre Boulez was born on 26 March 1925, in Montbrison and he was the third of four children, an older sister, Jeanne and younger brother, Roger were preceded by a first child, also called Pierre, who died in infancy. By the age of fifteen he was sceptical about religion, what struck me most was that it was so mechanical, as a child he took piano lessons, played chamber music with local amateurs and sang in the school choir. After completing the first part of his baccalaureate a year early he spent the year of 1940–41 at the Pensionnat St. Louis. The following year he took courses in advanced mathematics at the University of Lyon which his father hoped would prepare him for a career in engineering and he was in Lyon when the Vichy government fell and the Germans took over. It was not a time, and nothing to eat. It was in Lyon that he first heard an orchestra, saw his first operas and met the well-known soprano Ninon Vallin, impressed by his ability, she persuaded Léon to allow his son to apply to the Conservatoire in Lyon, but the selection board rejected him. Boulez was determined to pursue a career in music, the following year, with his sisters support in the face of opposition from his father, he studied the piano and harmony privately with Lionel de Pachmann. Our parents were strong, but finally we were stronger than they, in fact, when he moved to Paris in the autumn of 1943, Léon accompanied him, helped him to find a room and subsidised him until he could earn a living. In late 1943 he entered the preparatory class of Georges Dandelot at the Paris Conservatoire. There he was introduced to Andrée Vaurabourg, wife of the composer Arthur Honegger and he greatly enjoyed working with her and she remembered him as an exceptional student, using his exercises as models in advanced counterpoint until the end of her teaching career. He also studied the piano privately in the hope of entering Jean Doyens class, but he was unsuccessful
27.
Domenico Scarlatti
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Giuseppe Domenico Scarlatti was an Italian composer who spent much of his life in the service of the Portuguese and Spanish royal families. Like his renowned father Alessandro Scarlatti, he composed in a variety of musical forms, Domenico Scarlatti was born in Naples, Kingdom of Naples, belonging to Spanish Crown, in 1685, the same year as Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel. He was the sixth of ten children of the composer and teacher Alessandro Scarlatti, domenicos older brother Pietro Filippo was also a musician. He probably first studied music under his father, other composers who may have been his early teachers include Gaetano Greco, Francesco Gasparini, and Bernardo Pasquini, all of whom may have influenced his musical style. He was appointed as composer and organist at the chapel in Naples in 1701. In 1704, he revised Carlo Francesco Pollarolos opera Irene for performance at Naples, soon afterwards, his father sent him to Venice. After this, nothing is known of Scarlattis life until 1709, later in life, he was known to cross himself in veneration when speaking of Handels skill. In Rome, Scarlatti composed several operas for Queen Casimires private theatre and he was Maestro Di Cappella at St. Peters from 1715 to 1719. In 1719 he travelled to London to direct his opera Narciso at the Kings Theatre, according to Vicente Bicchi, Domenico Scarlatti arrived in Lisbon on 29 November 1719. There he taught music to the Portuguese princess Maria Magdalena Barbara and he left Lisbon on 28 January 1727 for Rome, where he married Maria Caterina Gentili on 6 May 1728. In 1729 he moved to Seville, staying for four years, in 1733 he went to Madrid as music master to Princess Maria Barbara, who had married into the Spanish royal house. The Princess later became Queen of Spain, Scarlatti remained in the country for the remaining twenty-five years of his life, and had five children there. After the death of his first wife in 1742, he married a Spaniard, among his compositions during his time in Madrid were a number of the 555 keyboard sonatas for which he is best known. Scarlatti befriended the castrato singer Farinelli, a fellow Neapolitan also enjoying royal patronage in Madrid, the musicologist and harpsichordist Ralph Kirkpatrick commented that Farinellis correspondence provides most of the direct information about Scarlatti that has transmitted itself to our day. Domenico Scarlatti died in Madrid, at the age of 71 and his residence on Calle Leganitos is designated with a historical plaque, and his descendants still live in Madrid. He was buried at a convent there, in Madrid, only a small fraction of Scarlattis compositions were published during his lifetime, Scarlatti himself seems to have overseen the publication in 1738 of the most famous collection, his 30 Essercizi. These were well received throughout Europe, and were championed by the foremost English writer on music of the eighteenth century, the many sonatas which were unpublished during Scarlattis lifetime have appeared in print irregularly in the two and a half centuries since. Scarlattis 555 keyboard sonatas are single movements, mostly in form, and some in early sonata form
28.
