1.
Public school (United Kingdom)
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A public school in England and Wales is an older, student selective and expensive fee-paying independent secondary school which caters primarily for children aged between 11 or 13 and 18. The term public should not be misunderstood to mean that these are public sector schools, traditionally, public schools were all-male boarding schools, although most now allow day pupils, and many have become either partially or fully co-educational. The origins of schools in the UK were primarily religious until 1640 and it was intended that by-products of this would be the publication of universal books and the setting up of schools for boys and girls. Henceforth each of these schools was to be managed by a board of governors, Public schools have had a strong association with the ruling classes. Historically they educated the sons of the English upper and upper-middle classes, the sons of officers and senior administrators of the British Empire were educated in England while their parents were on overseas postings. In 2010, over half of Cabinet Ministers had been educated at public schools, in 2014, annual fees at Canford School and Eton College were more than £33,000 for boarders. The name dates back to the time when schools founded for local children went public and it is also used to describe the some 230 girls senior schools belonging to the Girls Schools Association. Until the late medieval period most schools were controlled by the church and had specific entrance criteria, others were restricted to the sons of members of guilds, trades or livery companies. The need for professional trades in an increasingly secularised society required schools for the sons of the gentry that were independent from ecclesiastical authority, from the 16th century onward, boys boarding schools were founded or endowed for public use. Traditionally, most of public schools were all boys and full boarding. Separate preparatory schools for younger boys developed from the 1830s, with entry to the schools becoming limited to boys of at least 12 or 13 years old. The first of these was Windlesham House School, established with support from Thomas Arnold, many of the schools, including Rugby School, Harrow School and the Perse School fell into decline during the 18th century and nearly closed in the early 19th century. Protests in the local newspaper forced governors of the Perse School to keep it open, a Royal Commission, the Clarendon Commission, investigated nine of the more established schools, including seven boarding schools and two day schools. St Pauls School and the Merchant Taylors School claimed successfully that their constitutions made them private schools, in 1887 the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal determined that the City of London School was a public school. In the first year only 12 headmasters attended, but in the following year 34 did, the Headmasters Conference has since grown steadily to over 200 schools. The Public Schools Yearbook was published for the first time in 1889, listing 30 schools, mostly boarding schools except for St Pauls School, some academically successful grammar schools were added in later editions. The 1902 edition included all schools whose principals qualified for membership of the Headmasters Conference, the Fleming Report defined a public school as a member of the Governing Bodies Association or the Headmasters Conference. Based on the recommendations of this report, the Education Act 1944 offered a new status to endowed grammar schools receiving a grant from central government
2.
Independent school (United Kingdom)
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For example, pupils do not have to follow the National Curriculum. Seven of the older, expensive and more schools catering for the 13–18 age-range in England. The term public being derived from the fact that they were open to pupils regardless of where they lived or their religion, prep schools, educate younger children up to the age of 13 to prepare them for entry to the public schools and other independent schools. Some former grammar schools converted to an independent fee paying model following the 1965 Circular 10/65 which marked the end of their state funding, others converted into comprehensive schools. There are around 2,500 independent schools in the UK, in addition to charging tuition fees, many also benefit from gifts, charitable endowments and charitable status. Many of these schools are members of the Independent Schools Council and these schools were founded as part of the church and were under their complete dominion. However, it was during the late 14th & early 15th centuries that the first schools, winchester & Oswestry were the first of their kind and paved the way for the establishment of the modern Public school. These were often established for scholars from poor or disadvantaged backgrounds, however, English law has always regarded education as a charitable end in itself. For instance, the Queens Scholarships founded at Westminster in 1560, are for the sons of decayd gentlemen, also, facilities already provided by the charitable foundation for a few scholars could profitably be extended to further paying pupils. After a time, such fees would eclipse the original charitable income, in 2009 senior boarding schools were charging fees of between £16,000 and nearly £30,000 per annum. However, majority of the independent schools today are still registered as a charity, christs Hospital in Horsham is one of the examples, large proposition of its students are funded by its charitable foundation or by various benefactors. Most public schools developed significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, under a number of forward-looking headmasters leading public schools created a curriculum based heavily on classics and physical activity for boys and young men of the upper and upper middle classes. They were schools for the elite of Victorian politics, armed forces. Often successful businessmen would send their sons to a school as a mark of participation in the elite. More recently heads of schools have been emphasising that senior pupils now play a much reduced role in disciplining. To an extent, the school system influenced the school systems of the British Empire. Until 1975 there had been a group of 179 academically selective schools drawing on both private and state funding, the direct grant grammar schools, the Direct Grant Grammar Schools Regulations 1975 required these schools to choose between full state funding as comprehensive schools and full independence. As a result,119 of these schools became independent, pupil numbers at independent schools fell slightly during the mid-1970s recession
3.
Boarding school
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A boarding school is a school at which most or all of the students live during the part of the year that they go to lessons. The word boarding is used in the sense of bed and board, i. e. lodging, some boarding schools also have day students who attend the institution by day and return to their families in the evenings. Many independent schools are boarding schools, Boarding school pupils normally return home during the school holidays and often weekends, but in some cultures may spend most of their childhood and adolescent life away from their families. In the United States, boarding schools comprise various grades, most commonly grades seven or nine through grade twelve—the high school years, other schools are for younger children, grades two through eight. A military school, or military academy, also features military education, in the former Soviet Union schools were introduced, these sometimes are known as Internat-schools. Some schools were a type of specialized school with a focus in a particular field or fields such as mathematics, physics, language, science, sports. Other schools were associated with orphanages after all children enrolled in Internat-school automatically. Also, separate boarding schools were established for children with special needs, general schools offered extended stay programs featuring cheap meals for children and preventing them from coming home too early before parents were back from work. In post-soviet countries, the concept of boarding school differs from country to country, the term boarding school often refers to classic British boarding schools and many boarding schools around the world are modeled on these. A typical boarding school has separate residential houses, either within the school grounds or in the surrounding area. Pupils generally need permission to go outside defined school bounds, they may be allowed to travel off-campus at certain times, depending on country and context, boarding schools generally offer one or more options, full, weekly, or on a flexible schedule. Each may be assisted in the management of the house by a housekeeper often known as matron. In the U. S. boarding schools often have a resident family that lives in the dorm and they also have janitorial staff for maintenance and housekeeping, but typically do not have tutors associated with an individual dorm. Nevertheless, older pupils are often unsupervised by staff, and a system of monitors or prefects gives limited authority to senior pupils, houses readily develop distinctive characters, and a healthy rivalry between houses is often encouraged in sport. Houses may also have common rooms for television and relaxation and kitchens for snacks, some facilities may be shared between several houses or dorms. In others, separate houses accommodate needs of different years or classes, in some schools, day pupils are assigned to a dorm or house for social activities and sports purposes. Each student has a timetable, which in the early years allows little discretion. Boarders and day students are taught together in school hours and in most cases continue beyond the day to include sports, clubs and societies
4.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
5.
Thomas Sutton
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Thomas Sutton was an English civil servant and businessman, born in Knaith, Lincolnshire. He is remembered as the founder of the London Charterhouse and of Charterhouse School, Sutton was the son of an official of the city of Lincoln, and was educated at Eton College and at St Johns College, Cambridge. For much of his life he held the role of Master of the Ordnance in the North. In 1582, he married Elizabeth Dudley, the widow of John Dudley, who was a distant cousin of the earls of Warwick and Leicester, Suttons connections to the Dudley family were strong throughout his life. Sutton bought Howard House from the Earl of Suffolk, which occupied the site of a former Carthusian Monastery on the outskirts of the City of London, although dissolved by Henry VIII, parts of the monastery still survived. This immense wealth earned Sutton the nicknames among his contemporaries of Croesus, John Aubrey is responsible for the almost certainly spurious legend that Sutton was the original of Volpone the fox in Ben Jonsons Volpone. This institution was to named the Hospital of King James in Charterhouse, the almshouse survives on the original site, while the school, now Charterhouse School, relocated to Godalming, Surrey, in 1872. The London buildings were damaged by bombs during the Second World War. Suttons personal arms, blazoned Or, on a chevron between three annulets gules three crescents of the field, are used by the school. Case of Suttons Hospital Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Sutton, Thomas
6.
