1.
Sushi
–
Sushi is the Japanese preparation and serving of cooked vinegared rice combined with varied ingredients, chiefly seafood, vegetables, meat, and occasionally tropical fruits. Styles of sushi and its presentation vary widely, but the key ingredient in all cases is the rice, sushi can be prepared with either brown or white rice. It is often prepared with raw seafood, but some varieties of sushi use cooked ingredients. Sushi is often served with pickled ginger, wasabi, and soy sauce, daikon radish is popular as a garnish. Sushi is often confused with sashimi, a related Japanese dish consisting of sliced raw meat or fish. Sashimi is served as slices, unlike sushi, which as served as rolls, sushi originates in a Southeast Asian dish, known today as nare-zushi - salted fish, stored in fermented rice for possibly months at a time. The lacto-fermentation of the rice prevented the fish from spoiling, the rice would be discarded for consumption and this early type of sushi became an important source of protein for its Japanese consumers. The term sushi comes from a grammatical form no longer used in other contexts, and literally means sour-tasting. Narezushi is still made in Japan to this day, contemporary sushi generally bears only a vague resemblance to its predecessor. Funazushi, a strongly-flavoured and odoured narezushi made near Lake Biwa in Japan, vinegar began to be added to the preparation of narezushi in the Muromachi period for the sake of enhancing both taste and preservation. In addition to increasing the rices sourness, the significantly increased the dishs longevity, causing the fermentation process to be shortened. The primitive sushi would be furthered developed in Osaka, where over several centuries it became oshi-zushi, in this preparation and this practice reached Edo by the 18th century. It was in Edo that contemporary sushi was created by Hanaya Yohei at the end of period. Hanayas version was a precursor to fast food, by avoiding all fermentation, the dish could be prepared therefore very quickly, portion sizes shrank to roughly a third of the previous norm to further accommodate this principle. However, there is a mention of sushi in James Hepburns Japanese-English dictionary from 1873. The common ingredient in all types of sushi is vinegared sushi rice, fillings, toppings, condiments, and preparation vary widely. Note that due to rendaku consonant mutation, sushi is spelled with a z instead of an s whenever a prefix is attached, chirashizushi serves the rice in a bowl and tops it with a variety of raw fish and vegetable garnishes. It is commonly eaten because it is filling, fast and easy to make and it is eaten annually on Hinamatsuri in March
Sushi
–
Different types of nigiri-zushi and a long, tapered temaki; pickled
gari (ginger) is at the upper right of the serving board
Sushi
Sushi
–
Sushi by
Hiroshige in
Edo period
Sushi
–
Chirashizushi with raw ingredients
2.
Profession
–
The term is a truncation of the term liberal profession, which is, in turn, an Anglicization of the French term profession libérale. Medieval and early modern tradition recognized only four professions, divinity, medicine, the military officer, just as some professions rise in status and power through various stages, others may decline. Disciplines formalized more recently, such as architecture, now have equally long periods of study associated with them, originally, any regulation of the professions was self-regulation through bodies such as the College of Physicians or the Inns of Court. With the growing role of government, statutory bodies have taken on this role. It may be resisted as limiting the freedom to innovate or to practice as in their professional judgement they consider best. An example was in 2008, when the British government proposed wide statutory regulation of psychologists, besides regulating access to a profession, professional bodies may set examinations of competence and enforce adherence to an ethical code. Typically, individuals are required by law to be qualified by a professional body before they are permitted to practice in that profession. However, in countries, individuals may not be required by law to be qualified by such a professional body in order to practice. This requirement is set out by the Educational Department Bureau of Hong Kong, Professions tend to be autonomous, which means they have a high degree of control of their own affairs, professionals are autonomous insofar as they can make independent judgments about their work. This usually means the freedom to exercise their professional judgement, however, it also has other meanings. Professional autonomy is often described as a claim of professionals that has to serve primarily their own interests, one major implication of professional autonomy is the traditional ban on corporate practice of the professions, especially accounting, architecture, medicine, and law. This means that in many jurisdictions, these professionals cannot do business through regular for-profit corporations, the obvious implication of this is that all equity owners of the professional business entity must be professionals themselves. This avoids the possibility of an owner of the firm telling a professional how to do his or her job. But because professional business entities are locked out of the stock market. Professions enjoy a social status, regard and esteem conferred upon them by society. This high esteem arises primarily from the social function of their work. All professions involve technical, specialized and highly skilled work often referred to as professional expertise, training for this work involves obtaining degrees and professional qualifications without which entry to the profession is barred. Updating skills through continuing education is required through training and this power is used to control its own members, and also its area of expertise and interests
Profession
–
Jesus and the doctors of the Faith, by the entourage of
Giuseppe Ribera
3.