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, baptised as Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart, was a prolific and influential composer of the Classical era. Born in Salzburg, he showed prodigious ability from his earliest childhood, already competent on keyboard and violin, he composed from the age of five and performed before European royalty. At 17, Mozart was engaged as a musician at the Salzburg court, while visiting Vienna in 1781, he was dismissed from his Salzburg position. He chose to stay in the capital, where he achieved fame, during his final years in Vienna, he composed many of his best-known symphonies, concertos, and operas, and portions of the Requiem, which was largely unfinished at the time of his death. The circumstances of his death have been much mythologized. He was survived by his wife Constanze and two sons and he composed more than 600 works, many acknowledged as pinnacles of symphonic, concertante, chamber, operatic, and choral music. He is among the most enduringly popular of classical composers, Ludwig van Beethoven composed his own early works in the shadow of Mozart, and Joseph Haydn wrote, posterity will not see such a talent again in 100 years. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 to Leopold Mozart and Anna Maria, née Pertl and this was the capital of the Archbishopric of Salzburg, an ecclesiastic principality in what is now Austria, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was the youngest of seven children, five of whom died in infancy and his elder sister was Maria Anna Mozart, nicknamed Nannerl. Mozart was baptized the day after his birth, at St. Ruperts Cathedral in Salzburg, the baptismal record gives his name in Latinized form, as Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus Mozart. He generally called himself Wolfgang Amadè Mozart as an adult, Leopold Mozart, a native of Augsburg, Germany, was a minor composer and an experienced teacher. In 1743, he was appointed as fourth violinist in the establishment of Count Leopold Anton von Firmian. Four years later, he married Anna Maria in Salzburg, Leopold became the orchestras deputy Kapellmeister in 1763. During the year of his sons birth, Leopold published a textbook, Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule. When Nannerl was 7, she began lessons with her father. Years later, after her brothers death, she reminisced, He often spent much time at the clavier, picking out thirds, which he was ever striking, and his pleasure showed that it sounded good. In the fourth year of his age his father, for a game as it were, began to teach him a few minuets and he could play it faultlessly and with the greatest delicacy, and keeping exactly in time. At the age of five, he was composing little pieces
29.
Diabelli Variations
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It is often considered to be one of the greatest sets of variations for keyboard along with J. S. Bachs Goldberg Variations. The music writer Donald Tovey called it the greatest set of variations ever written, the pianist Alfred Brendel has described it as the greatest of all piano works. It also comprises, in the words of Hans von Bülow, in his Structural Functions of Harmony, Arnold Schoenberg writes that the Diabelli Variations in respect of its harmony, deserves to be called the most adventurous work by Beethoven. Alfred Brendel wrote, The theme has ceased to reign over its unruly offspring, rather, the variations decide what the theme may have to offer them. Instead of being confirmed, adorned and glorified, it is improved, parodied, ridiculed, disclaimed, transfigured, mourned, stamped out and finally uplifted. Beethoven does not seek variety by using key-changes, staying with Diabellis C major for most of the set, among the first twenty-eight variations, he uses the tonic minor only once. Then, nearing the conclusion, Beethoven uses C minor for Variations 29–31 and for Variation 32, coming at this late point, after such a long period in C major, the key-change has an increased dramatic effect. At the end of the fugue, a culminating flourish consisting of a diminished seventh arpeggio is followed by a series of quiet chords punctuated by silences and these chords lead back to Diabellis C major for Variation 33, a closing minuet. His plan was to all the variations in a patriotic volume called Vaterländischer Künstlerverein. Franz Liszt was not included, but it seems his teacher Czerny arranged for him to provide a variation. Beethoven had had a connection with Diabelli for a number of years and he was much employed by Steiner and Co. as copyist and corrector, and in this capacity enjoyed much of Beethovens confidence, who also heartily liked him as a man. At the time of his project for variations on a theme of his own by various composers, Diabelli had advanced to become a partner in the firm of Cappi. Today, however, this story is taken as more legend than fact, at some point, Beethoven certainly did accept Diabellis proposal, but rather than contributing a single variation on the theme, he planned a large set of variations. To begin work he laid aside his sketching of the Missa Solemnis, by the summer of 1819, he had completed twenty-three of the set of thirty-three. In February 1820, in a letter to the publisher Simrock, he mentioned grand variations, then he laid the work aside for several years – something Beethoven rarely did – while he returned to the Missa Solemnis and the late piano sonatas. In June 1822, Beethoven offered to Peters Variations on a waltz for pianoforte alone, in the autumn of the same year he was in negotiations with Diabelli, writing to him, The fee for the Variat. Should be 40 ducats at the most if they are worked out on as large a scale as planned and it was probably in February 1823 that Beethoven returned to the task of completing the set. By March or April 1823, the set of thirty-three variations was finished
30.