Godalming
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Godalming /ˈɡɒdəlmɪŋ/ is a historic market town, civil parish and administrative centre of the Borough of Waverley in Surrey, England,4 miles SSW of Guildford. The town traverses the banks of the River Wey in the Greensand Ridge – a hilly, heavily wooded part of the outer London commuter belt, in 1881, it became the first place in the world to have a public electricity supply and electric street lighting. Godalming is 30.5 mi southwest of London and shares a three-way twinning arrangement with the towns of Joigny in France, friendship links are in place with the state of Georgia and Moscow. James Oglethorpe of Godalming was the founder of the colony of Georgia, Godalming is regarded as an expensive residential town, partly due to its visual appeal, favourable transport links and high proportion of private housing. In recent years it has ranked the UKs third most desirable property hotspot. The borough of Waverley, which includes Godalming, was judged in 2013 to have the highest quality of life in Great Britain, the town has existed since Saxon times, and probably earlier. Godalming grew in size because its location is halfway between Portsmouth and London, which encouraged traders to set up stalls and inns for travellers to buy from. Godalming Parish Church has an early Saxon chancel and a Norman tower, Godalming appears in Domesday Book of 1086 as Godelminge. It was held by William the Conqueror and its domesday assets were,2 churches worth 12s,3 mills worth £2 1s 8d,25 ploughs,40 acres of meadow, woodland worth 103 hogs. Its population was roughly 400 people, at the time, its manor belonged to the King, but a few hundred years later, ownership transferred to the Bishop of Salisbury, under a charter granted by King Edward I of England. In the year 1300, the town was granted the right to hold a weekly market and its major industry at the time was woollen cloth, which contributed to Godalming’s prosperity over the next few centuries, until a sudden decline in the 17th century. Instead, its people applied their skills to the latest knitting and weaving technology and began producing stockings in a variety of materials, a willingness to adapt from one industry to another meant that Godalming continued to thrive. For example, papermaking was adopted in the 17th century, in 1726 a Godalming maidservant called Mary Toft hoaxed the town into believing that she had given birth to rabbits. The foremost doctors of the day came to witness the freak event, eventually Toft was found out after a porter was caught smuggling a dead rabbit into her chamber, she confessed to inserting at least 16 rabbits into herself and faking their birth. Court testimony of 1764 attests to how purchasing one of the mills in Godalming and dealing in corn, so successful was Godalming that in the early 19th century it was considerably larger than Guildford, and by 1851 the population had passed 6,500. Already, it was becoming a residence for commuters, for it was connected to London by railway two years earlier, in 1849, and to Portsmouth in 1859. Today the town is served by Godalming railway station on the Portsmouth Direct Line, the first mayor of Godalming was Henry Marshall. Godalming came to attention in September 1881, when it became the first town in the world to have installed a public electricity supply
7.
Surrey
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Surrey is a county in the south east of England. It shares borders with Kent to the east, East Sussex to the south-east, West Sussex to the south, Hampshire to the west and south-west, Surrey County Council sits extraterritorially at Kingston upon Thames, administered as part of Greater London since 1965. With a resident population of 1.1 million, Surrey is the most densely populated and third most populated county in the South East region, after Kent, the London boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Wandsworth, and parts of Lewisham and Bromley were in Surrey until 1889. The boroughs of Croydon, Kingston upon Thames, Merton, Sutton and Richmond upon Thames south of the River Thames were part of Surrey until 1965, when they too were absorbed into Greater London. In the same year, the county was extended north of the Thames by the addition of Spelthorne, due to this expansion, modern Surrey also borders on the London boroughs of Hounslow and Hillingdon. It has the highest GDP per capita of any English county, Surrey is divided in two by the chalk ridge of the North Downs, running east-west. To the north of the Downs the land is mostly flat, the geology of this area is dominated by London Clay in the east, Bagshot Sands in the west and alluvial deposits along the rivers. Much of Surrey is in the Metropolitan Green Belt and it contains a good deal of mature woodland. Among its many notable beauty spots are Box Hill, Leith Hill, Frensham Ponds, Newlands Corner and Puttenham & Crooksbury Commons. Surrey is the most wooded county in England, with 22. 4% coverage compared to an average of 11. 8%. Box Hill has the oldest untouched area of woodland in the UK. Surrey also contains Englands principal concentration of lowland heath, on soils in the west of the county. Agriculture not being intensive, there are many commons and access lands, together with a network of footpaths and bridleways including the North Downs Way. Accordingly, Surrey provides much in the way of leisure activities. The highest elevation in Surrey is Leith Hill near Dorking and it is either 293,294 or 295 metres above sea level and is the second highest point in southeastern England after Walbury Hill 297 metres in West Berkshire. Surrey has a population of approximately 1.1 million people and its largest town is Guildford, with a population of 66,773, Woking comes a close second with 62,796. They are followed by Ewell with 39,994 people and Camberley with 30,155, towns of between 25,000 and 30,000 inhabitants are Ashford, Epsom, Farnham, Staines and Redhill. Guildford is the county town, although the county administration was moved to Newington in 1791
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
9.
Department for Education
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The Department for Education is a department of Her Majestys Government responsible for child protection, education, apprenticeships and wider skills in England. The DfE is also responsible for women and equalities policy, the DfE was formed on 12 May 2010 by the incoming Cameron ministry, taking on the responsibilities and resources of the Department for Children, Schools and Families. In July 2016, the Department took over responsibilities for higher and further education and for apprenticeship from the dissolved Department for Business, Innovation, the Permanent Secretary is Jonathan Slater. DfE is responsible for education, children’s services, higher and further education policy, apprenticeships and wider skills in England, and equalities. The predecessor department employed the equivalent of 2,695 staff as of April 2008 and as at June 2016, in 2015-16, the DfE has a budget of £58. 2bn, which includes £53. 6bn resource spending and £4. 6bn of capital investments. The EFA was formed on 1 April 2012 by bringing together the functions of two non-departmental public bodies, the Young Peoples Learning Agency and Partnerships for Schools and it was established on 1 April 2013, when the Teaching Agency merged with the National College for School Leadership. The Skills Funding Agency is responsible for funding skills training for further education in England, as well as running the National Apprenticeship Service, the SFA was formed on 1 April 2010, following the closure of the Learning and Skills Council. It shares a Chief Executive, Peter Lauener, and Chief Financial Officer with the Education Funding Agency, the Standards and Testing Agency is responsible for developing and delivering all statutory assessments for school pupils in England. It was formed on 1 October 2011 and took over the functions of the Qualifications, the STA is regulated by the examinations regulator, Ofqual. The DfE is also supported by 10 public bodies, Education, youth, following Michael Goves speech in 2012, the subject of Information Communication Technology has been disapplied and replaced by Computing. With the new curriculum, materials have been written by companies, to support non-specialist teachers. The Computing at Schools organisation has created a Network of Teaching Excellence to support schools with the new curriculum, deflecting European Union influence on national education policy-making, the case of the United Kingdom. Official website Official department YouTube channel Official Flickr presence
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Carthusians
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The Carthusian Order, also called the Order of Saint Bruno, is a Catholic religious order of enclosed monastics. The order was founded by Saint Bruno of Cologne in 1084, the order has its own Rule, called the Statutes, rather than the Rule of Saint Benedict, and combines eremitical and cenobitic life. The name Carthusian is derived from the Chartreuse Mountains, Saint Bruno built his first hermitage in the valley of these mountains in the French Alps, the word charterhouse, which is the English name for a Carthusian monastery, is derived from the same source. The same mountain range lends its name to the alcoholic cordial Chartreuse produced by the monks since 1737 which itself gives rise to the name of the colour. The motto of the Carthusians is Stat crux dum volvitur orbis, in 1084 Bishop Hugh of Grenoble offered Bruno, the former Chancellor of the Diocese of Reims, a solitary site in the mountains of his diocese, in the valley of Chartreuse. Six years later, Brunos former pupil, Pope Urban II requested his services. He would only live in Rome for a few months however, before leaving to establish a new hermitage in the forests of Calabria, in the south of Italy. He died there on 6 October 1101, in 1132, an avalanche destroyed the first hermitage, killing 7 monks under the snow. The fifth prior of Chartreuse, Guiges, rebuilt the hermitage, there were twelve Carthusian monasteries in the British Isles before the Reformation. The first was founded by Henry II in 1181 at Witham Friary, Hugh of Lincoln was its first prior. The third Charterhouse built in Britain was Beauvale Charterhouse remains of which can still be seen in Beauvale, Greasley parish, the Carthusians, as with all Catholic religious orders, were variously persecuted and banned during the Protestant Reformation. The abolition of their priories, which were sources of charity in England and this was followed by the French Revolution which had a similar effect in France. A few fragments remain of the Charterhouse in Coventry, mostly dating from the 15th century, the area, about a mile from the centre of the city, is a conservation area, but the buildings are in use as part of a local college. Inside the building is a wall painting, alongside many carvings. Nearby is the river Sherbourne that runs underneath the centre of the city, the best preserved remains of a medieval Charterhouse in the UK are at Mount Grace Priory near Osmotherley, North Yorkshire. One of the cells has been reconstructed to illustrate how different the lay-out is to monasteries of most other Christian orders, which are normally designed with communal living in mind. The London Charterhouse gave its name to a square and several streets in the City of London, as well as to the Charterhouse School which used part of its site before moving out to Godalming, Surrey. Perth Charterhouse, the single Carthusian Priory founded in Scotland during the Middle Ages, was located in Perth and it stood just west of the medieval town and was founded by James I in the early 15th century
11.
