1.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
2.
Victoria University of Manchester
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The former Victoria University of Manchester, now the University of Manchester, was founded in 1851 as Owens College. In 1880, the joined the federal Victoria University, gaining an independent university charter in 1904 as the Victoria University of Manchester after the collapse of the federal university. The university was founded in 1851 as Owens College, named after John Owens, a textile merchant and its first accommodation was at Cobden House on Quay Street, Manchester, in a house which had been the residence of Richard Cobden. In 1859, Owens College was approved as an examination centre for matriculation candidates of the University of London. As the college progressed it became inadequate so a move to Chorlton on Medlock was planned in 1871, alfred Waterhouse was the architect of the new college building, west of Oxford Road, which was opened in 1873. Owens College became the first affiliate college of the federal Victoria University in 1880, in 1884, University College Liverpool also joined the Victoria University, followed in 1887 by the Yorkshire College in Leeds. In 1903 University College Liverpool left the Victoria University to become the independent University of Liverpool, the new Victoria University of Manchester was established by royal charter on 15 July 1903, the university and Owens College were merged by Act of Parliament on 24 June 1904. In the mid-1960s the university and the city corporation commissioned Hugh Wilson, the Precinct Centre building included the oldest part of the Manchester Business School, Devonshire House and Crawford House and the St Peters House, the University Chaplaincy. It stood on Booth Street East and Booth Street West and Oxford Road ran through it at ground level, the architects were Wilson & Womersley, in association with the universitys planning officer, H. Thomas, for St Peters House the architects were Cruickshank & Seward. The new university was inaugurated on 1 October 2004, the university had more than 18,000 full-time students by the time it merged with UMIST. It was regarded as one of the top universities in the country, see also Category, Vice-Chancellors of the Victoria University of Manchester The chief officers of the university were the vice-chancellor, the registrar, the bursar and the librarian. In the early decades of Owens College, a few outstanding faculty members set high standards for the new institution and these included statistician Stanley Jevons, jurist James Bryce, and particularly Henry Enfield Roscoe Professor of Chemistry and Principal of the college. Since the later 1800s many notable people have worked and studied at the Victoria University of Manchester, the motto of the university was Arduus ad solem, meaning striving towards the sun. It is a metaphor for aspiring to enlightenment and it is quoted from Virgils Aeneid book II, and the archives do not record the reasons for its choice. The original verse refers to a serpent and the sun, both of which featured in the university coat of arms, the serpent is traditionally associated with wisdom. The arms were granted in October 1871 to Owens College while the Victoria University had arms of its own which fell into abeyance from 1904 upon the merger of the College with the University. According to Norman Marlow, the motto Arduus ad solem - taken from Aeneid II - was a play on words, Victoria University The University of Manchester List of modern universities in Europe Charlton, H. B. Manchester, Manchester University Press Fiddes, Edward Chapters in the History of Owens College and of Manchester University, Manchester, Manchester University Press Hartog, P. J. editor The Owens College, Manchester, a brief history of the college and description of its various departments
3.
Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
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Sidney Sussex College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge in England. The college was founded in 1596 under the terms of the will of Frances Sidney, Countess of Sussex and it was from its inception an avowedly Protestant foundation, some good and godlie moniment for the mainteynance of good learninge. In her will, Lady Sussex left the sum of £5,000 together with some plate to found a new college at Cambridge University to be called the Lady Frances Sidney Sussex College. Her executors Sir John Harington and Henry Grey, 6th Earl of Kent, supervised by Archbishop John Whitgift, as of 2014, the college had an endowment of £36. m. and total capital and reserves of £108. m. By the early 19th century, the original red brick was unfashionable. H. Lyon, and somewhat at odds with the colleges original Puritan ethos, at the beginning of the twentieth century, E. H. Griffiths wrote a ten verse song dedicated to Sidney Sussex, each verse systematically identifies, then dismisses other Cambridge colleges for their faults, before settling on Sidney as the best college of all. Sidney Sussex is recognised as one of the smaller, more classical Cambridge colleges and its current student body consists of roughly 350 undergraduate students and 190 graduates. Academically, Sidney Sussex has tended towards a position in the unofficial Tompkins Table. However, the college has traditionally excelled in subjects, notably Mathematics, History, Engineering. It is also known for the standard of pastoral support from the Tutorial team. The college ranks fourth highest amongst Cambridge colleges in Nobel Prizes won by alumni, the Choir of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge was nominated for a 2013 Gramophone Award in recognition of their disc of the music of Thomas Weelkes. The choir also tours regularly, most recently to Germany, in December 2016, in the television show University Challenge, Sidney Sussex had a winning team in both 1971 and 1978–79. The 1978 team, comprising John Gilmore, John Adams, David Lidington, the college last appeared on the television show in 2015. It is known for producing a well-regarded May Ball for a smaller college, notably, students created an artificial lake and canal in 2010, when the ball had a Venetian theme, to enable punting at the landlocked college. Recent themes have included Light, and Beyond, as with many of the smaller colleges, Sidney Sussex does not run a May Ball every year, instead running a biennial May Ball, on even numbered years. On odd numbered years, the college hosted an Arts Festival. Notable guest speakers at the Sidney Arts Festival include Stephen Fry, however, for 2017 it was decided instead to hold a June Event
4.
Cloud chamber
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The cloud chamber, also known as the Wilson chamber, is a particle detector used for detecting ionizing radiation. In its most basic form, a chamber is a sealed environment containing a supersaturated vapor of water or alcohol. When a charged particle interacts with the mixture, the fluid is ionized, the resulting ions act as condensation nuclei, around which a mist will form. The high energies of alpha and beta particles mean that a trail is left, Cloud chambers played a prominent role in the experimental particle physics from the 1920s to the 1950s, until the advent of the bubble chamber. In particular, the discoveries of the positron in 1932, the muon in 1936, Anderson detected the positron and muon in cosmic rays. Charles Thomson Rees Wilson, a Scottish physicist, is credited with inventing the cloud chamber, inspired by sightings of the Brocken spectre while working on the summit of Ben Nevis in 1894, he began to develop expansion chambers for studying cloud formation and optical phenomena in moist air. Very rapidly he discovered that ions could act as centers for water droplet formation in such chambers and he pursued the application of this discovery and perfected the first cloud chamber in 1911. When an ionizing particle passes through the chamber, water condenses on the resulting ions. Wilson, along with Arthur Compton, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 for his work on the cloud chamber and this kind of chamber is also called a Pulsed Chamber because the conditions for operation are not continuously maintained. Further developments were made by Patrick Blackett who utilised a stiff spring to expand and compress the chamber very rapidly, a cine film was used to record the images. The diffusion cloud chamber was developed in 1936 by Alexander Langsdorf, instead of water vapor, alcohol is used because of its lower freezing point. Cloud chambers cooled by dry ice are a demonstration and hobbyist device. There are also water-cooled diffusion cloud chambers, using ethylene glycol, a simple cloud chamber consists of the sealed environment, radioactive source, dry ice or a cold plate and some kind of alcohol source. The alcohol falls as it cools down and the cold condenser provides a steep temperature gradient, the result is a supersaturated environment. The alcohol vapor condenses around ion trails left behind by the travelling ionizing particles, the result is cloud formation, seen in the cloud chamber by the presence of droplets falling down to the condenser. As particles pass through they leave ionization trails and because the vapor is supersaturated it condenses onto these trails. Since the tracks are emitted radially out from the source, their point of origin can easily be determined, just above the cold condenser plate there is an area of the chamber which is sensitive to radioactive tracks. At this height, most of the alcohol has not condensed and this means that the ion trail left by the radioactive particles provides an optimal trigger for condensation and cloud formation
5.
Fellow of the Royal Society
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As of 2016, there are around 1600 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members. Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian newspaper as “the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar” with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year. Up to 60 new Fellows, honorary and foreign members are elected annually usually in May, each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society and Category, Female Fellows of the Royal Society. Every year, Fellows elect up to ten new Foreign Members, like Fellows, Foreign Members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. As of 2016 there are around 165 Foreign Members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS, see Category, Foreign Members of the Royal Society. Honorary Fellows include Bill Bryson, Melvyn Bragg, Robin Saxby, David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville, Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS. Others including John Maddox, Patrick Moore and Lisa Jardine were elected as honorary fellows, statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough and John Palmer, prime Ministers of the United Kingdom such as Margaret Thatcher, Neville Chamberlain, H. H. Asquith were elected under statute 12, see Category, Fellows of the Royal Society. The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British Royal Family for election as Royal Fellows of the Royal Society. As of 2016 there are five royal fellows, Charles, Prince of Wales, Anne, Princess Royal, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and Prince Andrew, Duke of York. Her Majesty the Queen, Elizabeth II is not a Royal Fellow, Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow. The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination, each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society, who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, the certificate of election includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, a candidate is elected if he or she secures two-thirds of votes of those Fellows present and voting. A further maximum of six can be ‘Honorary’, ‘General’ or ‘Royal’ Fellows, nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by sectional committees, each with fifteen members and a chair
6.