Culinary art
–
Culinary arts, in which culinary means related to cooking, is the art of the preparation, cooking and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. Table manners are sometimes referred to as a culinary art, culinarians are required to have knowledge of food science, nutrition and diet and are responsible for preparing meals that are as pleasing to the eye as well as to the palate. After restaurants, their places of work include delicatessens and relatively large institutions such as hotels and hospitals. Below is a list of the variety of culinary arts occupations. Consulting and Design Specialists – Work with restaurant owners in developing menus, the layout and design of dining rooms, restaurant management – Manage a restaurant, cafeteria, hotel dining area, etc. Food and Beverage Controller – Purchase and source ingredients in large hotels as well as manage the stores, entrepreneurship – Deepen and invest in businesses, such as bakeries, restaurants, or specialty foods. Food and Beverage Managers – Manage all food and beverage outlets in hotels, Food Stylists and Photographers – Work with magazines, books, catalogs, and other media to make food visually appealing. Food Writers and Food Critics – Communicate with the public on food trends, chefs and restaurants through newspapers, magazines, blogs, notables in this field include Julia Child, Craig Claiborne, and James Beard. Research and Development Kitchens – Develop new products for manufacturers and may also work in test kitchens for publications, restaurant chains, grocery chains. Sales – Introduce chefs and business owners to new products and equipment relevant to food production, instructors – Teach aspects of culinary arts in high school, vocational schools, colleges, recreational programs, and for specialty businesses. Training in culinary arts is possible in most countries around the world, with institutions government funded, privately funded or commercial. Web.17 Sept.2013 History of Culinary Arts,17 Sept.2013 The Food Timeline Beal, Eileen. Choosing a career in the restaurant industry, careers and jobs in the restaurant business, jobs, management, ownership. U. S. Department of Labor – Food Service Manager Information. Culinary Art - The Culinary Institute of Bologna – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation Chef Training Classes Information. ]U. S Department of Labor – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation and Serving Supervisors Information
Culinary art
–
Chefs training in
Paris,
France in 2005.
Culinary art
–
Cooking utilizes many
foods.
4.
Chef
–
A chef is a highly trained and skilled professional cook who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation of a particular cuisine. The word chef is derived from the chef de cuisine. Chefs can receive both formal training from an institution, as well as through apprenticeship with an experienced chef, the Brigade system is a system of hierarchy found in restaurants and hotels employing extensive staff, many of which use the word chef in their titles. Underneath the chefs are the kitchen assistants, a chefs standard uniform includes a hat called a toque, necktie, double-breasted jacket, apron and shoes with steel or plastic toe-caps. The word chef is derived from the chef de cuisine. In English, the chef in the culinary profession originated in the haute cuisine of the 19th century. The culinary arts, among other aspects of the French language introduced French loan-words into the English language, various titles, detailed below, are given to those working in a professional kitchen and each can be considered a title for a type of chef. Many of the titles are based on the brigade de cuisine documented by Auguste Escoffier, other names include executive chef, chef manager, head chef, and master chef. Chef de cuisine is the traditional French term from which the English word chef is derived and this is often the case for executive chefs with multiple restaurants. Involved in checking the sensory evaluation of dishes after preparation and they are aware of each sensory property of those specific dishes. The Sous-Chef de Cuisine is the second-in-command and direct assistant of the Chef de Cuisine and this person may be responsible for scheduling the kitchen staff, or substituting when the head chef is off-duty. Also, he or she will fill in for or assist the Chef de Partie when needed and this person is accountable for the kitchens inventory, cleanliness, organization, and the continuing training of its entire staff. A sous-chefs duties can also include carrying out the head chefs directives, conducting line checks, smaller operations may not have a sous-chef, while larger operations may have more than one. The sous chef is also responsible when the Executive Chef is absent, a chef de partie, also known as a station chef or line cook, is in charge of a particular area of production. In large kitchens, each chef de partie might have several cooks or assistants, in most kitchens, however, the chef de partie is the only worker in that department. Line cooks are often divided into a hierarchy of their own, starting with first cook, then second cook, kitchen-hands assist with basic food preparation tasks under the chefs direction. They carry out relatively unskilled tasks such as peeling potatoes and washing salad, stewards/ kitchen porters are involved in the scullery, washing up and general cleaning duties. In a smaller kitchen, these duties may be incorporated, a communard is in charge of preparing the meal for the staff during a shift
Chef
–
A
sushi chef at work
Chef
–
A French chef preparing a truffle for diners
Chef
–
A chef working with a
tandoor, a cylindrical clay oven used in cooking and baking
Chef
–
Chefs in training at chef school in Oxford, England
5.