Johann Sebastian Bach
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Johann Sebastian Bach was a German composer and musician of the Baroque period. Bachs compositions include the Brandenburg Concertos, the Goldberg Variations, the Mass in B minor and his music is revered for its technical command, artistic beauty, and intellectual depth. He is now regarded as one of the greatest composers of all time. Bach was born in Eisenach, in the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach and his father Johann Ambrosius Bach was the director of the town musicians, and all of his uncles were professional musicians. His father probably taught him to play the violin and harpsichord, apparently at his own initiative, Bach attended St. Michaels School in Lüneburg for two years. He received the title of Royal Court Composer from Augustus III in 1736, Bachs health and vision declined in 1749, and he died on 28 July 1750. Johann Sebastian Bach was born in Eisenach, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-Eisenach, in present-day Germany and he was the son of Johann Ambrosius Bach, the director of the town musicians, and Maria Elisabeth Lämmerhirt. He was the eighth and youngest child of Johann Ambrosius, who taught him violin. His uncles were all musicians, whose posts included church organists, court chamber musicians. One uncle, Johann Christoph Bach, introduced him to the organ, Bachs mother died in 1694, and his father died eight months later. The 10-year-old Bach moved in with his eldest brother, Johann Christoph Bach, there he studied, performed, and copied music, including his own brothers, despite being forbidden to do so because scores were so valuable and private and blank ledger paper of that type was costly. He received valuable teaching from his brother, who instructed him on the clavichord, also during this time he was taught theology, Latin, Greek, French and Italian at the local gymnasium. By 3 April 1700 Bach and his schoolfriend Georg Erdmann–who was two years Bachs elder–were enrolled in the prestigious St. Michaels School in Lüneburg, some two weeks travel north of Ohrdruf and their journey was probably undertaken mostly on foot. His two years there were critical in exposing Bach to a range of European culture. In addition to singing in the choir, he played the Schools three-manual organ and he came into contact with sons of aristocrats from northern Germany, sent to the highly selective school to prepare for careers in other disciplines. While in Lüneburg, Bach had access to St. Johns Church and possibly used the famous organ from 1553. His role there is unclear, but it probably included menial, non-musical duties, despite strong family connections and a musically enthusiastic employer, tension built up between Bach and the authorities after several years in the post. Bach was dissatisfied with the standard of singers in the choir and he called one of them a Zippel Fagottist
31.
Nocturnes (Chopin)
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The Chopin nocturnes consist of 21 pieces for solo piano written by Frédéric Chopin between 1827 and 1846. They are generally considered among the finest short solo works for the instrument, although Chopin did not invent the nocturne, he popularized and expanded on it, building on the form developed by Irish composer John Field. Chopins nocturnes numbered 1 to 18 were published during his lifetime, in twos or threes, however, numbers 19 and 20 were actually written first, prior to Chopins departure from Poland, but published posthumously. Number 20 was not originally entitled nocturne at all, but since its publication in 1870 as such, it is included with publications. By the time of Chopins birth in 1810, John Field was already an accomplished composer, eventually, the young Chopin became a great admirer of Field, taking some influence from the Irish composers playing and composing technique. Chopin had composed five of his nocturnes before meeting Field for the first time, in his youth, Chopin was often told that he sounded like Field, who in turn was later described as sounding Chopinesque. The composer Friedrich Kalkbrenner, one of Chopins greatest influences and early teachers, while Chopin held Field in high respect and considered him one of his primary influences, Field had a rather negative view of Chopins work. Upon meeting Chopin and hearing his nocturnes in 1832, Field is said to have described the composer as a sickroom talent, nonetheless, Chopin still admired Field and his work and continued to take inspiration throughout his life. Chopins nocturnes carry many similarities with those of Field while at the same time retaining a distinct, one aspect of the nocturne that Chopin continued from Field is the use of a song-like melody in the right hand. This is one of the most if not the most important features to the nocturne as a whole, the use of the melody as vocals bestowed a greater emotional depth to the piece, drawing the listener in to a greater extent. Along with the melody, Chopin continued the use of another nocturne necessity. Another technique used by Field and continued by Chopin was the extensive use of the pedal. By using the more, the music gains more emotional expression through sustained notes. With these main attributes of the Field nocturne Chopin was inspired, one of the greatest innovations made by Chopin to the nocturne was his use of a more freely flowing rhythm, a technique based on the classical music style. Also, Chopin further developed the structure of the nocturne, taking inspiration from the Italian, composer Franz Liszt even insisted that Chopins nocturnes were influenced by Vincenzo Bellinis bel canto arias, a statement affirmed and echoed by many in the music world. A further innovation of Chopins was his use of counterpoint to create tension in the nocturnes and it was mainly through these themes of operatic influence, freer rhythms, and an expansion into more complex structures and melodic playing that Chopin made his mark on the nocturne. Many think of the Chopin nocturne as a mix between the form and structure of Field and the sound of Mozart, displaying a classic/romantic-influenced theme within the music. While meters and keys vary, the nocturnes are generally set in form, featuring a melancholy mood
32.