Charterhouse Square
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Charterhouse Square is a historic square in Smithfield, central London. It lies between Charterhouse Street and Clerkenwell Road, in the south of the London Borough of Islington. In 1371 a Carthusian monastery was founded by Walter de Manny on what is now the side of the square. It was established near a 1348 plague pit, which formed the largest mass grave in London during the Black Death, the name of the monastery, Charterhouse, was derived as an Anglicisation of La Grande Chartreuse, whose order founded the monastery. The Charterhouse was dissolved as a monastery in 1537, and in 1545 was purchased by Sir Edward North and transformed into a mansion house. Following Norths death, the property was bought by Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, later, Thomas Sutton bought the Charterhouse, and on his death in 1611, endowed a hospital and school on the site, which opened in 1614, supporting 80 pensioners. The school for boys coexisted with the home for pensioners until 1872 when Charterhouse School moved to Godalming in Surrey, following this, the Merchant Taylors School occupied the buildings until 1933. The square also lends its name to a school which occupies a building overlooking the square. In July 2011, English Heritage granted Grade II listed status to the road surface in the Square. In 2014 evidence of the burial pit for plague victims dating from 1348–50. The Charterhouse, an almshouse for retired men over the age of 60, is located on the side of the Square on the old monastery site. The Charterhouse Square campus of Queen Mary University of London is situated on the north-east of the Square, the BCI and the Centre for Cancer Prevention within the Wolfson Institute also make up the Cancer Research UK Barts Centre of Excellence, together with Barts and the London NHS Trust. The City of London Migraine Clinic is situated to the South-west of the Square, florin Court, a residential building in the Art Deco style built in 1936 by Guy Morgan and Partners, is located on the eastern side of the square. The building has a facade, roof garden and basement swimming pool. The independent preparatory Charterhouse Square School is on the side of the square. Smithfield Market is to the south-west along Charterhouse Street, the nearest underground station to the Square is Barbican to the south-east. The Barbican bus stop is also near by, florin Court was used as the fictional residence of Hercule Poirot, Whitehaven Mansions, in the 1980s TV series Agatha Christies Poirot based on Agatha Christies crime novels. LondonTown. com information The Charterhouse Square School website Charterhouse Square campus at Queen Mary University of London The City of London Migraine Clinic website
12.
Smithfield, London
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Smithfield is a locality in the ward of Farringdon Without situated at the City of Londons northwest in central London, England. The principal street of the area is West Smithfield, the area also contains Londons oldest surviving church, St Bartholomew-the-Great, founded in 1123 AD. Some of its original market premises fell into disuse in the late 20th century, the Corporation of Londons public enquiry in 2012 drew widespread support for an urban regeneration plan intent upon preserving Smithfields historical identity. In the Middle Ages, it was a grassy area known as Smooth Field. Given its ease of access to grazing and water, Smithfield established itself as Londons livestock market, remaining so for almost 1,000 years. In 1123, the area near Aldersgate was granted by King Henry I for the foundation of St Bartholomews Priory at the request of Prior Rahere in thanks for his being nursed back to good health. The Priory exercised its right to land between Aldersgate, Long Lane and modern-day Newgate Street, erecting its main western gate which opened onto Smithfield. The Priory thereafter held the rights to hold weekly fairs. A trading event for cloth and other goods as well as being a pleasure forum, in 1855, however, Bartholomew Fair was closed down by the City authorities after degenerating into a magnet for debauchery and public disorder. A chapel and hermitage were constructed, renamed New Church Haw, but in 1371, later Augustinian canonesses established the Priory of St Mary, north of the Knights of St John property. By the end of the 14th century, these houses were regarded by City traders as interlopers — occupying what had previously been public open space nearby one of the City gates. On numerous occasions vandals damaged the Charterhouse, eventually demolishing its buildings, by 1405, a stout wall was built to protect the property and maintain the privacy of the Order, particularly its church where men and women alike came to worship. The religious houses were dissolved in the Reformation, and their lands broken up, the Priory Church of St John remains, as does St Johns Gate, traditionally regarded as the boundary between Smithfield and Clerkenwell. John Houghton, Prior of Charterhouse, went to Thomas Cromwell accompanied by two other local priors seeking an oath of supremacy that would be acceptable to their communities. This resulted in their being flung into the Tower of London, on 29 May, the remaining twenty monks and eighteen lay brothers were forced to swear the oath of allegiance, the ten who refused were taken to Newgate Prison and left to starve. Until 1899 Charterhouse was extra-parochial, when it became a civil parish incorporated in the Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, from its inception, the Priory of St Bartholomew treated the sick. Letters Patent were presented to the City, granting property and income to the new foundation the following month, the Priorys principal church, St Bartholomew-the-Great, was reconfigured after the dissolution of the monasteries losing the western third of its nave. Reformed as an Anglican parish church, its boundaries were limited to the site of the ancient priory
13.
Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference
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The Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference is an association of the headmasters or headmistresses of 283 independent schools in the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies and the Republic of Ireland. For 2016/2017 the average day fees at a UK HMC school are £4,639 per term or £13,917 per annum, for 2016/2017 the average full boarding fees at a UK HMC school are £10,709 per term or £32,127 per annum. H. Stokoe, Daniel Harper, and James Welldon, john Dyne attended on the second day, and Alfred Carver did not turn up. From that date there have been annual meetings and it changed its name from the Headmasters Conference to the Headmasters and Headmistresses Conference in 1996. The current Chairman is Christopher King, Headmaster of Leicester Grammar School, membership of the HMC is often considered to be what defines a school as a public school in England and Wales. Not all private, independent schools are in the HMC, in particular, many girls schools, are not members. Today HMCs membership includes boys, girls and co-educational schools, the size of the Conference has grown. As late as the 1970s, membership was confined to 200 schools. J. Jewel], Master, Haileybury,1990 J. G. Parker, High Master, The Manchester Grammar School,1991 D. L. Milroy, Headmaster, Ampleforth College,1992 R. J. Gould, Master, Marlborough College,2002 G. In these years they served alongside the Chairman of the Conference until, in 1921, in some schools other titles are used, such as High Master, Warden, Rector and Principal. The Abbey School, Reading — Rachel S. E, dent Abingdon School – Mike J. J. Jeffery Bradfield College — Christopher C. Stevens Bradford Grammar School — Simon Hinchliffe Brentwood School — D, muller Solihull School — David E. J. J. Lloyd South Hampstead High School — Helen Pike Stamford School — Will M. Phelan Stephen Perse Foundation — Tricia Kelleher Stockport Grammar School — Andrew H
14.
Prime minister
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A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. In many systems, the prime minister selects and may dismiss members of the cabinet. In most systems, the minister is the presiding member. In parliamentary systems fashioned after the Westminster system, the minister is the presiding and actual head of government. In such systems, the head of state or the head of states official representative usually holds a ceremonial position. The prime minister is often, but not always, a member of the Legislature or the Lower House thereof and is expected with other ministers to ensure the passage of bills through the legislature. In some monarchies the monarch may also exercise powers that are constitutionally vested in the crown. The first actual usage of the prime minister or Premier Ministre was used by Cardinal Richelieu when in 1625 he was named to head the royal council as prime minister of France. Louis XIV and his descendants generally attempted to avoid giving this title to their chief ministers, the term prime minister in the sense that we know it originated in the 18th century in the United Kingdom when members of parliament disparagingly used the title in reference to Sir Robert Walpole. Over time, however, the title became honorific and remains so in the 21st century, the monarchs of England and the United Kingdom had ministers in whom they placed special trust and who were regarded as the head of the government. Examples were Thomas Cromwell under Henry VIII, William Cecil, Lord Burghley under Elizabeth I, Clarendon under Charles II and these ministers held a variety of formal posts, but were commonly known as the minister, the chief minister, the first minister and finally the prime minister. The power of ministers depended entirely on the personal favour of the monarch. Although managing the parliament was among the skills of holding high office. Although there was a cabinet, it was appointed entirely by the monarch, when the monarch grew tired of a first minister, he or she could be dismissed, or worse, Cromwell was executed and Clarendon driven into exile when they lost favour. Kings sometimes divided power equally between two or more ministers to prevent one minister from becoming too powerful, late in Annes reign, for example, the Tory ministers Harley and St John shared power. The monarch could no longer any law or impose any tax without its permission. It is at point that a modern style of prime minister begins to emerge. A tipping point in the evolution of the prime ministership came with the death of Anne in 1714, George spoke no English, spent much of his time at his home in Hanover, and had neither knowledge of, nor interest in, the details of English government
15.
Knaith
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Knaith is a village and civil parish about 3 miles south of the town of Gainsborough in the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. The population of the parish at the 2011 census was 335. Knaith is listed in the 1086 Domesday Book with three households, a meadow of 25 acres and 26 acres of woodland. The Lord of the property was in both 1066 and 1086 was the St Marys Abbey of Stow, and the Tenant in Chief in 1086 was the Bishop of Lincoln, there are earthwork remains of Knaith medieval village. These include a deer park created in the early 13th century. South of Knaith Hall are garden remains from the 16th or 17th century, Knaith Hall is a red-brick 15th-century building with some timber framing and is now Grade II listed. The Church of England parish church of St Mary is 11th century, with alterations from the 14th and 18th, and it is a Grade II* listed building. St Marys might be the transept or nave of the church of Heynings Priory, media related to Knaith at Wikimedia Commons
16.