Cook (profession)
–
A cook is a person who prepares food for consumption. A cook is sometimes referred to as a chef, although in the professional kitchen, the terms are not interchangeable. The term cook within a restaurant kitchen usually refers to a person with little to no influence on a menu and little to no command over others within the kitchen. These are usually all members of a restaurant kitchen that are underneath the sous chef in the brigade de cuisine. Other establishments may have a relatively constant menu, often only having people that can prepare food quickly and consistently, the kitchens in these particular restaurants would thus be entirely run by cooks intimately acquainted with the menu. This example would not include the short order cook, however, since they are capable, when used as a residential staff, the word cook may refer to the head of the kitchen in a great house or to a cook-housekeeper, responsible for cleaning as well. Professional cooks were used in Sardinia during the Nuragic Age, as proved by the sculptures of the Bronze Age. The first Olympic champion listed in the records was a cook, Coroebus of Elis, who won the sprint race in 776 BC. Lawrence of Rome, traditionally a patron saint of cooks and roasters, is reported to have said as he was being burned at the stake in the third century, if you want me well done, its time to turn me over. Chef Chief cook Cook Domestic worker Cooking List of cooking techniques Personal chef
Cook (profession)
–
Two restaurant chefs
Cook (profession)
–
A group of professional and aspiring cooks in a hotel kitchen (1990)
Cook (profession)
–
A cook at work (15th- or 16th-century German illustration)
6.
Cuisine
–
A cuisine is a style of cooking characterized by distinctive ingredients, techniques and dishes, and usually associated with a specific culture or geographic region. A cuisine is influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws, such as Hindu, Islamic and Jewish dietary laws, regional food preparation traditions, customs and ingredients often combine to create dishes unique to a particular region. Some factors that have an influence on a regions cuisine include the areas climate, for example a Tropical diet may be based more on fruits and vegetables, while a polar diet might rely more on meat and fish. The areas climate in large measure determines the native foods that are available, in addition, climate influences food preservation. For example, foods preserved for winter consumption by smoking, curing, the trade among different countries also largely affects a regions cuisine. Dating back to the ancient spice trade, seasonings such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, cinnamon and cassia found their way to the Middle East at least 4,000 years ago. Certain foods and food preparations are required or proscribed by the religiousness or sumptuary laws, such as Islamic dietary laws, Cuisine dates back to the Antiquity. Rome was known for its cuisine, wealthy families would dine in the Triclinium on a variety of dishes, their diet consisted of eggs, cheese, bread, meat, cuisines evolve continually, and new cuisines are created by innovation and cultural interaction. Molecular gastronomy, is a style of cooking which takes advantage of many technical innovations from the scientific disciplines. The term was coined in 1988 by late Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti and it is also named as multi sensory cooking, modernist cuisine, culinary physics, and experimental cuisine by some chefs. Besides, international trade brings new foodstuffs including ingredients to existing cuisines, a global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world, and can be categorized according to the common use of major foodstuffs, including grains, produce and cooking fats. Regional cuisines may vary based upon food availability and trade, cooking traditions and practices, for example, in Central and South America, corn, both fresh and dried, is a staple food. In northern Europe, wheat, rye, and fats of animal origin predominate, while in southern Europe olive oil is ubiquitous and rice is more prevalent. In Italy the cuisine of the north, featuring butter and rice, stands in contrast to that of the south, with its wheat pasta, china likewise can be divided into rice regions and noodle & bread regions. Throughout the Middle East and Mediterranean there is a common thread marking the use of lamb, olive oil, lemons, peppers, the vegetarianism practiced in much of India has made pulses such as chickpeas and lentils as significant as wheat or rice. From India to Indonesia the use of spices is characteristic, coconuts, african cuisines use a combination of locally available fruits, cereal grains and vegetables, as well as milk and meat products. In some parts of the continent, the traditional diet features a preponderance of milk, curd, in much of tropical Africa, however, cows milk is rare and cannot be produced locally
Cuisine
–
A wide variety of fruits and vegetables at the
La Boqueria.