The New York Review of Books
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The New York Review of Books is a semi-monthly magazine with articles on literature, culture, economics, science and current affairs. Published in New York City, it is inspired by the idea that the discussion of important books is a literary activity. Esquire called it the premier literary-intellectual magazine in the English language, in 1970 writer Tom Wolfe described it as the chief theoretical organ of Radical Chic. The Review publishes long-form reviews and essays, often by well-known writers, original poetry, in 1979 the magazine founded the London Review of Books, which soon became independent. In 1990 it founded an Italian edition, la Rivista dei Libri, Robert B. Silvers and Barbara Epstein edited the paper together from its founding in 1963, until her death in 2006. From then until his death in 2017, Silvers was the sole editor, the Review has a book publishing division, established in 1999, called New York Review Books, which publishes classics, collections and childrens books. Since 2010, the journal has hosted a blog written by its contributors. The Review celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2013, and a Martin Scorsese film called The 50 Year Argument documents the history, the New York Review was founded by Robert B. Silvers and Barbara Epstein, together with publisher A. Whitney Ellsworth and writer Elizabeth Hardwick. They were backed and encouraged by Epsteins husband, Jason Epstein, a president at Random House and editor of Vintage Books. In 1959 Hardwick had published an essay, The Decline of Book Reviewing, in Harpers, Jason Epstein knew that book publishers would advertise their books in the new publication, since they had no other outlet for promoting new books. The group turned to the Epsteins friend Silvers, who had been an editor at The Paris Review and was still at Harpers, to edit the publication, and Silvers asked Barbara Epstein to co-edit with him. She was known as the editor at Doubleday of Anne Franks Diary of a Young Girl, among other books, Silvers and Epstein sent books to the writers we knew and admired most. We asked for three words in three weeks in order to show what a book review should be, and practically everyone came through. The first issue of the Review was published on February 1,1963 and it prompted nearly 1,000 letters to the editors asking for the Review to continue. The New Yorker called it surely the best first issue of any magazine ever, after the success of the first issue, the editors assembled a second issue to demonstrate that the Review was not a one-shot affair. The founders then collected investments from a circle of friends and acquaintances, the Review began regular biweekly publication in November 1963. Silvers said of the philosophy, that there was no subject we couldnt deal with. And if there was no book, we would deal with it anyway and we tried hard to avoid books that were simply competent rehearsals of familiar subjects, and we hoped to find books that would establish something fresh, something original
33.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
34.