Newcastle upon Tyne
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Newcastle is the most populous city in the North East and forms the core of the Tyneside conurbation, the eighth most populous urban area in the United Kingdom. Newcastle is a member of the English Core Cities Group and is a member of the Eurocities network of European cities. Newcastle was part of the county of Northumberland until 1400, when it became a county of itself, the regional nickname and dialect for people from Newcastle and the surrounding area is Geordie. Newcastle also houses Newcastle University, a member of the Russell Group, the city developed around the Roman settlement Pons Aelius and was named after the castle built in 1080 by Robert Curthose, William the Conquerors eldest son. The city grew as an important centre for the trade in the 14th century. The port developed in the 16th century and, along with the lower down the River Tyne, was amongst the worlds largest shipbuilding and ship-repairing centres. Newcastles economy includes corporate headquarters, learning, digital technology, retail, tourism and cultural centres, among its icons are Newcastle United football club and the Tyne Bridge. Since 1981 the city has hosted the Great North Run, a marathon which attracts over 57,000 runners each year. The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius and it was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain, Pons Aelius population at this period was estimated at 2,000. Fragments of Hadrians Wall are visible in parts of Newcastle, particularly along the West Road, the course of the Roman Wall can be traced eastwards to the Segedunum Roman fort in Wallsend—the walls end—and to the supply fort Arbeia in South Shields. After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the river Tyne and its settlements in ruin. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088 rebellion against the Normans, Monkchester was all, because of its strategic position, Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, erected a wooden castle there in the year 1080. The town was known as Novum Castellum or New Castle. The wooden structure was replaced by a castle in 1087. The castle was again in 1172 during the reign of Henry II. Much of the keep which can be seen in the city dates from this period. Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was Englands northern fortress, incorporated first by Henry II, the city had a new charter granted by Elizabeth in 1589
17.
Almshouse
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An almshouse is charitable housing provided to enable people to live in a particular community. They are often targeted at the poor of a locality, at those from certain forms of employment, or their widows. Many almshouses are European Christian institutions though some are secular, alms are, in the Christian tradition, money or services donated to support the poor and indigent. Almshouses were established from the 10th century in Britain, to provide a place of residence for poor, old and distressed people. The first recorded almshouse was founded in York by King Athelstan, in the Middle Ages, the majority of European hospitals functioned as almshouses. In 1269 or 1270 an almshouse was established in Stavanger as the first known in Norway, the English tradition of almshouses was introduced to the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania by its founder, William Penn. The Maryland legislature created almshouses in Anne Arundel County, financed by property taxes on landowners throughout the state, massachusetts also had a long tradition of almshouses. In the United States, aid tended to be limited to the elderly and disabled, Almshouses have been created throughout the period since the 10th century, up to the present day. Many of the almshouses in England were established with the aim of benefiting the soul of the founder or their family. As a result, most were regarded as chantries and were dissolved during the Reformation, Almshouses tend to be characterised by their charitable status and by the aim of supporting the continued independence of their residents. In the Netherlands, a number of hofjes are still functioning as accommodation for elderly people, the economics of almshouses takes the form of the provision of subsidised accommodation, often integrated with social care resources such as wardens. The basis for modern civil almshouses and workhouses came into being in 1597 when the Act for the Relief of the Poor was enacted. These institutions underwent various population, program, and name changes, blockley Almshouse Carroll County Almshouse and Farm, Westminster, Maryland Halfway house Hostel List of British almshouses Poorhouse Heath, Sidney. Old English houses of alms, a record with architectural and historical notes. Almshouses in the West Riding of Yorkshire 1600-1900, goose, Nigel, Caffrey, Helen, Langley, Anne, eds. The British Almshouse, new perspectives on philanthropy ca 1400-1914, the Almshouse Association The Almshouse Residents Action Group List of English Almshouses associated with monastic institutions. Medieval Hospitals of England, by Rotha Mary Clay
18.
Henry Levett
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Dr. Henry Levett was an early English physician who wrote a pioneering tract on the treatment of smallpox and served as chief physician at London Charterhouse. Levett was a pupil at Charterhouse School, and then attended Magdalen College, Oxford and he graduated with an M. D. from Oxford in 1699. Levett was also a ground-breaking doctor, in 1710 he wrote a paper at the request of Dr. John Freind urging the user of cathartics in treating smallpox. Levett had made a study of two cases, and refers to those in his treatise, written in Latin, which Dr. Freind reprinted in its entirety in his works of 1733. Henry Levett is also believed have authored the memoir of Dr. William Wagstaffe. Levetts work on Wagstaffe, entitled Character, which was prefixed to the Wagstaffes Miscellaneous Works published in 1725, Levett and Freind were both friends and correspondents of the English antiquarian Thomas Hearne, who frequently corresponded with the two physicians about his health and other topics. Levett rebuilt at his own expense the school home, the home extending beside. Levett resided in the home until his death, and he decorated it with oak panelling, Levett played a major role in shaping the early history of the Charterhouse. He also served as treasurer to the Royal College of Physicians, in that capacity Levett purchased 10 candlesticks and a pair of snuffers and stands from the goldsmith Matthew Cooper that are still in the collection of the Royal College of Physicians. Levett is buried at the foot of the altar in the chapel at Charterhouse, the grave contains an inscription in Latin as well as Levetts coat-of-arms. Henry Levett died on 2 July 1725, aged 56 and his widow remarried the schools headmaster Andrew Tooke
19.
Philip Charles Hardwick
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Philip Charles Hardwick was an English architect. Philip Charles Hardwick was born in Westminster in London, the son of the architect Philip Hardwick and his mother was also from an eminent architectural family, the Shaws. Philip Charles Hardwicks maternal grandfather was John Shaw Senior and his uncle was John Shaw Jr. Hardwick trained under his father and he exhibited regularly at the Royal Academy between 1848 and 1854. Philip Charles worked in the City of London, where he became the architect of grandiose banking offices. He designed five City banks, including Drummonds in Trafalgar Square and he was employed outside London designing branch offices at Hull and Leeds. His best known work was the Great Hall of Londons Euston railway station, the Great Hall was demolished in 1962 to make way for construction of the current Euston Station building. Hardwick, like his grandfather Thomas Hardwick, was the Surveyor to St Bartholomews Hospital in London and he was also an adviser in the new War Office and Admiralty competition of 1884. While he had been an architect of Queen Victoria to design the Albert Memorial in Kensington Gardens. Arthur William Blomfield was Hardwicks pupil in 1852–55, Hardwick retired to Wimbledon and married in Bath in the early 1870s. Two of his sons went into the military and served in South Africa during the Boer War, one of them, Hardwicks daughter, Helen, married Sir Henry George Lyons, later a director of the Science Museum in London. Philip Charles Hardwick is buried alongside his father, Philip, and the Shaw family in Kensal Green Cemetery, London
20.
Lucas Brothers (company)
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Lucas Brothers was a leading British building business based in London. The business was founded by Charles Thomas Lucas and Thomas Lucas and they were the sons of James Lucas, a builder from St Pancras, London. Charles joined his fathers business and was employed to manage construction of the Norwich. In 1842 Charles set up his own contracting business in Norwich and progressed to rebuilding Petos house, Charles and Thomas established a facility in Lowestoft from which they undertook various works, including the railway, the station, the Esplanade, St John’s church, and several hotels. At their works in Lowestoft the brothers pre-fabricated huts for the navvies who built the Crimea railway and their centre of operations then moved to London where they built various public buildings. Perhaps their most famous building contract was the Royal Albert Hall completed in 1871 and they also built Covent Garden Opera House, Floral Hall, Kings College Hospital, the Junior Carlton Club, Charterhouse School, and the Alexandra Palace. Private houses included Cliveden, Henham Hall, Rendlesham Hall, Normanhurst Court, in the 1860s the brothers collaborated with John Aird & Co. to form a civil engineering business known as Lucas & Aird. Charles Thomas Lucas married Charlotte Tiffin and had five sons and two daughters and he lived in London and then at Warnham in Sussex. He was created a Baronet in 1887, Thomas married Jane Golder and had a daughter. After her death, he married Mary Amelia Chamberlin, daughter of Robert Chamberlin of Norwich and he lived in London, Ascot, and briefly at Ashtead in Surrey. In 1895, following the death of Sir Charles Thomas Lucas, the business was dissolved
21.