Nobel Prize in Physics
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The Nobel Prize in Physics is a yearly award given by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences for those who conferred the most outstanding contributions for mankind in the field of physics. The first Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to German/Dutch physicist Wilhelm Röntgen in recognition of the services he has rendered by the discovery of the remarkable rays. This award is administered by the Nobel Foundation and widely regarded as the most prestigious award that a scientist can receive in physics and it is presented in Stockholm at an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobels death. Through 2016, a total of 203 individuals have been awarded the prize, only two women have won the Nobel Prize in Physics, Marie Curie in 1903, and Maria Goeppert Mayer in 1963. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last one was written a year before he died and was signed at the Swedish-Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. Nobel bequeathed 94% of his assets,31 million Swedish kronor, to establish. Due to the level of surrounding the will, it was not until April 26,1897 that it was approved by the Storting. The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee who were to award the Peace Prize were appointed shortly after the will was approved. The prize-awarding organisations followed, the Karolinska Institutet on June 7, the Swedish Academy on June 9, the Nobel Foundation then reached an agreement on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900, the Nobel Foundations newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II, according to Nobels will, The Royal Swedish Academy of sciences were to award the Prize in Physics. A maximum of three Nobel laureates and two different works may be selected for the Nobel Prize in Physics, compared with other Nobel Prizes, the nomination and selection process for the prize in Physics is long and rigorous. This is a key reason why it has grown in importance over the years to become the most important prize in Physics, the Nobel laureates are selected by the Nobel Committee for Physics, a Nobel Committee that consists of five members elected by The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In the first stage begins in September, around 3,000 people – selected university professors, Nobel Laureates in Physics and Chemistry. The completed nomination forms arrive at the Nobel Committee no later than 31 January of the following year and these nominees are scrutinized and discussed by experts who narrow it to approximately fifteen names. The committee submits a report with recommendations on the candidates into the Academy. The Academy then makes the selection of the Laureates in Physics through a majority vote. The names of the nominees are never announced, and neither are they told that they have been considered for the prize. Nomination records are sealed for fifty years, while posthumous nominations are not permitted, awards can be made if the individual died in the months between the decision of the prize committee and the ceremony in December
7.
Franklin Medal
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The Franklin Medal was a science award presented from 1915 through 1997 by the Franklin Institute located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U. S. It was founded in 1914 by Samuel Insull, the Franklin Medal was the most prestigious of the various awards presented by the Franklin Institute. Together with other awards, it was merged into the Benjamin Franklin Medal. Recipients are listed in a database on The Franklin Institute website
8.
Physics
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Physics is the natural science that involves the study of matter and its motion and behavior through space and time, along with related concepts such as energy and force. One of the most fundamental disciplines, the main goal of physics is to understand how the universe behaves. Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy, Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the mechanisms of other sciences while opening new avenues of research in areas such as mathematics. Physics also makes significant contributions through advances in new technologies that arise from theoretical breakthroughs, the United Nations named 2005 the World Year of Physics. Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, the stars and planets were often a target of worship, believed to represent their gods. While the explanations for these phenomena were often unscientific and lacking in evidence, according to Asger Aaboe, the origins of Western astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, and all Western efforts in the exact sciences are descended from late Babylonian astronomy. The most notable innovations were in the field of optics and vision, which came from the works of many scientists like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna. The most notable work was The Book of Optics, written by Ibn Al-Haitham, in which he was not only the first to disprove the ancient Greek idea about vision, but also came up with a new theory. In the book, he was also the first to study the phenomenon of the pinhole camera, many later European scholars and fellow polymaths, from Robert Grosseteste and Leonardo da Vinci to René Descartes, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, were in his debt. Indeed, the influence of Ibn al-Haythams Optics ranks alongside that of Newtons work of the same title, the translation of The Book of Optics had a huge impact on Europe. From it, later European scholars were able to build the devices as what Ibn al-Haytham did. From this, such important things as eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, Physics became a separate science when early modern Europeans used experimental and quantitative methods to discover what are now considered to be the laws of physics. Newton also developed calculus, the study of change, which provided new mathematical methods for solving physical problems. The discovery of new laws in thermodynamics, chemistry, and electromagnetics resulted from greater research efforts during the Industrial Revolution as energy needs increased, however, inaccuracies in classical mechanics for very small objects and very high velocities led to the development of modern physics in the 20th century. Modern physics began in the early 20th century with the work of Max Planck in quantum theory, both of these theories came about due to inaccuracies in classical mechanics in certain situations. Quantum mechanics would come to be pioneered by Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, from this early work, and work in related fields, the Standard Model of particle physics was derived. Areas of mathematics in general are important to this field, such as the study of probabilities, in many ways, physics stems from ancient Greek philosophy
9.
J. J. Thomson
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He was elected as a fellow of the Royal Society of London and appointed to the Cavendish Professorship of Experimental Physics at the Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in 1884. Thomson is also credited with finding the first evidence for isotopes of an element in 1913. His experiments to determine the nature of positively charged particles, with Francis William Aston, were the first use of mass spectrometry, Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the conduction of electricity in gases. Seven of his students, including his son George Paget Thomson and his record is comparable only to that of the German physicist Arnold Sommerfeld. Joseph John Thomson was born 18 December 1856 in Cheetham Hill, Manchester, Lancashire and his mother, Emma Swindells, came from a local textile family. His father, Joseph James Thomson, ran a bookshop founded by a great-grandfather. He had a two years younger than he was, Frederick Vernon Thomson. J. J. Thomson was a devout Anglican and his early education was in small private schools where he demonstrated outstanding talent and interest in science. In 1870 he was admitted to Owens College at the young age of 14. His parents planned to enroll him as an engineer to Sharp-Stewart & Co, a locomotive manufacturer. He moved on to Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1876, in 1880 he obtained his BA in mathematics. He applied for and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1881, Thomson received his MA in 1883. Thomson was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on 12 June 1884, on 22 December 1884 Thomson was chosen to become Cavendish Professor of Physics at the University of Cambridge. The appointment caused considerable surprise, given that such as Richard Glazebrook were older. Thomson was known for his work as a mathematician, where he was recognized as an exceptional talent. In 1890, Thomson married Rose Elisabeth Paget, daughter of Sir George Edward Paget, KCB and they had one son, George Paget Thomson, and one daughter, Joan Paget Thomson. He was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1906, in recognition of the merits of his theoretical and experimental investigations on the conduction of electricity by gases. He was knighted in 1908 and appointed to the Order of Merit in 1912, in 1914 he gave the Romanes Lecture in Oxford on The atomic theory
10.
C. F. Powell
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Following this he attended Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, graduating in 1925 in the natural sciences. After completing his bachelors degree he worked at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, wilson and Lord Rutherford, conducting research into condensation phenomena, and gaining his Ph. D. in Physics in 1927. In 1928 he took up a post as Research Assistant to A. M, tyndall in the H. H. Wills Physical Laboratory at the University of Bristol, later being appointed lecturer, and in 1948 appointed Melville Wills Professor of Physics. In 1932 Powell married Isobel Artner, and the couple had two daughters, in 1936 he took part in an expedition to the West Indies as part of a study of volcanic activity, and where he appears on a stamp issued in Grenada. Muirhead and young Brazilian physicist César Lattes and this work led in 1946 to the discovery of the pion, which proved to be the hypothetical particle proposed in 1935 by Yukawa Hideki in his theory of nuclear physics. In 1949 Powell became a Fellow of the Royal Society and received the societys Hughes Medal the same year, in 1950 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for his development of the photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method. From 1952 Powell was appointed director of several expeditions to Sardinia, as Rotblat put it, Cecil Powell has been the backbone of the Pugwash Movement. He gave it coherence, endurance and vitality, Powell chaired the meetings of the Pugwash Continuing Committee, often standing in for Bertrand Russell, and attended meetings until 1968. Powell died on 9 August 1969, whilst out walking in the foothills of the Alps near the Valsassina region of Italy, a bench with commemorative plaque was erected near the site of his death. The Cecil F. Powell Memorial Medal was named in his honour by the European Physical Society, marietta Blau Page on Powell on the Nobel site, including biography, speeches, and lecture Portrait photograph of Powell at the American Institute of Physics
11.
Order of the Companions of Honour
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The Order of the Companions of Honour is an order of the Commonwealth realms. Founded on the date as the Order of the British Empire. The order consists of the Sovereign plus no more than 65 members, additionally, foreigners from outside the realms may be added as honorary members. Membership confers no title or precedence, but those inducted into the order are entitled to use the post-nominal letters CH. Appointments can be made on the advice of Commonwealth realm prime ministers, for Canadians, the advice to the Sovereign can come from a variety of officials. The quota numbers were altered in 1970 to 47 for the United Kingdom,7 for Australia,2 for New Zealand, the quota was adjusted again in 1975 by adding 2 places to the New Zealand quota and reducing the 9 for the other countries to 7. While able to nominate candidates to the Order, New Zealand, as of 2016 those countries have nominated only politicians who have served as Prime Minister or Deputy Prime Minister. Men wear the badge on a ribbon and women on a bow at the left shoulder. Sovereign Queen Elizabeth II List of Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour List of honorary British Knights List of people who have declined a British honour
12.