University of Chicago
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The University of Chicago is a private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It holds top-ten positions in national and international rankings and measures. The university currently enrolls approximately 5,700 students in the College, Chicagos physics department helped develop the worlds first man-made, self-sustaining nuclear reaction beneath the viewing stands of universitys Stagg Field. The university is home to the University of Chicago Press. With an estimated date of 2020, the Barack Obama Presidential Center will be housed at the university. Both Harper and future president Robert Maynard Hutchins advocated for Chicagos curriculum to be based upon theoretical and perennial issues rather than on applied sciences, the University of Chicago has many prominent alumni. 92 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with the university as professors, students, faculty, or staff, similarly,34 faculty members and 16 alumni have been awarded the MacArthur “Genius Grant”. Rockefeller on land donated by Marshall Field, while the Rockefeller donation provided money for academic operations and long-term endowment, it was stipulated that such money could not be used for buildings. The original physical campus was financed by donations from wealthy Chicagoans like Silas B, Cobb who provided the funds for the campus first building, Cobb Lecture Hall, and matched Marshall Fields pledge of $100,000. Organized as an independent institution legally, it replaced the first Baptist university of the same name, william Rainey Harper became the modern universitys first president on July 1,1891, and the university opened for classes on October 1,1892. The business school was founded thereafter in 1898, and the law school was founded in 1902, Harper died in 1906, and was replaced by a succession of three presidents whose tenures lasted until 1929. During this period, the Oriental Institute was founded to support, in 1896, the university affiliated with Shimer College in Mount Carroll, Illinois. The agreement provided that either party could terminate the affiliation on proper notice, several University of Chicago professors disliked the program, as it involved uncompensated additional labor on their part, and they believed it cheapened the academic reputation of the university. The program passed into history by 1910, in 1929, the universitys fifth president, Robert Maynard Hutchins, took office, the university underwent many changes during his 24-year tenure. In 1933, Hutchins proposed a plan to merge the University of Chicago. During his term, the University of Chicago Hospitals finished construction, also, the Committee on Social Thought, an institution distinctive of the university, was created. Money that had been raised during the 1920s and financial backing from the Rockefeller Foundation helped the school to survive through the Great Depression, during World War II, the university made important contributions to the Manhattan Project. The university was the site of the first isolation of plutonium and of the creation of the first artificial, in the early 1950s, student applications declined as a result of increasing crime and poverty in the Hyde Park neighborhood
35.
Stony Brook University
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The State University of New York at Stony Brook is a public sea-grant and space-grant research university located in Stony Brook, New York in the United States. It is part of the State University of New York system, the institution was founded in 1957 in Oyster Bay as State University College on Long Island, and would evolve into the present university after a move to Stony Brook in 1962. Since its establishment in Stony Brook, the university has expanded to more than 200 major buildings with a combined area of more than 11 million gross square feet across 1,454 acres of land. In 2001, SUNY Stony Brook was elected to the Association of American Universities, joining four private universities and it is also a member of the larger Universities Research Association for which its president Samuel Stanley is a council president. Stony Brook is the largest single-site employer on Long Island, more than 24,500 students are enrolled at the university, which has over 14,500 employees and over 2,400 faculty. Stony Brook has a number of athletics teams, the Stony Brook Seawolves are members of the America East Conference and the Colonial Athletic Association competing at the Division I level of the NCAA since 1994. The State University of New York at Stony Brook was established in Oyster Bay in 1957 as the State University College on Long Island, by the governor and state of New York. Established almost a decade after the creation of New York’s public higher education system, leonard K. Olson was appointed as the first dean of the institution and was instrumental in the recruitment of faculty staff and planning of the later Stony Brook campus. SUCOLI opened with an class of 148 students, on the grounds of the William Robertson Coe Planting Fields estate. These first students were admitted on a tuition-free basis,1961 was a year of firsts as thirty students were conferred degrees in the first commencement and the University was appointed its first president, John Francis Lee. Lee left later that year due to political and bureaucratic matters regarding the future of the University, more recently, it has adopted the short-form name Stony Brook University. In 1963, only three years after the release of the Heald Report, the Governor commissioned the “Education of Health Professions” report, the report outlined the need for expansion of the university system to prepare medical professionals for the future needs of the state. In 1965 the State University appointed John S. Toll, a renowned physicist from the University of Maryland as the president of Stony Brook. In 1966 the University set forth initial timetables for the development of the Health Science Center which would house the University’s health programs, despite the budgetary concerns and challenges from Albany the University released a formalized plan early in 1968 and funding for recruitment of faculty was provided. At the same time, residential housing was expanded to 3,000, the Stony Brook Union opened in 1970, and in 1971, but the University lagged significantly in undergraduate education, prioritizing graduate education and research over undergraduate studies and student life. By 1975, enrollment had reached 16,000 and expansion crossed over Nicolls Road with the construction of the Health Science Center which would be completed in 1980, in 1981 John Marburger was inaugurated as the third president of the University and would continue the expansion of the institution. By the late 1980s the administration affirmed the need to other areas of the institution which included undergraduate education, student and residential life. The University approved a decision to transition athletics to the Division I of the NCAA and followed with the construction of the Stony Brook Arena, the 1990s affirmed Stony Brook’s success at building a research university with a strong undergraduate education
36.
University of Oxford
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The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