Giles Gilbert Scott
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Scott came from a family of architects. He was noted for his blending of Gothic tradition with modernism, born in Hampstead, London, Scott was one of six children and the third son of George Gilbert Scott Jr. and his wife, Ellen King Samson. His father was an architect, the son of Sir George Gilbert Scott, a famous architect, known for designing the Albert Memorial. When Scott was three, his father was declared to be of unsound mind and was confined to the Bethlem Royal Hospital. Consequently, his sons saw little of him, giles later said that he remembered seeing his father only twice. A bequest from an uncle in 1889 gave the young Scott ownership of Hollis Street Farm, near Ninfield, Sussex, during the week Ellen Scott and her three sons lived in a flat in Battersea, spending weekends and holidays at the farm. She regularly took them on bicycling trips to sketch buildings in the area, Scott and his brothers were raised as Roman Catholics, their father was a Catholic convert. Giles attended Beaumont College on the recommendation of his father who admired the buildings of its preparatory school, in January 1899 Scott became an articled pupil in the office of Temple Moore, who had studied with Scotts father. From Moore, or Ellen Scott, or from his fathers former assistant P. B, Freeman, Scott got to know the work of his father. In a 2005 study of Scotts work, John Thomas observes that Scott seniors important church of St Agnes, Kennington clearly influenced Giless early work, in later years Scott remarked to John Betjeman, I always think that my father was a genius. … He was a far better architect than my grandfather and yet look at the reputations of the two men and he had an unusually free hand in working out his ideas, as Moore generally worked at home, leaving Freeman to run the office. In 1901, while Scott was still a pupil in Moores practice, two well-known architects were appointed as assessors for an open competition for architects wishing to be considered. G. F. Bodley was an exponent of the Gothic revival style. R. Norman Shaw was an architect, having begun in the Gothic style. Architects were invited by public advertisement to submit portfolios of their work for consideration by Bodley, from these, the two assessors selected a first shortlist of architects to be invited to prepare drawings for the new building. The competition attracted 103 entries, from architects including Temple Moore, Charles Rennie Mackintosh, with Moores approval, Scott submitted his own entry, on which he worked in his spare time. In 1903, the assessors recommended that Scott should be appointed, there was widespread comment at the nomination of a twenty-two-year-old with no existing buildings to his credit. Scott admitted that so far his only design to be constructed had been a pipe-rack, the choice of winner was even more contentious when it emerged that Scott was a Roman Catholic, but the assessors recommendation was accepted by the diocesan authorities
22.
Red telephone box
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The red telephone box, a telephone kiosk for a public telephone designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott, was a familiar sight on the streets of the United Kingdom, Malta, Bermuda and Gibraltar. The colour red was chosen to make easy to spot. From 1926 onwards, the fascias of the kiosks were emblazoned with a prominent crown, the red phone box is often seen as a British cultural icon throughout the world. In 2006 the K2 telephone box was voted one of Britains top 10 design icons, which included the Mini, Supermarine Spitfire, London tube map, World Wide Web, Concorde and the AEC Routemaster bus. Although production of the boxes ended with the advent of the KX series in 1985. The paint colour used most widely today is known as currant red and is defined by a British Standard and this slightly brighter red was introduced with the K8 model in 1968, but went on to be used across the estate on previous models too. Hence, for historical accuracy, any kiosks in pre-1968 settings should really be painted in the previous. The first standard public telephone kiosk introduced by the United Kingdom Post Office was produced in concrete in 1920 and was designated K1 and this design was not of the same family as the familiar red telephone boxes. One early example is located in Trinity Market in Kingston-upon-Hull, where it is still in use, most survivors are the later version, with full height glazing – the Mk236. The Royal Fine Art Commission was instrumental in the choice of the British standard kiosk, because of widespread dissatisfaction with the GPOs design, the Metropolitan Boroughs Joint Standing Committee organised a competition for a superior one in 1923, but the results were disappointing. The original wooden prototypes of the entries were put into public service at under-cover sites around London. That of Scotts design is the one known to survive and is still where it was originally placed. The Post Office chose to make Scotts winning design in cast iron and to paint it red and, with minor changes of detail. From 1926 K2 was deployed in and around London and the K1 continued to be erected elsewhere, K3, introduced in 1929, again by Giles Gilbert Scott, was similar to K2 but was constructed from concrete and intended for nationwide use. Cheaper than the K2, it was significantly more costly than the K1. The standard colour scheme for both the K1 and the K3 was cream, with red glazing bars, K4 incorporated a post box and machines for buying postage stamps on the exterior. Only a single batch of 50 K4 kiosks were built, some contemporary reports said the noise of the stamp-machines in operation disturbed phone-users, and the rolls of stamps in the machines became damp and stuck together in wet weather. This has been repeated but Johannessen chose not to, having found no evidence to support the story
23.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
24.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
25.
Ben Travers
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Ben Travers CBE AFC was an English writer. His output includes more than twenty plays, thirty screenplays, five novels and he is best remembered for his long-running series of farces first staged in the 1920s and 1930s at the Aldwych Theatre. Many of these were made into films and later television productions, after working for some years in his familys wholesale grocery business, which he detested, Travers was given a job by the publisher John Lane in 1911. After service as a pilot in the First World War, he began to write novels and he turned his 1921 novel, The Dippers, into a play that was first produced in the West End in 1922. His big break came in 1925, when the actor-manager Tom Walls bought the rights to his play A Cuckoo in the Nest. He followed this success with eight more farces for Walls and his team, most of the farces were adapted for film in the 1930s and 1940s, with Travers writing the screenplays for eight of them. After the Aldwych series came to a close, in 1935 Travers wrote a play with a religious theme. It was unsuccessful, and he returned to comedy, of his later farces only one, Banana Ridge, rivalled the runs of his 1920s hits, it was filmed in 1942. During the Second World War Travers served in the Royal Air Force, working in intelligence, and later served at the Ministry of Information, while producing two well-received plays. After the war Traverss output declined, he had a long period after the death of his wife in 1951, although he collaborated on a few revivals. He returned to playwriting in 1968, the resulting play, The Bed Before Yesterday, presented when he was 89, was the longest-running of all his stage works, easily outplaying any of his Aldwych farces. Travers was born in the London borough of Hendon, the elder son and he was educated at the Abbey School, Beckenham, and at Charterhouse. He did not greatly enjoy his schooldays and later declared that he had been a failure at school. The only thing he enjoyed there was cricket, for which he had a lifelong enthusiasm, later writing a memoir focusing on his passion for the game, Ninety-four Declared, when he was nine, his father took him to the Ashes match at the Oval. Travers left Charterhouse in 1904 and was sent by his parents to live in Dresden, for a few months and he found commercial life tedious and incomprehensible, I had no more idea what it was all about then than I have now and vice versa. He served first at the head office in Cannon Street in the City of London. From there, to his and the relief, he was soon transferred to the companys offices in Singapore. While at the Malacca outpost Travers had little work and much leisure and he later said he fell on them with rapturous excitement and found each volume a guidebook to the technique of stagecraft
26.
Ralph Vaughan Williams
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Ralph Vaughan Williams OM was an English composer. His works include operas, ballets, chamber music, secular and religious pieces and orchestral compositions including nine symphonies. Strongly influenced by Tudor music and English folk-song, his output marked a break in British music from its German-dominated style of the 19th century. Vaughan Williams was born to a family with strong moral views. Throughout his life he sought to be of service to his fellow citizens and he wrote many works for amateur and student performance. He was musically a late developer, not finding his voice until his late thirties. Vaughan Williams is among the best-known British symphonists, noted for his wide range of moods, from stormy and impassioned to tranquil. Among the most familiar of his concert works are Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis. His vocal works include hymns, folk-song arrangements and large-scale choral pieces and he wrote eight works for stage performance between 1919 and 1951. Although none of his operas became popular repertoire pieces, his ballet Job, Two episodes made notably deep impressions in Vaughan Williamss personal life. The First World War, in which he served in the army, had an emotional effect. Twenty years later, though in his sixties and devotedly married, he was reinvigorated by an affair with a much younger woman. He went on composing through his seventies and eighties, producing his last symphony months before his death at the age of eighty-five. His works have continued to be a staple of the British concert repertoire, Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney, Gloucestershire, the third child and younger son of the vicar, the Reverend Arthur Vaughan Williams and his wife, Margaret, née Wedgwood. His paternal forebears were of mixed English and Welsh descent, many of them went into the law or the Church, the judges Sir Edward and Sir Roland Vaughan Williams were respectively Arthurs father and brother. Margaret Vaughan Williams was a great-granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood and niece of Charles Darwin, Arthur Vaughan Williams died suddenly in February 1875, and his widow took the children to live in her family home, Leith Hill Place, Wotton, Surrey. The children were under the care of a nurse, Sara Wager, such views were consistent with the progressive-minded tradition of both sides of the family. When the young Vaughan Williams asked his mother about Darwins controversial book On the Origin of Species, she answered, great Uncle Charles thinks it took longer, but we need not worry about it, for it is equally wonderful either way
27.