Royal Society
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Founded in November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by King Charles II as The Royal Society. The society is governed by its Council, which is chaired by the Societys President, according to a set of statutes and standing orders. The members of Council and the President are elected from and by its Fellows, the members of the society. As of 2016, there are about 1,600 fellows, allowed to use the postnominal title FRS, there are also royal fellows, honorary fellows and foreign members, the last of which are allowed to use the postnominal title ForMemRS. The Royal Society President is Venkatraman Ramakrishnan, who took up the post on 30 November 2015, since 1967, the society has been based at 6–9 Carlton House Terrace, a Grade I listed building in central London which was previously used by the Embassy of Germany, London. The Royal Society started from groups of physicians and natural philosophers, meeting at variety of locations and they were influenced by the new science, as promoted by Francis Bacon in his New Atlantis, from approximately 1645 onwards. A group known as The Philosophical Society of Oxford was run under a set of rules still retained by the Bodleian Library, after the English Restoration, there were regular meetings at Gresham College. It is widely held that these groups were the inspiration for the foundation of the Royal Society, I will not say, that Mr Oldenburg did rather inspire the French to follow the English, or, at least, did help them, and hinder us. But tis well known who were the men that began and promoted that design. This initial royal favour has continued and, since then, every monarch has been the patron of the society, the societys early meetings included experiments performed first by Hooke and then by Denis Papin, who was appointed in 1684. These experiments varied in their area, and were both important in some cases and trivial in others. The Society returned to Gresham in 1673, there had been an attempt in 1667 to establish a permanent college for the society. Michael Hunter argues that this was influenced by Solomons House in Bacons New Atlantis and, to a lesser extent, by J. V. The first proposal was given by John Evelyn to Robert Boyle in a letter dated 3 September 1659, he suggested a scheme, with apartments for members. The societys ideas were simpler and only included residences for a handful of staff and these plans were progressing by November 1667, but never came to anything, given the lack of contributions from members and the unrealised—perhaps unrealistic—aspirations of the society. During the 18th century, the gusto that had characterised the early years of the society faded, with a number of scientific greats compared to other periods. The pointed lightning conductor had been invented by Benjamin Franklin in 1749, during the same time period, it became customary to appoint society fellows to serve on government committees where science was concerned, something that still continues. The 18th century featured remedies to many of the early problems
13.
Scottish people
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The Scottish people, or Scots, are a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland. Historically, they emerged from an amalgamation of the Picts and Gaels, who founded the Kingdom of Scotland in the 9th century, and are thought to have been ethnolinguistically Celts. Later, the neighbouring Cumbrian Britons, who spoke a Celtic language, as well as Germanic-speaking Anglo-Saxons. In modern usage, Scottish people or Scots is used to refer to anyone whose linguistic, cultural, the Latin word Scotti, originally the word referred specifically to the Gaels, but came to describe all inhabitants of Scotland. Considered archaic or pejorative, the term Scotch has also used for Scottish people. John Kenneth Galbraith in his book The Scotch documents the descendants of 19th-century Scottish pioneers who settled in Southwestern Ontario and he states the book was meant to give a true picture of life in the community in the early decades of the 20th century. People of Scottish descent live in countries other than Scotland. Scottish emigrants took with them their Scottish languages and culture, large populations of Scottish people settled the new-world lands of North and South America, Australia and New Zealand. Canada has the highest level of Scottish descendants per capita in the world, Scotland has seen migration and settlement of many peoples at different periods in its history. The Gaels, the Picts and the Britons have their origin myths. The Venerable Bede tells of the Scotti coming from Spain via Ireland, Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo-Saxons, arrived beginning in the 7th century, while the Norse invaded and colonized parts of Scotland from the 8th century onwards. In the High Middle Ages, from the reign of David I of Scotland, there was emigration from France, England. Some famous Scottish family names, including bearing the names which became Bruce, Balliol, Murray. Today Scotland is one of the countries of the United Kingdom, culturally, these peoples are grouped according to language. Most of Scotland until the 13th century spoke Celtic languages and these included, at least initially, the Britons, as well as the Gaels and the Picts. Germanic peoples included the Angles of Northumbria, who settled in south-eastern Scotland in the region between the Firth of Forth to the north and the River Tweed to the south. They also occupied the south-west of Scotland up to and including the Plain of Kyle and their language, south-east of the Firth of Forth, then in Lothian and the Borders, a northern variety of Old English, also known as Early Scots, was spoken. The Northern Isles and some parts of Caithness were Norn-speaking, from 1500 on, Scotland was commonly divided by language into two groups of people, Gaelic-speaking Highlanders and the Inglis-speaking Lowlanders
14.
Physicist
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A physicist is a scientist who has specialized knowledge in the field of physics, the exploration of the interactions of matter and energy across the physical universe. A physicist is a scientist who specializes or works in the field of physics, physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate causes of phenomena, and usually frame their understanding in mathematical terms. Physicists can also apply their knowledge towards solving real-world problems or developing new technologies, some physicists specialize in sectors outside the science of physics itself, such as engineering. The study and practice of physics is based on a ladder of discoveries. Many mathematical and physical ideas used today found their earliest expression in ancient Greek culture and Asian culture, the bulk of physics education can be said to flow from the scientific revolution in Europe, starting with the work of Galileo and Kepler in the early 1600s. New knowledge in the early 21st century includes an increase in understanding physical cosmology. The term physicist was coined by William Whewell in his 1840 book The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, many physicist positions require an undergraduate degree in applied physics or a related science or a Masters degree like MSc, MPhil, MPhys or MSci. In a research oriented level, students tend to specialize in a particular field, Physics students also need training in mathematics, and also in computer science and programming. For being employed as a physicist a doctoral background may be required for certain positions, undergraduate students like BSc Mechanical Engineering, BSc Electrical and Computer Engineering, BSc Applied Physics. etc. With physics orientation are chosen as research assistants with faculty members, the highest honor awarded to physicists is the Nobel Prize in Physics, awarded since 1901 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The three major employers of career physicists are academic institutions, laboratories, and private industries, with the largest employer being the last, physicists in academia or government labs tend to have titles such as Assistants, Professors, Sr. /Jr. As per the American Institute for Physics, some 20% of new physics Ph. D. s holds jobs in engineering development programs, while 14% turn to computer software, a majority of physicists employed apply their skills and training to interdisciplinary sectors. For industry or self-employment. and also in science and programming. Hence a majority of Physics bachelors degree holders are employed in the private sector, other fields are academia, government and military service, nonprofit entities, labs and teaching
15.
Meteorology
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Meteorology is a branch of the atmospheric sciences which includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics, with a major focus on weather forecasting. The study of meteorology dates back millennia, though significant progress in meteorology did not occur until the 18th century, the 19th century saw modest progress in the field after weather observation networks were formed across broad regions. Prior attempts at prediction of weather depended on historical data, Meteorological phenomena are observable weather events that are explained by the science of meteorology. Different spatial scales are used to describe and predict weather on local, regional, Meteorology, climatology, atmospheric physics, and atmospheric chemistry are sub-disciplines of the atmospheric sciences. Meteorology and hydrology compose the interdisciplinary field of hydrometeorology, the interactions between Earths atmosphere and its oceans are part of a coupled ocean-atmosphere system. Meteorology has application in diverse fields such as the military, energy production, transport, agriculture. The word meteorology is from Greek μετέωρος metéōros lofty, high and -λογία -logia -logy, varāhamihiras classical work Brihatsamhita, written about 500 AD, provides clear evidence that a deep knowledge of atmospheric processes existed even in those times. In 350 BC, Aristotle wrote Meteorology, Aristotle is considered the founder of meteorology. One of the most impressive achievements described in the Meteorology is the description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle and they are all called swooping bolts because they swoop down upon the Earth. Lightning is sometimes smoky, and is then called smoldering lightning, sometimes it darts quickly along, at other times, it travels in crooked lines, and is called forked lightning. When it swoops down upon some object it is called swooping lightning, the Greek scientist Theophrastus compiled a book on weather forecasting, called the Book of Signs. The work of Theophrastus remained a dominant influence in the study of weather, in 25 AD, Pomponius Mela, a geographer for the Roman Empire, formalized the climatic zone system. According to Toufic Fahd, around the 9th century, Al-Dinawari wrote the Kitab al-Nabat, ptolemy wrote on the atmospheric refraction of light in the context of astronomical observations. St. Roger Bacon was the first to calculate the size of the rainbow. He stated that a rainbow summit can not appear higher than 42 degrees above the horizon, in the late 13th century and early 14th century, Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī and Theodoric of Freiberg were the first to give the correct explanations for the primary rainbow phenomenon. Theoderic went further and also explained the secondary rainbow, in 1716, Edmund Halley suggested that aurorae are caused by magnetic effluvia moving along the Earths magnetic field lines. In 1441, King Sejongs son, Prince Munjong, invented the first standardized rain gauge and these were sent throughout the Joseon Dynasty of Korea as an official tool to assess land taxes based upon a farmers potential harvest. In 1450, Leone Battista Alberti developed a swinging-plate anemometer, and was known as the first anemometer, in 1607, Galileo Galilei constructed a thermoscope
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Midlothian