Cuisine
–
A example of
nouvelle cuisine presentation. This dish consists of
marinated crayfish on
gazpacho asparagus and watercress
Cuisine
–
Typical
Ethiopian and
Eritrean cuisine:
Injera (pancake-like bread) and several kinds of wat (stew)
Cuisine
–
A
Ramadan dinner in
Tanzania
7.
Kitchen
–
A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. Many households have an oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances. The main function of a kitchen is serving as a location for storing, cooking and preparing food, commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, educational and workplace facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments. These kitchens are generally larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen, for example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. Commercial kitchens are generally subject to public health laws and they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the range or stove. Food was cooked over an open fire, technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from a source such as wells. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type, the rooms were arranged around a courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen, homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was often a small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own, some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens, the fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. Early medieval European longhouses had a fire under the highest point of the building. The kitchen area was between the entrance and the fireplace, in wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens, the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat
Kitchen
–
Modern
Western home kitchens
Kitchen
Kitchen
–
American type midcentury kitchen
Kitchen
–
Kitchen with stove and oven of a Roman inn (Mansio) at the Roman villa of Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler, Germany.
8.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
9.
English language
–
English /ˈɪŋɡlɪʃ/ is a West Germanic language that was first spoken in early medieval England and is now the global lingua franca. Named after the Angles, one of the Germanic tribes that migrated to England, English is either the official language or one of the official languages in almost 60 sovereign states. It is the third most common language in the world, after Mandarin. It is the most widely learned second language and a language of the United Nations, of the European Union. It is the most widely spoken Germanic language, accounting for at least 70% of speakers of this Indo-European branch, English has developed over the course of more than 1,400 years. The earliest forms of English, a set of Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Great Britain by Anglo-Saxon settlers in the century, are called Old English. Middle English began in the late 11th century with the Norman conquest of England, Early Modern English began in the late 15th century with the introduction of the printing press to London and the King James Bible, and the start of the Great Vowel Shift. Through the worldwide influence of the British Empire, modern English spread around the world from the 17th to mid-20th centuries, English is an Indo-European language, and belongs to the West Germanic group of the Germanic languages. Most closely related to English are the Frisian languages, and English, Old Saxon and its descendent Low German languages are also closely related, and sometimes Low German, English, and Frisian are grouped together as the Ingvaeonic or North Sea Germanic languages. Modern English descends from Middle English, which in turn descends from Old English, particular dialects of Old and Middle English also developed into a number of other English languages, including Scots and the extinct Fingallian and Forth and Bargy dialects of Ireland. English is classified as a Germanic language because it shares new language features with other Germanic languages such as Dutch, German and these shared innovations show that the languages have descended from a single common ancestor, which linguists call Proto-Germanic. Through Grimms law, the word for foot begins with /f/ in Germanic languages, English is classified as an Anglo-Frisian language because Frisian and English share other features, such as the palatalisation of consonants that were velar consonants in Proto-Germanic. The earliest form of English is called Old English or Anglo-Saxon, in the fifth century, the Anglo-Saxons settled Britain and the Romans withdrew from Britain. England and English are named after the Angles, Old English was divided into four dialects, the Anglian dialects, Mercian and Northumbrian, and the Saxon dialects, Kentish and West Saxon. Through the educational reforms of King Alfred in the century and the influence of the kingdom of Wessex. The epic poem Beowulf is written in West Saxon, and the earliest English poem, Modern English developed mainly from Mercian, but the Scots language developed from Northumbrian. A few short inscriptions from the period of Old English were written using a runic script. By the sixth century, a Latin alphabet was adopted, written with half-uncial letterforms and it included the runic letters wynn ⟨ƿ⟩ and thorn ⟨þ⟩, and the modified Latin letters eth ⟨ð⟩, and ash ⟨æ⟩
English language
–
The opening to the Old English epic poem
Beowulf,
handwritten in
half-uncial script: Hƿæt ƿē Gārde/na ingēar dagum þēod cyninga / þrym ge frunon... "Listen! We of the Spear-Danes from days of yore have heard of the glory of the folk-kings..."