Batting (cricket)
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In the sport of cricket, batting is the act or skill of hitting the cricket ball with a cricket bat to score runs or prevent the loss of ones wicket. A player who is currently batting is denoted as a batsman, the term specialist batsman is also used generically to describe players who specialise in batting, and the term bowler is also used in this context. The latter term can, however, refer to any player during their turn at bat, in womens cricket, the term batswoman is sometimes encountered, as is batter, but the male form is widely used in both mens and womens cricket. Cricketers have to adapt to various conditions when visiting international pitches, therefore, batsmen have to also have a good sense of decision making. During an innings two members of the side are on the pitch at any time, the one facing the current delivery from the bowler is denoted the striker. When a batsman is out, he is replaced by a teammate and this continues until the end of the innings or until 10 of the team members are out, where upon the other team gets a turn to bat. Batting tactics and strategy vary depending on the type of match being played as well as the current state of play, the main concerns for the batsmen are not to lose their wicket and to score as many runs as quickly as possible. Virat Kohli is an example of a batting legend who can adapt to all round conditions. As with all other cricket statistics, batting statistics and records are given much attention, the main statistic for batting is a players batting average. This is calculated by dividing the number of runs he has scored, not by the innings he has played, but by the number of times he has been dismissed. Sir Donald Bradman set many batting records, some as far back as the 1930s and still unbeaten, over time a standard batting technique has been developed which is used by most batsmen. Technique refers to the batsmans stance before the ball is bowled as well as the movement of the hands, feet, head, the movement of the batsman for a particular delivery depends on the shot being attempted. Shots may also be described as vertical bat shots, in which the bat is swung vertically at the ball, or horizontal or cross-bat shots and these textbook shots are standard material found in many coaching manuals. The advent of limited overs cricket, with its emphasis on rapid run-scoring, has led to increasing use of shots to hit the ball into gaps where there are no fielders. Unorthodox shots are typically—but not always— more high-risk than orthodox shots due to aspects of good batting technique being abandoned. The stance is the position in which a batsman stands to have the ball bowled to him, an ideal stance is comfortable, relaxed and balanced, with the feet 40 centimetres apart, parallel and astride the crease. Additionally, the front shoulder should be pointing down the wicket, the head facing the bowler, the weight equally balanced and the bat near the back toe. As the ball is about to be released, the batsman will lift his bat up behind up in anticipation of playing a stroke, by doing this he is ready to move swiftly into position to address the ball once he sees its path out of the bowlers hand
28.
Peter May (cricketer)
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Peter Barker Howard May, CBE was an English amateur cricketer, who played for Surrey, Cambridge University and England. On 9 July 2009, May was posthumously inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame, born in Reading, Berkshire, he was educated at Charterhouse and Pembroke College, Cambridge, and at both he was regarded as a batting prodigy. Across the 1950s, he was the most consistent and prolific English batsman in county and Test cricket. He made his Test match debut against the South Africans at Headingley in 1951, scoring 138, may was one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1952. May was the successor to Leonard Hutton as England captain after the successful defence of the Ashes on the 1954-55 tour of Australia. May enjoyed a largely successful captaincy of both his county and country, Surrey had been County Champions for seven years running, with May the captain for the last two seasons, and until 1958 England was never defeated under his leadership. He had beaten South Africa 3–2 in 1955, considered by many to have been the most exciting Test series since the war, Australia 2–1 in 1956, the West Indies 3–0 in 1957 and New Zealand 4–0 in 1958. He was widely regarded as the best post-war batsman England produced, tall, strong and disciplined with a technique, a straight bat. His standards improved with the responsibilities of captaincy and his Test average as captain was 54.03, in the low scoring Ashes series of 1956 he had made 453 runs and was out only once for less than 50, when he made 43. He enjoyed the loyalty of the team and the selectors and was ready to help his players. In 1958–59 he played too defensively and surrendered the initiative too readily to Richie Benaud, faced with Ian Meckiffs questionable bowling in the disastrous First Test he declined to make an official complaint as it would appear unsporting. After the Australian tour May beat New Zealand 1–0, India 5–0 and he lost 2–1 to the 1961 Australians and retired due to ill-health having been captain in a then record 41 Tests, Benaud being the only man to defeat him in a Test series. He retired entirely from first-class cricket in 1963, taking up a post in the City, with the insurance brokerage Willis Faber Dumas -now Willis Group. May succeeded Alec Bedser as Chairman of the England cricket selectors in 1982 and held the post for seven years, the reappointment of David Gower as captain for the disastrous 1989 Ashes series was widely seen as a mistake and precipitated Mays departure from the role. He served as President of the Marylebone Cricket Club and posthumously as President of Surrey CCC from 1995 to 1996 and he married Virginia Gilligan, a daughter of the former England captain Harold Gilligan and they had four daughters. May died at Liphook, Hampshire, from a tumour on 27 December 1994. Peter May served his National Service in the Writer branch of the Royal Navy, may has a stand named after him at the Oval, Surrey, England. Peter May was also an outstanding Eton Fives player, winning the Kinnaird Cup three years running, partnered by his brother, J. W. H, as a pair, the May brothers were invincible, and were never defeated
29.
Hampton School
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Hampton School is an independent boys day school in Hampton, Greater London, England. Although Hampton School was founded in 1557, there was provision in the will that the school would continue as long as the vicar, churchwardens. If not, then the properties would revert to his heirs and it seems that the school did not survive beyond 1568, or possibly earlier, and the properties reverted to the heirs. Subsequently, however, the school re-opened in 1612 and this was as a result of a Commission established to enquire into the fate of Tudor charities that had disappeared for various reasons. The learned counsell on bothe sides reached deadlock at the Commissioners, however, in the spirit of compromise and through the generosity of the then legal owner of the properties, Nicholas Pigeon, the school was re-endowed. The early school was on the site of St Marys Church by the River Thames and it moved to a site on Upper Sunbury Road in 1880. The new school buildings cost £8,000 and were built in the Elizabethan Tudor style to accommodate 125 day boys and 25 boarders, the school moved to its present site on Hanworth Road in 1939. The new 28 acre site allowed for expansion and the potential to provide for 600-650 boys, the foundation stone was laid on 5 July 1938 and a year later the school was opened. It is next to The Lady Eleanor Holles School for girls, with which it co-operates in a number of activities and shares several classes, clubs, facilities. Headmaster Barry Martin retired in July 2013 after 16 years of service and he was succeeded by Kevin Knibbs. Founders Day is celebrated by the school towards the end of academic year. The occasion is marked by a procession of boys walking from the school to St. Marys Church, through the Form Charity programme the whole school community helps raise money and awareness for good causes locally, nationally, and internationally. In 2012/13, over £25,000 was raised by Form Charity, a Level Results for 2012-2013, 31% of the mainstream grades were A*s,74. 23% were at A*-A and 94. 6% were at A*-B. Thirty boys sat the Pre-U Exam in Physics,18 of whom were graded D2, the equivalent of an A*, nearly all leavers secured places at an elite university and thirty one Oxbridge offers were confirmed. The School’s results are significantly above the figures and almost all Fifth Formers stay on in the Sixth Form. These are results for GCSE in 2012-13,89. 64% of the grades were A*s and As, the national figure for A* grades for boys in 2013 was 5. 3%. One boy achieved 11 A* grades, twenty achieved 10 and 14 achieved 9, A* grades accounted for over 57% of all grades awarded. There was a 99. 89% A*-C grade pass rate, in Mathematics, Geography, Physics and Biology boys follow the more rigorous IGCSE courses
30.
King Power Stadium
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The King Power Stadium is a football stadium located in Leicester, England. It is the home of Leicester City, the current champions of the Premier League following their win in the 2015-16 season. The all-seater stadium opened in 2002 and has a capacity of 32,312, the current record attendance at the stadium for football is 32,242. It is named after travel retail group King Power, a company owned by the clubs owners, the site has hosted rugby and football international matches, as well as boxing events. The address of the ground Filbert Way, retains a link to their former home Filbert Street, inside the stadium, suites & lounges are named after club legends. Leicesters previous stadium was at nearby Filbert Street, which had been their home since 1891, however, success in the late 1990s saw crowds rise, which meant that virtually every game at Filbert Street was a sell-out by the end of the decade. Relocation was soon back on the cards, several similar sized clubs had relocated to new stadiums around this time, including Leicesters midland rivals Stoke City and Derby County. In early 1998, plans were announced for a 40,000 all-seater stadium to be built at Bede Island South in time for the 2000–01 season, but these plans were abandoned on 5 January 2000. Work on the began in the summer of 2001. The stadium was completed on time in the summer of 2002, however, it was not an easy start at their new stadium as they had just been relegated from the Premier League and were more than £30 million in debt. The stadium itself is thought to have cost around £37 million to build, the stadium also has under-soil heating. The record attendance for football at the stadium is 32,242, the overall record attendance at the stadium is thought to be between 32, 488-32,500, for a rugby union match between Leicester Tigers and Bath in 2006. This is because this rugby match took place prior to seats being removed to provide segregation of rival football fans, the stadium was officially opened by former Leicester striker Gary Lineker on 23 July 2002. He used a giant pair of scissors to cut a ribbon on the pitch after arriving at the stadium in a Walkers lorry, the first game at the new stadium was a friendly against Spanish team Athletic Bilbao, on 4 August 2002. The game finished 1–1, with Tiko scoring the first goal at the stadium, the first competitive match took place six days later and Leicester beat Watford 2–0 in front of a near-capacity crowd of 31,022. Brian Deane scored both goals, including the stadiums first in competitive games, Birse Construction who had built the stadium therefore lost a large part of their fee, and they withdrew from any further football ground construction. The main losers from this were Leicesters local rivals Coventry City, on 1 March 2013, Leicester Citys Thai owners King Power bought the ground through their company K Power Holdings Co, Ltd. In 2015, vice-chairman Aiyawatt Srivaddhanaprabha stated that plans were in place to increase the capacity of the ground to around 42,000, relocation to a bigger stadium has also been considered
31.