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Midlothian is one of the 32 council areas of Scotland, UK. It borders Edinburgh, East Lothian and the Scottish Borders council areas, Midlothian was also the name of a historic county formed in the Middle Ages. The county included Edinburgh and was known as Edinburghshire, or more formally as the County of Edinburgh. The historic county remains an area and a registration county for which purposes Edinburgh is included. Midlothian Council area was created in 1996, under the Local Government etc, act 1994, with the boundaries of the Midlothian district of the Lothian region. There is a Midlothian constituency of the House of Commons, there was a Midlothian constituency of the Scottish Parliament up to the 2011 elections when it was divided between Midlothian North and Musselburgh and Midlothian South, Tweeddale and Lauderdale. William Drummond of Hawthornden, Scottish poet, princess Margaret of Scotland, daughter of James VI and I of Scotland and England John Clerk of Penicuik, 2nd Baronet, was a Scottish politician, lawyer, judge, composer and architect. William Tennant, the author of Anster Fair, was schoolmaster in Lasswade from 1816 to 1819. Thomas de Quincey, author of Confessions of an English Opium-Eater, lived in Mans Bush Cottage, Polton, thomas Murray, the Gallovidian author, died in Lasswade. Charles W. Nibley, Scottish-American religious leader in The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Nibley was served as second counselor in the First Presidency to Heber J. Grant, and Presiding Bishop. Charles Thomson Rees Wilson of Glencorse, Nobel prize-winning physicist, george Forrest, a plant collector who gained fame with his expeditions to the far east who spent a significant part of his early years in Loanhead. Charles Forte, Baron Forte, the hotelier, worked in an Italian cafe in Loanhead, karl Miller, founding editor of the London Review of Books and Lord Northcliffe Professor of Modern English Literature at University College, London, born in Straiton. Annette Crosbie, actress, born in Gorebridge, gary Naysmith from Loanhead, Scottish International Footballer who currently plays for Sheffield United and formerly for Heart Of Midlothian and Everton. He was named Scottish PFA Young Player of the Year in 1998 and he won the Scottish Cup with Hearts in 1998. Steven Whittaker from Bonnyrigg, Scotland International footballer, ex-Hibernian F. C. currently plays for Norwich City F. C. John Pringle Burnett, actor and playwright, husband of English actress Jennie Lee. Beeslack High School, Penicuik Dalkeith High School, Dalkeith Lasswade High School Centre, Bonnyrigg Newbattle Community High School, Dalkeith Penicuik High School and it is a sister city with Midlothian, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. The Battle of Roslin was a battle of the First War of Scottish Independence, taking place on 24 February 1303 at Roslin, a Scottish army led by Simon Fraser and John Comyn defeated the English. The English force was raised in Northumberland and was tasked with intervening in support of the forces of Edward I
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Manchester
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Manchester is a major city and metropolitan borough in Greater Manchester, England, with a population of 514,414 as of 2013. It lies within the United Kingdoms second-most populous urban area, with a population of 2.55 million, Manchester is fringed by the Cheshire Plain to the south, the Pennines to the north and east and an arc of towns with which it forms a continuous conurbation. The local authority is Manchester City Council and it was historically a part of Lancashire, although areas of Cheshire south of the River Mersey were incorporated during the 20th century. Throughout the Middle Ages Manchester remained a township but began to expand at an astonishing rate around the turn of the 19th century. Manchesters unplanned urbanisation was brought on by a boom in textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution, Manchester achieved city status in 1853. The Manchester Ship Canal opened in 1894, creating the Port of Manchester and its fortunes declined after the Second World War, owing to deindustrialisation. The city centre was devastated in a bombing in 1996, but it led to extensive investment, in 2014, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network ranked Manchester as a beta world city, the highest-ranked British city apart from London. Manchester is the third-most visited city in the UK and it is notable for its architecture, culture, musical exports, media links, scientific and engineering output, social impact, sports clubs and transport connections. Manchester Liverpool Road railway station was the worlds first inter-city passenger railway station and in the city scientists first split the atom, the name Manchester originates from the Latin name Mamucium or its variant Mancunium and the citizens are still referred to as Mancunians. These are generally thought to represent a Latinisation of an original Brittonic name, both meanings are preserved in languages derived from Common Brittonic, mam meaning breast in Irish and mother in Welsh. The suffix -chester is a survival of Old English ceaster and their territory extended across the fertile lowland of what is now Salford and Stretford. Central Manchester has been settled since this time. A stabilised fragment of foundations of the version of the Roman fort is visible in Castlefield. After the Roman withdrawal and Saxon conquest, the focus of settlement shifted to the confluence of the Irwell, much of the wider area was laid waste in the subsequent Harrying of the North. Thomas de la Warre, lord of the manor, founded and constructed a church for the parish in 1421. The church is now Manchester Cathedral, the premises of the college house Chethams School of Music. The library, which opened in 1653 and is open to the public today, is the oldest free public reference library in the United Kingdom. Manchester is mentioned as having a market in 1282, around the 14th century, Manchester received an influx of Flemish weavers, sometimes credited as the foundation of the regions textile industry
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Bachelor of Science
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A Bachelor of Science is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years. Whether a student of a subject is awarded a Bachelor of Science degree or a Bachelor of Arts degree can vary between universities. For one example, a degree may be given as a Bachelor of Arts by one university but as a B. Sc. by another. Some liberal arts colleges in the United States offer only the BA, even in the natural sciences, in both instances, there are historical and traditional reasons. Northwestern Universitys School of Communication grants B. Sc. degrees in all of its programs of study, including theater, dance, the first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this, science subjects were included in the B. A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology, in Argentina and Chile, most university degrees are given as a license in a field or discipline. For instance, besides the courses, biochemistry and biology require 1–2 years hands-on training either in a clinical laboratory plus a final exam or in a research laboratory plus a thesis defense. The degrees are term licenses in the field of study or profession i. e. biology, nutrition, physical therapy or kinesiology, etc. However, a masters degree requires 2-3 more years of specific training, engineering and medical degrees are also different and are six-year programs of specific classes and training starting immediately after high school. No intermediate degrees count towards the admission examination or even exist, medical degrees are complemented with a 3–4 years of hospital residence plus 1–2 years of specialization training. In Australia, the B. Sc. is generally a three-four year degree, an honours year or a Master of Science is required to progress on to the Doctor of Philosophy. In New Zealand, in cases, the honours degree comprises an additional postgraduate qualification. In South Africa, the B. Sc. is taken three years, while the postgraduate B. Sc. Entails an additional year of study, admission to the honours degree is on the basis of a sufficiently high average in the B. Sc. major, an honours degree is required for M. Sc. Level study, and admission to a doctorate is via the M. Sc, commonly in British Commonwealth countries and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete, note that in British English, no full stops are used in the title, hence BSc, not B. Sc. A Bachelor of Science receives the designation BSc or BS for a major/pass degree, in England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three-year period, though there are a few intensified two-year courses. Bachelors degrees were typically completed in two years for most of the twentieth century, in Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree courses have a foundation year making the total course length four years
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Observatory
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An observatory is a location used for observing terrestrial or celestial events. Astronomy, climatology/meteorology, geology, oceanography and volcanology are examples of disciplines for which observatories have been constructed, historically, observatories were as simple as containing an astronomical sextant or Stonehenge. Astronomical observatories are mainly divided into four categories, space based, airborne, ground based, ground-based observatories, located on the surface of Earth, are used to make observations in the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are housed within a dome or similar structure, Telescope domes have a slit or other opening in the roof that can be opened during observing, and closed when the telescope is not in use. In most cases, the upper portion of the telescope dome can be rotated to allow the instrument to observe different sections of the night sky. Radio telescopes usually do not have domes, for optical telescopes, most ground-based observatories are located far from major centers of population, to avoid the effects of light pollution. The ideal locations for modern observatories are sites that have dark skies, a percentage of clear nights per year, dry air. At high elevations, the Earths atmosphere is thinner, thereby minimizing the effects of atmospheric turbulence, sites that meet the above criteria for modern observatories include the southwestern United States, Hawaii, Canary Islands, the Andes, and high mountains in Mexico such as Sierra Negra. Major optical observatories include Mauna Kea Observatory and Kitt Peak National Observatory in the USA, Roque de los Muchachos Observatory in Spain, and Paranal Observatory in Chile. Specific research study performed in 2009 shows that the best possible location for ground-based observatory on Earth is Ridge A — a place in the part of Eastern Antarctica. This location provides the least atmospheric disturbances and best visibility, beginning in 1930s, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the mid-20th century, a number of observatories have been constructed at very high altitudes, above 4. The largest and most notable of these is the Mauna Kea Observatory, the Chacaltaya Astrophysical Observatory in Bolivia, at 5,230 m, was the worlds highest permanent astronomical observatory from the time of its construction during the 1940s until 2009. It has now surpassed by the new University of Tokyo Atacama Observatory. As a result, the resolution of space telescopes such as the Hubble Space Telescope is often much smaller than a ground-based telescope with a similar aperture. However, all these advantages do come with a price, Space telescopes are much more expensive to build than ground-based telescopes. Due to their location, space telescopes are also difficult to maintain. The Hubble Space Telescope was serviced by the Space Shuttle while many other space telescopes cannot be serviced at all, Airborne observatories have the advantage of height over ground installations, putting them above most of the Earths atmosphere
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Ben Nevis