English language
–
Countries of the world where English is a majority native language
English language
–
Title page of Geoffrey Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales c.1400
10.
Culinary profession
–
Culinary arts, in which culinary means related to cooking, is the art of the preparation, cooking and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. Table manners are sometimes referred to as a culinary art, culinarians are required to have knowledge of food science, nutrition and diet and are responsible for preparing meals that are as pleasing to the eye as well as to the palate. After restaurants, their places of work include delicatessens and relatively large institutions such as hotels and hospitals. Below is a list of the variety of culinary arts occupations. Consulting and Design Specialists – Work with restaurant owners in developing menus, the layout and design of dining rooms, restaurant management – Manage a restaurant, cafeteria, hotel dining area, etc. Food and Beverage Controller – Purchase and source ingredients in large hotels as well as manage the stores, entrepreneurship – Deepen and invest in businesses, such as bakeries, restaurants, or specialty foods. Food and Beverage Managers – Manage all food and beverage outlets in hotels, Food Stylists and Photographers – Work with magazines, books, catalogs, and other media to make food visually appealing. Food Writers and Food Critics – Communicate with the public on food trends, chefs and restaurants through newspapers, magazines, blogs, notables in this field include Julia Child, Craig Claiborne, and James Beard. Research and Development Kitchens – Develop new products for manufacturers and may also work in test kitchens for publications, restaurant chains, grocery chains. Sales – Introduce chefs and business owners to new products and equipment relevant to food production, instructors – Teach aspects of culinary arts in high school, vocational schools, colleges, recreational programs, and for specialty businesses. Training in culinary arts is possible in most countries around the world, with institutions government funded, privately funded or commercial. Web.17 Sept.2013 History of Culinary Arts,17 Sept.2013 The Food Timeline Beal, Eileen. Choosing a career in the restaurant industry, careers and jobs in the restaurant business, jobs, management, ownership. U. S. Department of Labor – Food Service Manager Information. Culinary Art - The Culinary Institute of Bologna – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation Chef Training Classes Information. ]U. S Department of Labor – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation and Serving Supervisors Information
Culinary profession
–
Chefs training in
Paris,
France in 2005.
Culinary profession
–
Cooking utilizes many
foods.
11.
Haute cuisine
–
Haute cuisine or Grande cuisine refers to the cuisine of high level establishments, gourmet restaurants and luxury hotels. Haute cuisine is characterized by meticulous preparation and careful presentation of food, at a price level. Haute cuisine developed out of political and social changes in France, the high cuisine represented a hierarchy in 17th century France as only the privileged could eat it. In addition to who was eating Haute cuisine and what exactly it consisted of, professionally trained chefs were quintessential to the birth of Haute cuisine in France. The extravagant presentations and complex techniques that these chefs were known for required ingredients, time, equipment, for this reason, early Haute cuisine was accessible to a small demographic of rich and powerful individuals. Professional French chefs were not only responsible for building and shaping Haute cuisine, the cuisine was very rich and opulent with decadent sauces made out of butter, cream, and flour, the basis for many typical French sauces that are still used today. The 17th century chef and writer La Varenne marked a change from cookery known in the Middle Ages, to somewhat lighter dishes, georges Auguste Escoffier is a central figure in the modernisation of haute cuisine as of about 1900, which became known as cuisine classique. These were simplifications and refinements of the work of Carême, Jules Gouffé. It was practised in the restaurants and hotels of Europe. In its time, it was considered the pinnacle of haute cuisine, and was a distinct from cuisine bourgeoise, the working-class cuisine of bistros and homes. The 1960s were marked by the appearance of nouvelle cuisine, as chefs rebelled from Escoffiers orthodoxy, nouvelle cuisine was a movement towards conceptualism and minimalism and was a direct juxtaposition to earlier haute cuisine styles of cooking, which were much more extravagant. While menus were increasingly short, dishes used more inventive pairings, within 20 years, however, chefs began returning to the earlier style of haute cuisine, although many of the new techniques remained
Haute cuisine
–
An example of French Haute cuisine presentation
Haute cuisine
–
A
Jacques Lameloise (a 3 star
Michelin Guide chef) nouvelle cuisine presentation
12.