GCE Advanced Level
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A number of countries, including Singapore, Kenya, Mauritius and Zimbabwe have developed qualifications with the same name as and a similar format to the British A Levels. Obtaining A Level or equivalent qualifications is generally required for university entrance, a Levels are generally worked towards over two years and split into two parts, with one part studied in each year. The first part is known as the Advanced Subsidiary Level, A1 Level or AS Level, the second part is known as the A2 Level and is more in depth and academically rigorous than the A1 Level. Up to June 2009 a third Special/Advanced Extension Award level was available for the brightest candidates, a number of countries use A Levels as a school-leaving qualification. The A Levels taken by students in some countries often differ significantly from the A Levels taken in the United Kingdom, a Levels are the secondary school leaving qualification offered in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These are not compulsory, unlike GCSEs, in Scotland, A Levels are also offered by selected schools as an alternative school-leaving qualification in place of the Scottish Advanced Higher. The British variant of A/AS levels are taken in many Commonwealth and former Commonwealth countries. British international schools in foreign countries generally offer the British A Levels as offered through Edexcel or Cambridge International Examinations, at select examination centres, the British A Level exams may also be available to private candidates. A-level has become a choice for a number of students in Nepal. A-levels offered in Pakistan by non-governmental, private institutions, along with International Baccalaureate, Examinations are handled by international British boards and the program is equivalent to Higher Secondary School Certificate. Academies are established all around the country which prepare the students to take the examinations as a private candidate, in Brunei, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Brunei or have a format, curriculum, in Malaysia, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Malaysia or have a format, curriculum, for instance, there are two types of A Level in Malaysia, Cambridge A Level and Edexcel International Advanced Level. A number of papers for offered, such as French, are customised to support the national educational standards. Additionally, International A Level qualifications from Edexcel are available, for which exams may be registered through the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate, in Seychelles, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations. Some subjects are unique to Seychelles or have a format, curriculum, in Sri Lanka, A Level is offered by governmental and non governmental schools. The qualifications are awarded upon completion of examinations called Local A Levels while most of the private schools award them upon London A Levels. Local GCE Advanced Level qualification is offered by the Department of Examinations, passing A Levels is the major requirement for applying local universities
32.
International Baccalaureate
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The International Baccalaureate, formerly known as the International Baccalaureate Organization, is an international educational foundation headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and founded in 1968. To teach these programmes, schools need to be authorised by IB, the organizations name and logo were changed in 2007 to reflect a reorganisation. Consequently, IB may now refer to the organisation itself, any of the four programmes, when Marie-Thérèse Maurette wrote Educational Techniques for peace. In 1948, she created the framework for what would become the IB Diploma Programme. The IB headquarters were established in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1968 for the development. The IB Middle Years Programme was first offered in 1994, within five years,51 countries had MYP schools. A revised MYP programme was introduced in September 2014, the IB Career-related Programme was first offered in 2012. Alec Peterson was IBs first director general, followed by Gérard Renaud, Roger Peel, Derek Blackman, George Walker, Jeffrey Beard and Dr. Siva Kumari. As the IBs mission in action, the learner profile describes the aspirations of a global community that shares the values underlying the IBs educational philosophy. The IB learner profile describes the attributes and outcomes of education for international-mindedness, IB learners strive to be, Inquirers Knowledgeable Thinkers Communicators Principled Risk-takers Balanced Reflective All four programmes use the IB learner profile. The IB maintains its Foundation Office in Geneva, Switzerland, the Assessment Centre is located in Cardiff, Wales and the curriculum centre moved in 2011 to The Hague, Netherlands. Three Global Centres have been opened, Bethesda, Maryland in the United States, Singapore, in 2003, the IB established the IB Fund, incorporated in the United States, for the purpose of enhancing fundraising and keeping funds raised separate from operational funds. In 2004, the IB approved a plan to ensure that programmes and services are of the highest quality. In 2010 and 2015 the strategic plans were updated after substantial consultation, the vision for the next 5 years was to more consciously establish the IB as a leader in international education and the Board outlined a vision and four strategic goals with key strategic objective. The IB governance is composed of an IB Board of Governors, the structure of its different committees are based on respect, representation and collaboration. The Board of Governors can comprise between 15 and 25 members, members are elected by the Board on the recommendation of the governance committee, and from nominations presented from the Heads Council, Regional Councils and the Board. To encourage diversity of gender, culture and geography, there are only three ex officio positions, Director General, the chair of the Examining Board and the chair of the Heads Council. The IBDP was also featured in the summer 2002 edition of American Educator, in the USA, in 2006, as part of the American Competitiveness Initiative, President George W
33.
Roy Hattersley
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Roy Sydney George Hattersley, Baron Hattersley, PC, FRSL is a British Labour politician, author and journalist from Sheffield. He was MP for Birmingham Sparkbrook for 33 years from 1964 to 1997 and he served as Deputy Leader of the Labour Party from 1983 to 1992. Hattersley was born on 28 December 1932 in Sheffield, West Riding of Yorkshire, England, to Enid Brackenbury and Frederick Hattersley and his mother was a city councillor, and later served as Lord Mayor of Sheffield. Hattersley was a socialist and Labour supporter from his youth, electioneering at the age of 12 for his local MP and city councillors and he won a scholarship to Sheffield City Grammar School and went from there to study at the University of Hull. Having been accepted to read English at the University of Leeds, Hattersley became chairman of the new club and later treasurer, and he went on to chair the National Association of Labour Student Organisations. He also joined the executive of the IUSY, after graduating Hattersley worked briefly for a Sheffield steelworks and then for two years with the Workers Educational Association. He married his first wife Molly, who became a headteacher, in 1956 he was elected to the City Council as Labour representative for Crookesmoor and was, very briefly, a JP. On the Council he spent time as chairman of the Public Works Committee and his aim became a Westminster seat, and he was eventually selected for Labour to stand for election in the Sutton Coldfield constituency but lost to the Conservative Geoffrey Lloyd in 1959. He kept hunting for prospective candidacies, applying for twenty-five seats over three years, in 1963 he was chosen as the prospective parliamentary candidate for the multi-racial Birmingham Sparkbrook constituency and facing a Conservative majority of just under 900. On 16 October 1964 he was elected by a majority of 1,254 votes, at first he was Parliamentary Private Secretary to Margaret Herbison, the Minister for Pensions. His maiden speech was on a housing subsidies bill, still a Gaitskellite, he also joined the 1963 Club. He also wrote his first Endpiece column for The Spectator, despite the support of Roy Jenkins and Tony Crosland he did not gain a ministerial position until 1967, joining Ray Gunter at the Ministry of Labour. He was reportedly disliked by Prime Minister Harold Wilson as a Jenkinsite, the following year he was promoted to Under Secretary in the same ministry, now led by Barbara Castle, and become closely involved in implementing the unpopular Prices and Incomes Act 1966. In 1969 after the fiasco over In Place of Strife he was promoted to deputy to Denis Healey, one of his first jobs, while Healey was hospitalised, was to sign the Army Board Order – putting troops into Northern Ireland. The Labour defeat of 1970 ended six years of Labour government, Hattersley was to hold his seat – often increasing his majority – but for the next twenty-six years as MP he was to spend twenty one in Opposition. He was appointed Deputy Foreign Affairs Spokesman, again under Healey and he also took a Visiting Fellowship to the Kennedy School of Government at Harvard. During this time he became an enthusiastic supporter of the Common Market. For standing by the party Hattersley was appointed Shadow Defence Secretary 1972 to 1973, in the Wilson government of 1974 he was appointed the Minister of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, and in the 1975 New Year Honours, he was sworn of the Privy Council
34.
Abbreviation
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An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. It consists of a group of letters taken from the word or phrase, a contraction is an abbreviation, but an abbreviation is not necessarily a contraction. Acronyms and initialisms are regarded as subsets of abbreviations and they are abbreviations that consist of the initial letters or parts of words. Abbreviations have a history, created so that spelling out a whole word could be avoided. This might be done to time and space, and also to provide secrecy. Shortened words were used and initial letters were used to represent words in specific applications. In classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was common, in Roman inscriptions, Words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words, and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation. However, some could have more than one meaning, depending on their context, Abbreviations in English were frequently used from its earliest days. Manuscripts of copies of the old English poem Beowulf used many abbreviations, for example 7 or & for and, the standardisation of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviations. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, for example, sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master and ‹exacɔbate› for exacerbate. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time, an example from the Oxford University Register,1503, Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔ to quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ. The Early Modern English period, between the 15th and 17th centuries, had abbreviations like ye for Þe, used for the word the, hence, by later misunderstanding, during the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very fashionable. The use of abbreviation for the names of J. R. R. Tolkien and his friend C. S. Lewis, but before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In French, the period follows a abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is not the last letter of its antecedent. Like many other cross-channel linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously. Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U. S. media tend to use periods in two-word abbreviations like United States, many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations
35.