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Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in the British Isles, located in Scotland. Standing at 1,345 metres above sea level, it is located at the end of the Grampian Mountains in the Lochaber area of the Scottish Highlands. The mountain is a destination, attracting an estimated 100,000 ascents a year. The 700-metre cliffs of the face are among the highest in Scotland, providing classic scrambles. They are also the locations in Scotland for ice climbing. The summit, which is the dome of an ancient volcano. The meteorological data collected during this period are still important for understanding Scottish mountain weather, C. T. R. Wilson was inspired to invent the cloud chamber after a period spent working at the observatory. Ben Nevis is an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic name Beinn Nibheis, Beinn is the most common Gaelic word for mountain, Nibheis is variously understood, though the word is commonly translated as malicious or venomous. An alternative interpretation is that Beinn Nibheis derives from beinn nèamh-bhathais, from nèamh heavens, clouds, one translation would therefore be the mountain with its head in the clouds, though mountain of Heaven is also frequently given. As is common for many Scottish mountains, it is both to locals and visitors as simply the Ben. Ben Nevis forms a massif with its neighbour to the northeast, Càrn Mòr Dearg, both mountains are among the nine in Scotland over 4,000 feet, Aonach Beag and Aonach Mòr are also on the Nevis massif. The hut is situated just above the confluence of Allt a Mhuilinn, in addition to the main 1, 345-metre summit, Ben Nevis has two subsidiary tops listed in Munros Tables, both of which are called Càrn Dearg. The higher of these, at 1,221 metres, is situated to the northwest, the other Càrn Dearg juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountains southwestern side. A lower hill, Meall an t-Suidhe, is located further west, forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small loch, the popular tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Neviss broad western flank. Ben Nevis is all that remains of a Devonian volcano that met an end in the Carboniferous period around 350 million years ago. Evidence near the summit shows light-coloured granite lies among dark basaltic lavas, the two lying side-by-side is evidence the huge volcano collapsed in on itself creating an explosion comparable to Thera or Krakatoa. The mountain is now all that remains of the inner dome of the volcano. Its form has been shaped by glaciation
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Glory (optical phenomenon)
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The glory consists of one or more concentric, successively dimmer rings, each of which is red on the outside and bluish towards the centre. Due to its appearance, the phenomenon is sometimes mistaken for a circular rainbow, the cause of the glory remains a matter of scholarly debate. Depending on circumstances, one or more of the rings can be visible. The angular size of the inner and brightest ring is smaller than that of a rainbow, about 5° to 20°. In the right conditions, a glory and a rainbow can occur simultaneously, like a rainbow, a glory is centered on the antisolar point, which coincides with the shadow of the observers head. Since this point is by definition diametrically opposed to the Suns position in the sky, in order to see a glory, therefore, the clouds or fog causing it must be located below the observer, in a straight line with the Sun/Moon and the observers eye. Hence, the glory is commonly observed from a high viewpoint such as a mountain, in the latter case, if the plane is flying sufficiently low for its shadow to be visible on the clouds, the glory always surrounds it. This is sometimes called The Glory of the Pilot, the name derives from the Brocken, the tallest peak of the Harz mountain range in Germany. Because the peak is above the level and the area frequently misty. In Goethes Faust, the Brocken is called the Blocksberg and is the site of the Witches Sabbath on Walpurgis Night, the scientific explanation is still the subject of debates and research. In 1947, the Dutch astronomer Hendrik van de Hulst suggested that waves are involved. C. T. R. Wilson saw a glory while working as an observer at the Ben Nevis weather station. Inspired by the sight, he decided to build a device for creating clouds in the laboratory, so that he could make a synthetic. His work led directly to the chamber, a device for detecting ionizing radiation for which he. In China, the phenomenon is called Buddhas light and it is often observed on cloud-shrouded high mountains, such as Huangshan and Mount Emei. Records of the phenomenon at Mount Emei date back to A. D.63, the colorful halo always surrounds the observers own shadow, and thus was often taken to show the observers personal enlightenment. The same phenomenon dupes the highly pious heir apparent of the Polish duchy into strongly supporting the new model armys pragmatic departures from the days chivalristic practices and this atmospheric effect also makes at least one appearance in Gothic fiction. George sees shimmering colored light in front of him, then he sees the shadow of an enormous dark figure advancing toward him threateningly—the Brocken spectre created by the shadow of Robert sneaking up behind him
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Cavendish Laboratory
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The Cavendish Laboratory is the Department of Physics at the University of Cambridge, and is part of the School of Physical Sciences. The laboratory was opened in 1874 on the New Museums Site as a laboratory for experimental physics, the laboratory moved to its present site in West Cambridge in 1974. As of 2011,29 Cavendish researchers have won Nobel Prizes, the Cavendish Laboratory was initially located on the New Museums Site, Free School Lane, in the centre of Cambridge. After perennial space problems, it moved to its present site in West Cambridge in the early 1970s. The oak door of the new Cavendish Laboratory is known for its inscription from the Book of Psalms in the Bible, The works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have pleasure therein. Professor James Clerk Maxwell, the developer of electromagnetic theory, was a founder of the lab, the Duke of Devonshire had given to Maxwell, as Head of the Laboratory, the manuscripts of Henry Cavendishs unpublished Electrical Works. The editing and publishing of these was Maxwells main scientific work while he was at the laboratory, Cavendishs work aroused Maxwells intense admiration and he decided to call the Laboratory the Cavendish Laboratory and thus to commemorate both the Duke and Henry Cavendish. In World War II the laboratory carried out research for the MAUD Committee, researchers included Nicholas Kemmer, Alan Nunn May, Anthony French, Samuel Curran and the French scientists including Lew Kowarski and Hans von Halban. Several transferred to Canada in 1943, the Montreal Laboratory and some later to the Chalk River Laboratories, mcMillan and Philip Abelson at Berkeley Radiation Laboratory at the University of California, Berkeley. The Cavendish Laboratory has had an important influence on biology, mainly through the application of X-ray crystallography to the study of structures of biological molecules, the discovery was made on 28 February 1953, the first Watson/Crick paper appeared in Nature on 25 April 1953. The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day, the article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own article on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953. Braggs original announcement of the discovery at a Solvay Conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the British press, sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, Leslie Orgel, and Beryl M. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick at Cambridge in the Cavendish Laboratory, Orgel also later worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. The Cavendish Professors were the Heads of the Department until the tenure of Professor Sir Brian Pippard, areas in which the Laboratory has been very influential include, - As of 2015 the laboratory is headed by Andy Parker and the Cavendish Professor of Physics is Sir Richard Friend. As of 2015 senior academic staff include, The Cavendish is home to a number of Emeritus Scientists, besides the Nobel Laureates, the Cavendish has many distinguished alumni including, Austin Memories—History of Austin and Longbridge Cavendish Article
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Ion
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An ion is an atom or a molecule in which the total number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom or molecule a net positive or negative electrical charge. Ions can be created, by chemical or physical means. In chemical terms, if an atom loses one or more electrons. If an atom gains electrons, it has a net charge and is known as an anion. Ions consisting of only a single atom are atomic or monatomic ions, because of their electric charges, cations and anions attract each other and readily form ionic compounds, such as salts. In the case of ionization of a medium, such as a gas, which are known as ion pairs are created by ion impact, and each pair consists of a free electron. The word ion comes from the Greek word ἰόν, ion, going and this term was introduced by English physicist and chemist Michael Faraday in 1834 for the then-unknown species that goes from one electrode to the other through an aqueous medium. Faraday also introduced the words anion for a charged ion. In Faradays nomenclature, cations were named because they were attracted to the cathode in a galvanic device, arrhenius explanation was that in forming a solution, the salt dissociates into Faradays ions. Arrhenius proposed that ions formed even in the absence of an electric current, ions in their gas-like state are highly reactive, and do not occur in large amounts on Earth, except in flames, lightning, electrical sparks, and other plasmas. These gas-like ions rapidly interact with ions of charge to give neutral molecules or ionic salts. These stabilized species are commonly found in the environment at low temperatures. A common example is the present in seawater, which are derived from the dissolved salts. Electrons, due to their mass and thus larger space-filling properties as matter waves, determine the size of atoms. Thus, anions are larger than the parent molecule or atom, as the excess electron repel each other, as such, in general, cations are smaller than the corresponding parent atom or molecule due to the smaller size of its electron cloud. One particular cation contains no electrons, and thus consists of a single proton - very much smaller than the parent hydrogen atom. Since the electric charge on a proton is equal in magnitude to the charge on an electron, an anion, from the Greek word ἄνω, meaning up, is an ion with more electrons than protons, giving it a net negative charge. A cation, from the Greek word κατά, meaning down, is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, there are additional names used for ions with multiple charges
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Radioactive decay
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A material containing such unstable nuclei is considered radioactive. Certain highly excited short-lived nuclear states can decay through neutron emission, or more rarely, however, for a collection of atoms, the collections expected decay rate is characterized in terms of their measured decay constants or half-lives. This is the basis of radiometric dating, the half-lives of radioactive atoms have no known upper limit, spanning a time range of over 55 orders of magnitude, from nearly instantaneous to far longer than the age of the universe. A radioactive nucleus with spin can have no defined orientation. If there are multiple particles produced during a single decay, as in decay, their relative angular distribution. Such a parent process could be a previous decay, or a nuclear reaction, the decaying nucleus is called the parent radionuclide, and the process produces at least one daughter nuclide. Except for gamma decay or internal conversion from an excited state. When the number of changes, an atom of a different chemical element is created. The first decay processes to be discovered were alpha decay, beta decay, alpha decay occurs when the nucleus ejects an alpha particle. This is the most common process of emitting nucleons, but highly excited nuclei can eject single nucleons, or in the case of cluster decay, specific light nuclei of other elements. Beta decay occurs when the nucleus emits an electron or positron, the nucleus may capture an orbiting electron, causing a proton to convert into a neutron in a process called electron capture. All of these result in a well-defined nuclear transmutation. By contrast, there are radioactive decay processes that do not result in a nuclear transmutation, another type of radioactive decay results in products that vary, appearing as two or more fragments of the original nucleus with a range of possible masses. For a summary table showing the number of stable and radioactive nuclides in each category, there are 29 naturally occurring chemical elements on Earth that are radioactive. They are those that contain 34 radionuclides that date before the time of formation of the solar system, well-known examples are uranium and thorium, but also included are naturally occurring long-lived radioisotopes, such as potassium-40. Radioactivity was discovered in 1896 by the French scientist Henri Becquerel and these materials glow in the dark after exposure to light, and he suspected that the glow produced in cathode ray tubes by X-rays might be associated with phosphorescence. He wrapped a photographic plate in black paper and placed various phosphorescent salts on it, all results were negative until he used uranium salts. The uranium salts caused a blackening of the plate in spite of the plate being wrapped in black paper and these radiations were given the name Becquerel Rays