Remembrance Sunday
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It is held on the second Sunday in November, the Sunday nearest to 11 November, Armistice Day, the anniversary of the end of hostilities in the First World War at 11 a. m. in 1918. Wreaths of remembrance poppies are laid on the memorials and two minutes silence is held at 11 a. m, Church bells are usually rung half-muffled, creating a sombre effect. The national ceremony is held in London at the Cenotaph on Whitehall, two minutes silence is held at 11 a. m. before the laying of the wreaths. The silence represents the hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month in 1918. This silence is started by Royal Marines buglers sounding Last Post, gunners of the Royal Horse Artillery fire a gun salute at the end of the silence. The first wreath is laid on behalf of the nation by the Queen, other members of the Royal Family watch the ceremony from the Foreign Office balcony. Some members of the Royal Family may be abroad or in parts of the United Kingdom where they will usually lay wreaths at local ceremonies. A short religious service of remembrance is then conducted by the Bishop of London, the hymn O God Our Help In Ages Past is sung, led by the massed bands and the Choir of the Chapel Royal. The national anthem God Save the Queen is then sung, before the royal party depart, before the ceremony, military bands play live music each year, following the list of the Traditional Music of Remembrance. After the ceremony, as the play, a huge parade of veterans, organised by the Royal British Legion. Each contingent salutes the Cenotaph as they pass and a great many wreaths are handed over to be laid at it and they salute the Cenotaph as they are paying tribute to all those it represents, to all those who died and who lie buried elsewhere. As the veterans march back to Horse Guards Parade a member of the Royal Family takes their salute in front of the Guards Memorial, significant ceremonies also take place in the capitals of the nations and across the regions of the United Kingdom. The ceremony has been televised each year by the BBC since 1946 and it is the joint-longest-running live televised annual event in the world, the record being shared with the Chelsea Flower Show. When first shown in 1937 it was the second live event to be broadcast. The 1947 telerecording of the ceremony is the oldest surviving record of a broadcast of a live outside event, Remembrance Week is a week-long series of special programmes commemorating the ceremony, transmitted on BBC One Daytime. It is made by production company Fever Media and is presented by Gethin Jones and it was first transmitted in 2010 and returned in November 2011 for a second series. In the past, the Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs laid a wreath on behalf of all the British overseas territories. However, since 2001 there has been a campaign by Britains Overseas Territories Association for the right to lay a wreath themselves at the service at the Cenotaph
36.
Harrow School
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Harrow School /ˈhæroʊ/ is an independent boarding school for boys in Harrow, London, England. There is some evidence that there has been a school on the site since 1243, Harrow is one of the original nine public schools that were regulated by the Public Schools Act 1868. For the academic year 2016/17, Harrow charges boarders up to £12,450 per term, being the fourth most expensive boarding school in the Headmasters, the school has an enrolment of 805 boys spread across twelve boarding houses, all of whom board full-time. It remains one of four all-boys, full-boarding schools in Britain, harrows uniform includes straw hats, morning suits, top hats and canes. The school in its current form was founded in February 1572 under a Royal Charter granted by Queen Elizabeth I to John Lyon, a wealthy local farmer. In the original charter, six governors were named, including two members of the Gerard family of Flambards, and two members of the Page family of Wembley and Sudbury Court. It was only after the death of Lyons wife in 1608 that the construction of the first school building began and it was completed in 1615 and remains to this day, however it is now much larger. Lyon died in 1592, leaving his assets to two causes, the lesser was the School, and by far the greater beneficiary was the maintenance of a road to London,10 miles away. The school owned and maintained road for many years following Lyons death. At first the subject taught was Latin, and the only sport was archery. Both subjects were compulsory, archery was dropped in 1771, although most boys were taught for free, their tuition paid for by Lyons endowment, there were a number of fee-paying foreigners. It was their presence that amplified the need for boarding facilities, by 1701 for every local there were two foreign pupils, these generated funds for the School as fees increased. It is now known as The John Lyon School and is a prominent independent school and it maintains close links with Harrow. The majority of the boarding houses were constructed in Victorian times. The 20th century saw the innovation of a dining hall. Presently there are about 800 boys boarding at Harrow, according to a 2009 article, the school has expanded overseas, opening additional schools in Beijing, China, Shanghai, China, Bangkok, Thailand, and New Territories, Hong Kong. Boys at Harrow have two uniforms, the photograph was placed on the front cover of the News Chronicle the next morning under the tagline Every picture tells a story. The picture was reproduced in other national publications and became
37.
Blue (university sport)
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A blue is an award earned by athletes at a university and some schools for competition at the highest level. The awarding of blues began at Oxford and Cambridge universities in England and it is awarded at British, Australian and New Zealand universities. There is no record of any university colours being worn during the game, at the first Boat Race in 1829, the Oxford crew was dominated by students of Christ Church, whose college colours were dark blue. They wore white shirts with blue stripes, while Cambridge wore white with a pink or scarlet sash. At the second race, in 1836, a blue ribbon was attached to the front of the Cambridge boat. A Full Blue is the highest honour that may be bestowed on a Cambridge athlete, in the 1860s the three senior sports — rowing, cricket and athletics — were awarding Blues, and the presidents of each formed an informal Blues Committee to oversee such awards. By 1880 a number of clubs involved in Varsity matches had successfully requested the right to award Half Blues. The criteria for awarding blues are different for men and women, Awards are made at the discretion of the mens and womens Blues Committees. The Mens Blues Committee is formed from one representative of each of the Full Blue sports, each committee meets to discuss issues relating to Cambridge sport. In some sports with Full Blue status, the varsity match second team is awarded Second Team Colours, the awarding of a Full Blue often requires a person to fulfill a number of requirements in the same academic year, particularly in sports with Discretionary Full Blue status. The individuals case must be presented to the Blues Committee in person and must be backed up by substantial evidence, the award is unlikely to be made unless the person is of world-class or at least international standard. Each sport has specific criteria for award, the general categorisation of mens and womens sports is laid out below. The winner of a Blue or Half Blue is entitled to wear a blues blazer, Full Blue blazers are completely coloured Cambridge Blue. Half Blue blazers have a number of different designs, depending on the wearers sport, there is a variety of other Blue and Half Blue paraphernalia, including scarves, ties, pullovers, bow ties, caps and squares. Such items are worn with pride, as of May 2011, the colour recognised officially by the University as Cambridge Blue actually has a slight green tint. In 2008 in Cambridge an alumna launched Oxbridge Blues Jewellery specifically for womens Blues and these are the only blues item to have been licensed by the University of Cambridge. Men holding Blues, Half Blues or Second Team Colours in a Full Blue sport are eligible to join the Hawks Club, women holding any of these awards are eligible to join The Ospreys, which was founded in 1985. At the University of Oxford, the committees for awarding Blues and Half-Blues work on much the same principles as the Cambridge committees
38.
Combined Cadet Force
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The Combined Cadet Force is a Ministry of Defence sponsored youth organisation in the United Kingdom. As of 1 April 2014 there were 42,950 Cadets and 2,810 Cadet Force Adult Volunteers, MOD provides approximately £28M per year of funding to the CCF. The CCF was created in 1948 by the amalgamation of the Junior Training Corps, cCFs are still occasionally referred to as The Corps. On 12 May 1859, the Secretary of State for War, Jonathan Peel, sent out a letter to the public schools. The first school cadet corps was established at Rossall School in February 1860, felsted already had an armed drill contingent at the time of the War Office letter under the command of Sgt. Major Rogers RM, its claim on these grounds to be the oldest school corps was upheld by Field Marshal Earl Roberts in a letter to the Headmaster of 1904. Other corps were very quickly formed in 1860 at five schools, Eton, Harrow, Hurstpierpoint, Rugby. In February 1861 the Oxford City Rifle Cadet Corps was founded, with five companies, the first of which was composed of pupils of the Linden House School, in 1908, the units were re-titled the Officer Training Corps. A school contingent may have any combination of Royal Navy, Army, Royal Air Force and sometimes Royal Marines sections, the CCF movement is dominated by the independent sector with 200 contingents still being based in independent schools with only around 60 in state schools. It was reported in 2008 that some private school CCF detachments would be opened to pupils of state schools however there was no resultant change. In February 2014 it was announced that schools will lose millions of pounds of funding. Under the plans,100 state schools will set up cadet units by the end of 2015, a further 250 are expected to follow suit. Therefore, costs to schools involved are considerable, at over £200 per cadet per year, in July 2014 the following changes to CCF funding were proposed, From September 2015, MOD will no longer make a Contingent Grant. Schools would need to determine how best to fund those costs currently met by the grant, from September 2016, MOD will no longer fund the remuneration of adult volunteers. From September 2017, MOD will apply an additional charge to cover running costs, such as uniform, rations, in this year the charge will be about £75 per cadet per year, applied termly in arrears. From September 2018, the charge will rise to £150 per cadet per year, a Memorandum of Understanding, setting out what the MOD and each school are expected to provide, is under development. In January 2015, the proposal was shelved, and all funding was to remain in place, the Royal Navy Section wear a distinct CCF Cap Badge. The two regulation uniforms for RN cadets are No.4 working dress and No.3 parade dress and these are differentiated from regular RN uniform by the wearing of brassards and the CCF RN rank slide
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