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X-ray
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X-radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation. Most X-rays have a wavelength ranging from 0.01 to 10 nanometers, corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 petahertz to 30 exahertz, X-ray wavelengths are shorter than those of UV rays and typically longer than those of gamma rays. Spelling of X-ray in the English language includes the variants x-ray, xray, X-rays with high photon energies are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy are called soft X-rays. Due to their ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e. g. in medical radiography. The term X-ray is metonymically used to refer to an image produced using this method. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms they are useful for determining crystal structures by X-ray crystallography. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air, the length of 600 eV X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer. There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays, one common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source, X-rays are emitted by electrons, while gamma rays are emitted by the atomic nucleus. This definition has problems, other processes also can generate these high-energy photons. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength, with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10−11 m and this criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to precedent, based on measurement technique. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for radiotherapy, in the ranges of 6–20 MeV. X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds and this makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a period of time causes radiation sickness. In medical imaging this increased risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy, hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much absorbed or scattered. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to image the inside of visually opaque objects, the most often seen applications are in medical radiography and airport security scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry and research
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Ionization
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Ionization is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. Ionization can result from the loss of an electron after collisions with particles, collisions with other atoms, molecules and ions. Heterolytic bond cleavage and heterolytic substitution reactions can result in the formation of ion pairs, ionization can occur through radioactive decay by the internal conversion process, in which an excited nucleus transfers its energy to one of the inner-shell electrons causing it to be ejected. Everyday examples of gas ionization are such as within a fluorescent lamp or other electrical discharge lamps and it is also used in radiation detectors such as the Geiger-Müller counter or the ionization chamber. The ionization process is used in a variety of equipment in fundamental science and in such as mass spectrometry. Negatively charged ions are produced when an electron collides with an atom and is subsequently trapped inside the electric potential barrier. The process is known as electron capture ionization, positively charged ions are produced by transferring a sufficient amount of energy to a bound electron in a collision with charged particles or with photons. The threshold amount of the energy is known as ionization potential. The study of such collisions is of importance with regard to the few-body problem. The Townsend discharge is an example of the creation of positive ions. It is a reaction involving electrons in a region with a sufficiently high electric field in a gaseous medium that can be ionized. Following an original event, due to such as ionizing radiation. If the electric field is strong enough, the free electron gains sufficient energy to liberate a further electron when it collides with another molecule. The two free electrons then travel towards the anode and gain sufficient energy from the field to cause impact ionization when the next collisions occur. This is effectively a chain reaction of electron generation, and is dependent on the free electrons gaining sufficient energy between collisions to sustain the avalanche, ionization efficiency is the ratio of the number of ions formed to the number of electrons or photons used. The trend in the energy of atoms is often used to demonstrate the periodic behavior of atoms with respect to the atomic number. This is a tool for establishing and understanding the ordering of electrons in atomic orbitals without going into the details of wave functions or the ionization process. An example is presented in figure 1, the periodic abrupt decrease in ionization potential after rare gas atoms, for instance, indicates the emergence of a new shell in alkali metals
27.
Arthur Compton
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It was a sensational discovery at the time, the wave nature of light had been well-demonstrated, but the idea that light had both wave and particle properties was not easily accepted. He is also known for his leadership of the Manhattan Projects Metallurgical Laboratory, in 1919, Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad. He chose to go to Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in England, further research along these lines led to the discovery of the Compton effect. During World War II, Compton was a key figure in the Manhattan Project that developed the first nuclear weapons and his reports were important in launching the project. Compton oversaw Enrico Fermis creation of Chicago Pile-1, the first nuclear reactor, the Metallurgical Laboratory was also responsible for the design and operation of the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Plutonium began being produced in the Hanford Site reactors in 1945, after the war, Compton became Chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis. Arthur Compton was born on September 10,1892, in Wooster, Ohio, the son of Elias and Otelia Catherine Compton, Elias was dean of the University of Wooster, which Arthur also attended. Arthurs eldest brother, Karl, who also attended Wooster, earned a PhD in physics from Princeton University in 1912, all three brothers were members of the Alpha Tau Omega fraternity. Compton was initially interested in astronomy, and took a photograph of Halleys Comet in 1910, around 1913, he described an experiment where an examination of the motion of water in a circular tube demonstrated the rotation of the earth. That year, he graduated from Wooster with a Bachelor of Science degree and entered Princeton, where he received his Master of Arts degree in 1914. Compton then studied for his PhD in physics under the supervision of Hereward L. Cooke, writing his dissertation on The intensity of X-ray reflection, and the distribution of the electrons in atoms. When Arthur Compton earned his PhD in 1916, he, Karl, later, they would become the first such trio to simultaneously head American colleges. Their sister Mary married a missionary, C. Herbert Rice, in June 1916, Compton married Betty Charity McCloskey, a Wooster classmate and fellow graduate. They had two sons, Arthur Alan and John Joseph Compton, during World War I he developed aircraft instrumentation for the Signal Corps. In 1919, Compton was awarded one of the first two National Research Council Fellowships that allowed students to study abroad and he chose to go to Cambridge Universitys Cavendish Laboratory in England. Working with George Paget Thomson, the son of J. J. Thomson, Compton studied the scattering and he observed that the scattered rays were more easily absorbed than the original source. Compton was greatly impressed by the Cavendish scientists, especially Ernest Rutherford, Charles Galton Darwin and Arthur Eddington, for a time Compton was a deacon at a Baptist church. Science can have no quarrel, he said, with a religion which postulates a God to whom men are as His children
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Atmospheric electricity
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Atmospheric electricity is the study of electrical charges in the Earths atmosphere. The movement of charge between the Earths surface, the atmosphere, and the ionosphere is known as the global atmospheric electrical circuit, Atmospheric electricity is an interdisciplinary topic, involving concepts from electrostatics, atmospheric physics, meteorology and Earth science. Thunderstorms act as a giant battery in the atmosphere, charging up the ionosphere to about 400,000 volts with respect to the surface and this sets up an electric field throughout the atmosphere, which decreases with increase in altitude. Atmospheric ions created by cosmic rays and natural radioactivity move in the field, so a very small current flows through the atmosphere. Near the surface of the earth, the magnitude of the field is around 100 V/m, sparks drawn from electrical machines and from Leyden jars suggested to the early experimenters, Hauksbee, Newton, Wall, Nollet, and Gray, that lightning was caused by electric discharges. In 1708, Dr. William Wall was one of the first to observe that spark discharges resembled miniature lightning, by 1749, Franklin observed lightning to possess almost all the properties observable in electrical machines. In July 1750, Franklin hypothesized that electricity could be taken from clouds via a metal aerial with a sharp point. Before Franklin could carry out his experiment, in 1752 Thomas-François Dalibard erected a 40-foot iron rod at Marly-la-Ville, near Paris, drawing sparks from a passing cloud. With ground-insulated aerials, an experimenter could bring a grounded lead with an insulated wax handle close to the aerial, in May 1752, Dalibard affirmed that Franklins theory was correct. Around June 1752, Franklin reportedly performed his famous kite experiment, the kite experiment was repeated by Romas, who drew from a metallic string sparks 9 feet long, and by Cavallo, who made many important observations on atmospheric electricity. Lemonnier also reproduced Franklins experiment with an aerial, but substituted the ground wire with some dust particles and he went on to document the fair weather condition, the clear-day electrification of the atmosphere, and its diurnal variation. Beccaria confirmed Lemonniers diurnal variation data and determined that the atmospheres charge polarity was positive in fair weather, saussure recorded data relating to a conductors induced charge in the atmosphere. Saussures instrument was a precursor to the electrometer, saussure found that the atmospheric electrification under clear weather conditions had an annual variation, and that it also varied with height. In 1785, Coulomb discovered the electrical conductivity of air and his discovery was contrary to the prevailing thought at the time, that the atmospheric gases were insulators. Erman theorized that the Earth was negatively charged, and Peltier tested and confirmed Ermans idea, several researchers contributed to the growing body of knowledge about atmospheric electrical phenomena. Francis Ronalds began observing the potential gradient and air-earth currents around 1810 and he also supplied his equipment to other facilities around the world with the goal of delineating atmospheric electricity on a global scale. For high-altitude measurements, kites were used, and weather balloons or aerostats are still used. Early experimenters even went aloft themselves in hot-air balloons, hoffert identified individual lightning downward strokes using early cameras and would report this in Intermittent Lightning-Flashes
29.
Moon
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The Moon is an astronomical body that orbits planet Earth, being Earths only permanent natural satellite. It is the fifth-largest natural satellite in the Solar System, following Jupiters satellite Io, the Moon is second-densest satellite among those whose densities are known. The average distance of the Moon from the Earth is 384,400 km, the Moon is thought to have formed about 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth. It is the second-brightest regularly visible celestial object in Earths sky, after the Sun and its surface is actually dark, although compared to the night sky it appears very bright, with a reflectance just slightly higher than that of worn asphalt. Its prominence in the sky and its cycle of phases have made the Moon an important cultural influence since ancient times on language, calendars, art. The Moons gravitational influence produces the ocean tides, body tides, and this matching of apparent visual size will not continue in the far future. The Moons linear distance from Earth is currently increasing at a rate of 3.82 ±0.07 centimetres per year, since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972, the Moon has been visited only by uncrewed spacecraft. The usual English proper name for Earths natural satellite is the Moon, the noun moon is derived from moone, which developed from mone, which is derived from Old English mōna, which ultimately stems from Proto-Germanic *mǣnōn, like all Germanic language cognates. Occasionally, the name Luna is used, in literature, especially science fiction, Luna is used to distinguish it from other moons, while in poetry, the name has been used to denote personification of our moon. The principal modern English adjective pertaining to the Moon is lunar, a less common adjective is selenic, derived from the Ancient Greek Selene, from which is derived the prefix seleno-. Both the Greek Selene and the Roman goddess Diana were alternatively called Cynthia, the names Luna, Cynthia, and Selene are reflected in terminology for lunar orbits in words such as apolune, pericynthion, and selenocentric. The name Diana is connected to dies meaning day, several mechanisms have been proposed for the Moons formation 4.51 billion years ago, and some 60 million years after the origin of the Solar System. These hypotheses also cannot account for the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. This hypothesis, although not perfect, perhaps best explains the evidence, eighteen months prior to an October 1984 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists, You have eighteen months. Go back to your Apollo data, go back to computer, do whatever you have to. Dont come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moons birth, at the 1984 conference at Kona, Hawaii, the giant impact hypothesis emerged as the most popular. Afterward there were only two groups, the giant impact camp and the agnostics. Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System, computer simulations of a giant impact have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the present angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system
30.
Alexander Wilson (astronomer)
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Alexander Wilson FRSE was a Scottish surgeon, type-founder, astronomer, mathematician and meteorologist. He was the first scientist to record the use of kites in meteorological investigations and his son Patrick Wilson succeeded him as Regius Professor of Practical Astronomy at Glasgow University, in 1784. Wilson was born in St. Andrews, Fife, the son of Patrick Wilson, Alexander was educated at the University of St. Andrews from where he graduated MA in 1733, at the age of 18. He was first apprenticed to a physician in St Andrews where he became skilled in constructing mercury thermometers in glass, in 1737 he left for London, to make his fortune and found work as assistant to a French surgeon-apothecary, which included caring for his patients. During this time he was introduced to Lord Isla who like Wilson was interested in astronomy, after visiting a type foundry with a friend in London, he had an idea for making better typefaces. He and his friend John Baine returned to St Andrews in 1739, the company moved to Camlachie, near Glasgow in 1744. In 1748 he was appointed type-founder to Glasgow University, in the following year the partnership with Baine was dissolved. He supplied types to the Foulis press making possible their beautiful, among modern typefaces, Fontana, Scotch Roman, and Wilson Greek are based on types cut by Alexander Wilson. In 1749 Wilson made the first recorded use of kites in meteorology with his lodger, a 23-year-old Glasgow University student Thomas Melvill and they measured air temperature at various levels above the ground simultaneously with a train of kites. This has been found to be true of the stars of the Galaxy, the known universe. It is not true for the galaxies of the Universe which is expanding, Wilson noted that sunspots viewed near the edge of the Suns visible disk appear depressed below the solar surface, a phenomenon referred to as the Wilson effect. When the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters announced a prize to be awarded for the best essay on the nature of solar spots, on 18 February 1772 the Academy presented Wilson with a gold medal for his work on sunspots. The crater Wilson on the Moon is named for him, Ralph Elmer Wilson and he, and his second son Patrick Wilson, were two of the founding members of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Peter wrote an article of his father which was published both in the Transactions of the RSE and Edinburgh Journal of Science, now available on-line. Biographical account of Alexander Wilson, MD, late professor of astronomy in Glasgow. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, also published in Edinburgh Journal of Science 10, 1–17 from the Biodiversity Heritage Library
31.
Ralph Elmer Wilson
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Ralph Elmer Wilson was an American astronomer. He then worked at the Dudley Observatory and by 1939 at the Mount Wilson Observatory, in 1929 he became the associate editor of the Astronomical Journal. He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1950 and he published multiple papers on stellar absolute magnitudes, proper motions, and radial velocities of various stars, along with binary star systems and orbital derivations of spectroscopic binaries. Among his publications was the General Catalogue of Stellar Radial Velocities in 1953, the crater Wilson on the Moon is co-named for him, Alexander Wilson and Charles T. R. Wilson
32.
Effects of nuclear explosions
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The blast effect is created by the coupling of immense amounts of energy, spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, with the surroundings. Locations such as submarine, surface, air burst, or exo-atmospheric determine how energy is produced as blast. In general, denser media around the bomb, like water, absorb more energy, when an air burst occurs, lethal blast and thermal effects proportionally scale much more rapidly than lethal radiation effects, as higher and higher yield nuclear weapons are used. Energy from an explosive is initially released in several forms of penetrating radiation. When there is a material such as air, rock, or water. This causes vaporization of surrounding material resulting in its rapid expansion, kinetic energy created by this expansion contributes to the formation of a shockwave. When a nuclear detonation occurs in air near sea level, much of the released energy interacts with the atmosphere, intense thermal radiation at the hypocenter forms a nuclear fireball and if the burst is low enough, it is often associated with a mushroom cloud. In a burst at high altitude, where the air density is low, more energy is released as ionizing gamma radiation and this would concern a nuclear reaction of two nitrogen atoms forming a carbon and an oxygen atom, with release of energy. This energy would heat up the remaining nitrogen enough to keep the reaction going until all nitrogen atoms were consumed. Hans Bethe was assigned the task of studying there was a possibility in the very early days. Richard Hamming, a mathematician, was asked to make a similar calculation just before Trinity, nevertheless, the notion has persisted as a rumor for many years, and was the source of black humor at the Trinity test. The high temperatures and radiation cause gas to move outward radially in a thin, the front acts like a piston that pushes against and compresses the surrounding medium to make a spherically expanding shock wave. At first, this wave is inside the surface of the developing fireball. For air bursts at or near sea-level, 50–60% of the energy goes into the blast wave, depending on the size. As a general rule, the blast fraction is higher for low yield weapons, furthermore, it decreases at high altitudes because there is less air mass to absorb radiation energy and convert it into blast. This effect is most important for altitudes above 30 km, corresponding to <1 per cent of air density. The effects of a rain storm during an Operation Castle nuclear explosion was found to dampen, or reduce. Much of the caused by a nuclear explosion is due to blast effects
33.
Archives of the University of Glasgow
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The Archives of the University of Glasgow maintain the historical records of the University of Glasgow back to its foundation in 1451. The Clerk’s Press is the oldest surviving piece of university furniture and was acquired in 1634 to hold such records, in 1955 the first professional University Archivist was appointed and it is currently one of the largest archive services in Scotland outside the national archives in Edinburgh. These collections reflect the contribution and breadth of activity that Scotlands business, industry and enterprise has made past, the collections were inaugurated by Sydney Checkland, the first professor of Economic History, in 1959 and have been managed by the University Archives since 1975. The Scottish Business Archive is one of the largest collection of archives in Europe. There are large collections of relating to University personnel and buildings and Scottish topography and plans of University buildings. There are papers of individual and families of entrepreneurs like Viscount William Weir, Sir James Lithgow and the Napier family including their shipping, automobile, and textile interests. Talks and events are arranged each year based on the holdings of the Archives, admission to the Archives is free and everyone, members of the University, visiting researchers and members of the public can use the collections. Normal opening hours are as follows, The Archives are closed on all University holidays, the main searchroom is on the 2nd floor of the building at 13 Thurso Street, up 4 flights of stairs. There is level access throughout the 2nd floor, and 2 toilets just off the searchroom, a ground-level searchroom also operates in the Dumbarton Road building, with 2 toilets and a disabled toilet facility close to the searchroom. A range of services is available to University of Glasgow staff, students, photocopying and photographic copying services are available to all users. Copies are supplied on the understanding that they are for private study, an enquiry service is available for those who can not travel to the Archives. This service is free and answers simple enquiries that relate to the history of the University or about the archives that are held, a research service is also available for enquiries that will take over ½ an hour to answer. There is a fee for this service, a free behind-the-scenes tour of the archive is available. Open to all and held once a month during the academic year, the Archives of the University of Glasgow The University of Glasgow Story Scottish brewing University of Glasgow WWI Roll of Honour
34.
Minister (Christianity)
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The term is taken from Latin minister, which itself was derived from minus. In Catholic churches, the concept of a priesthood is emphasised, many ministers are styled as The Reverend, however some use Pastor as a title, and others do not use any specific form of address. The Church of England defines the ministry of priests as follows, Priests are called to be servants, with their Bishop and fellow ministers, they are to proclaim the word of the Lord and to watch for the signs of Gods new creation. Formed by the word, they are to call their hearers to repentance and to declare in Christs name the absolution, with all Gods people, they are to tell the story of Gods love. They are to baptize new disciples in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit and they are to unfold the Scriptures, to preach the word in season and out of season, and to declare the mighty acts of God. They are to preside at the Lords table and lead his people in worship, offering them a spiritual sacrifice of praise. They are to bless the people in Gods name and they are to resist evil, support the weak, defend the poor, and intercede for all in need. They are to minister to the sick and prepare the dying for their death, guided by the Spirit, they are to discern and foster the gifts of all Gods people, that the whole Church may be built up in unity and faith. All denominations require that the minister has a sense of calling. One of the clearest references is found in 1 Timothy 3, 1-16, moreover he must have a good report of them which are without, lest he fall into reproach and the snare of the devil. Likewise must the deacons be grave, not doubletongued, not given to wine, not greedy of filthy lucre. And let these also first be proved, then let them use the office of a deacon, even so must their wives be grave, not slanderers, sober, faithful in all things. Let the deacons be the husbands of one wife, ruling their children, the churches have three orders of ordained clergy, Bishops are the primary clergy, administering all sacraments and governing the church. Priests administer the sacraments and lead local congregations, they cannot ordain other clergy, however, in some denominations, deacons play a non-sacramental and assisting role in the liturgy. Until the Reformation, the clergy were the first estate but were relegated to the estate in Protestant Northern Europe. After compulsory celibacy was abolished during the Reformation, the formation of an hereditary priestly class became possible, whereby wealth. Higher positioned clergy formed this clerical educated upper class, High Church Anglicanism and High Church Lutheranism tend to emphasise the role of the clergy in dispensing the Christian Sacrament. Bishops, priests and deacons have traditionally officiated over of acts worship, reverence, rituals, among these central traditions have been baptism, Confirmation, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, marriage, the Mass or the Divine Service, and coronations
35.
Glasgow
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Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, and third largest in the United Kingdom. Historically part of Lanarkshire, it is now one of the 32 council areas of Scotland and it is situated on the River Clyde in the countrys West Central Lowlands. Inhabitants of the city are referred to as Glaswegians, Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become the largest seaport in Britain. From the 18th century the city grew as one of Great Britains main hubs of transatlantic trade with North America. Glasgow was the Second City of the British Empire for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries Glasgow grew in population, reaching a peak of 1,128,473 in 1939. The entire region surrounding the conurbation covers about 2.3 million people, at the 2011 census, Glasgow had a population density of 8, 790/sq mi, the highest of any Scottish city. Glasgow hosted the 2014 Commonwealth Games and is well known in the sporting world for the football rivalry of the Old Firm between Celtic and Rangers. Glasgow is also known for Glasgow patter, a dialect that is noted for being difficult to understand by those from outside the city. Glasgow is the form of the ancient Cumbric name Glas Cau. Possibly referring to the area of Molendinar Burn where Glasgow Cathedral now stands, the later Gaelic name Baile Glas Chu, town of the grey dog, is purely a folk-etymology. The present site of Glasgow has been settled since prehistoric times, it is for settlement, being the furthest downstream fording point of the River Clyde, the origins of Glasgow as an established city derive ultimately from its medieval position as Scotlands second largest bishopric. Glasgow increased in importance during the 10th and 11th centuries as the site of this bishopric, reorganised by King David I of Scotland and John, there had been an earlier religious site established by Saint Mungo in the 6th century. The bishopric became one of the largest and wealthiest in the Kingdom of Scotland, bringing wealth, sometime between 1189 and 1195 this status was supplemented by an annual fair, which survives as the Glasgow Fair. Glasgow grew over the following centuries, the first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the river via Glasgow Cross. The founding of the University of Glasgow in 1451 and elevation of the bishopric to become the Archdiocese of Glasgow in 1492 increased the towns religious and educational status and landed wealth. Its early trade was in agriculture, brewing and fishing, with cured salmon and herring being exported to Europe, Glasgow was subsequently raised to the status of Royal Burgh in 1611. The citys Tobacco Lords created a water port at Port Glasgow on the Firth of Clyde. By the late 18th century more than half of the British tobacco trade was concentrated on Glasgows River Clyde, at the time, Glasgow held a commercial importance as the city participated in the trade of sugar, tobacco and later cotton
36.
Patrick Blackett
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He also made a major contribution in World War II advising on military strategy and developing operational research. His left-wing views saw an outlet in third world development and in influencing policy in the Labour Government of the 1960s, Blackett was born in Kensington, London, the son of Arthur Stuart Blackett, a stockbroker, and his wife Caroline Maynard. His younger sister was the psychoanalyst Marion Milner and his paternal grandfather Rev. Henry Blackett, brother of Edmund Blacket the Australian architect, was for many years Vicar of Croydon. His maternal grandfather Charles Maynard was an officer in the Royal Artillery at the time of the Indian Mutiny, the Blackett family lived successively at Kensington, Kenley, Woking and Guildford, Surrey, where Blackett went to preparatory school. His main hobbies were model aeroplanes and crystal radio and he was accepted and spent two years there before moving on to Dartmouth where he was usually head of his class. In August 1914 on the outbreak of World War I Blackett was assigned to service as a midshipman. He was transferred to the Cape Verde Islands on HMS Carnarvon and was present at the Battle of the Falkland Islands and he was then transferred to HMS Barham and saw much action at the Battle of Jutland. While on HMS Barham, Blackett was co-inventor of a device on which the Admiralty took out a patent. In 1916 he applied to join the RNAS but his application was refused, in October that year he became a sub-lieutenant on HMS P17 on Dover patrol, and in July 1917 he was posted to HMS Sturgeon in the Harwich Force under Admiral Tyrwhitt. Blackett was particularly concerned by the quality of gunnery in the force compared with that of the enemy and of his own previous experience. He was promoted to Lieutenant in May 1918, but had decided to leave the Navy, then, in January 1919, the Admiralty sent the officers whose training had been interrupted by the war to Cambridge University for a course of general duties. On his first night at Magdalene College, Cambridge he met Kingsley Martin and Geoffrey Webb, later recalling that he had never before, in his naval training, Blackett was impressed by the prestigious Cavendish Laboratory, and left the Navy to study mathematics and physics at Cambridge. Rutherford had found out that the nucleus of the nitrogen atom could be disintegrated by firing fast alpha particles into nitrogen. He asked Blackett to use a chamber to find visible tracks of this disintegration. Eight of these were forked, and this showed that the nitrogen atom-alpha particle combination had formed an atom of fluorine, which then disintegrated into an isotope of oxygen, Blackett spent some time in 1924–1925 at Göttingen, Germany working with James Franck on atomic spectra. In 1932, working with Giuseppe Occhialini, he devised a system of geiger counters which only took photographs when a ray particle traversed the chamber. They found 500 tracks of high energy cosmic ray particles in 700 automatic exposures, in 1933, Blackett discovered fourteen tracks which confirmed the existence of the positron and revealed the now instantly recognisable opposing spiral traces of positron/electron pair production. This work and that on annihilation radiation made him one of the first and that same year he moved to Birkbeck College, University of London as Professor of Physics for four years
37.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
38.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
39.
Copley Medal
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The Copley Medal is a scientific award given by the Royal Society, London, for outstanding achievements in research in any branch of science. It alternates between the physical and the biological sciences, the medal was created following a donation of £100 to be used for carrying out experiments by Sir Godfrey Copley, for which the interest on the amount was used for several years. A second donation of £1666 13s, 4d. was made by Sir Joseph William Copley in 1881, and the interest from that amount is used to pay for the medal. The medal in its current format is made of silver gilt, since its inception, it has been awarded to many notable scientists, including 52 winners of the Nobel Prize,17 in Physics,21 in Physiology or Medicine, and 14 in Chemistry. John Theophilus Desaguliers has won the medal the most often, winning in 1734,1736 and 1741, in 1976, Dorothy Hodgkin became the first and as of 2015 the only female recipient
40.
Josiah Willard Gibbs
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Josiah Willard Gibbs was an American scientist who made important theoretical contributions to physics, chemistry, and mathematics. His work on the applications of thermodynamics was instrumental in transforming physical chemistry into a rigorous inductive science, Gibbs also worked on the application of Maxwells equations to problems in physical optics. As a mathematician, he invented modern vector calculus, in 1863, Yale awarded Gibbs the first American doctorate in engineering. After a three-year sojourn in Europe, Gibbs spent the rest of his career at Yale, commentators and biographers have remarked on the contrast between Gibbss quiet, solitary life in turn of the century New England and the great international impact of his ideas. Though his work was almost entirely theoretical, the value of Gibbss contributions became evident with the development of industrial chemistry during the first half of the 20th century. According to Robert A. Gibbs was born in New Haven and he belonged to an old Yankee family that had produced distinguished American clergymen and academics since the 17th century. He was the fourth of five children and the son of Josiah Willard Gibbs and his wife Mary Anna. On his fathers side, he was descended from Samuel Willard, on his mothers side, one of his ancestors was the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson, the first president of the College of New Jersey, the elder Gibbs was generally known to his family and colleagues as Josiah, while the son was called Willard. Josiah Gibbs was a linguist and theologian who served as professor of sacred literature at Yale Divinity School from 1824 until his death in 1861, Willard Gibbs was educated at the Hopkins School and entered Yale College in 1854, aged 15. At Yale, Gibbs received prizes for excellence in mathematics and Latin and he remained at Yale as a graduate student at the Sheffield Scientific School. At age 19, soon after his graduation from college, Gibbs was inducted into the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, relatively few documents from the period survive and it is difficult to reconstruct the details of Gibbss early career with precision. After the death of his father in 1861, Gibbs inherited enough money to him financially independent. Recurrent pulmonary trouble ailed the young Gibbs and his physicians were concerned that he might be susceptible to tuberculosis and he also suffered from astigmatism, whose treatment was then still largely unfamiliar to oculists, so that Gibbs had to diagnose himself and grind his own lenses. He was not conscripted and he remained at Yale for the duration of the war, in 1861, Yale had become the first US university to offer a Ph. D. degree and Gibbss was only the fifth Ph. D. granted in the US in any subject. After graduation, Gibbs was appointed as tutor at the College for a term of three years, during the first two years he taught Latin and during the third natural philosophy. After his term as tutor ended, Gibbs traveled to Europe with his sisters, moving to Berlin, Gibbs attended the lectures taught by mathematicians Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker, as well as by chemist Heinrich Gustav Magnus. In August 1867, Gibbss sister Julia was married in Berlin to Addison Van Name, the newly married couple returned to New Haven, leaving Gibbs and his sister Anna in Germany