Tandoor
–
The term tandoor /tɑːnˈdʊər/ refers to a variety of ovens, the most commonly known is a cylindrical clay or metal oven used in cooking and baking. The tandoor is used for cooking in Southern, Central and Western Asia, temperatures in a tandoor can approach 480 °C, and it is common for tandoor ovens to remain lit for long periods to maintain the high cooking temperature. The tandoor design is something of a transitional form between a makeshift earth oven and the masonry oven. However, according to Dehkhoda Persian Dictionary, the word originates from Akkadian tinûru tin means mud and nuro/nura means fire, as such, tandoor may have originated from Semitic. In Sanskrit, the tandoor was referred to as kandu, tandoor’ is also said to have been derived from Persian word ‘Tannur’, derived from Babylonian word ‘tinuru’ based on Semitic word ‘nar’ meaning fire. A tandoor may be used to bake many different types of flatbread, some of the most common are Tandoori Roti, Tandoori Naan, Tandoori Laccha Paratha, Missi Roti, and Tandoori Kulcha. Roasted cashews, corn and cottage cheese paste marinated in spiced thick cream grilled in Tandoor, potatoes stuffed with cottage cheese, vegetables and cashew nuts, roasted in Tandoor. Tandoori chicken is a roasted chicken delicacy that originated in Punjab region of India, the chicken is marinated in yogurt seasoned with garam masala, garlic, ginger, cumin, cayenne pepper, and other spices depending on the recipe. In hot versions of the dish, cayenne, red chili powder, or other spices give the red color, in milder versions. It is traditionally cooked at high temperatures in an earthen oven, chicken tikka is a dish from Mughlai cuisine made by grilling small pieces of chicken which have been marinated in spices and yogurt. It is traditionally cooked on skewers in a tandoor and is usually boneless and it is normally served and eaten with a green coriander chutney, or used in preparing the curry chicken tikka masala. Kalmi kabab, a snack in South Asian cuisine, is made by marinating chicken drumsticks. Various freshly ground spices are added to the yogurt to form a marinade for the chicken, traditionally, the marinaded chicken is given 12 hours at the least. When prepared, the drumsticks are usually garnished with mint leaves, the size and shape of a samosa, as well as the consistency of the pastry used, can vary considerably. In some regions of Central Asia, samosas are typically baked in a tandoor, the Afghan tandoor sits above the ground and is made of bricks. Tandoor cooking is an aspect of Punjabi cuisine in undivided Punjab. In rural Punjab, it was common to have communal tandoors, some villages still have a communal tandoor, which was a common sight prior to 1947. In ancient times, the tonir was worshiped by the Armenians as a symbol of the sun in the ground, Armenians made tonirs in resemblance with the setting sun “going into the ground”
Tandoor
–
Clay pots and assembly
Tandoor
–
Charcoal-fired stainless-steel tandoor, with ash tray and thermometer
Tandoor
–
Coal fired M.S Drum Tandoor
Tandoor
–
Chicken wings, onions and potato slices with pork fat in between roasted in tonir in Armenia.
13.
Auguste Escoffier
–
Georges Auguste Escoffier was a French chef, restaurateur and culinary writer who popularized and updated traditional French cooking methods. In particular, he codified the recipes for the five mother sauces, referred to by the French press as roi des cuisiniers et cuisinier des rois, Escoffier was Frances preeminent chef in the early part of the 20th century. Escoffier published Le Guide Culinaire, which is used as a major reference work. Escoffiers recipes, techniques and approaches to kitchen management remain highly influential today, and have adopted by chefs and restaurants not only in France. Escoffier was born in the village Villeneuve-Loubet, today in Alpes-Maritimes, the house where he was born is now the Musée de lArt Culinaire, run by the Foundation Auguste Escoffier. However, only months after arriving in Paris, Escoffier was called to military duty. His army experiences led him to study the technique of canning food, some time before 1878, he opened his own restaurant, Le Faisan dOr, in Cannes. In 1880, he married Delphine Daphis, in 1884, the couple moved to Monte Carlo, where Escoffier was employed by César Ritz, manager of the new Grand Hotel, to take control of the kitchens. At that time, the French Riviera was a resort, during the summers, Escoffier ran the kitchens of the Grand Hôtel National in Lucerne. Ritz put together what he described as an army of hotel men for the conquest of London. The Savoy under Ritz and his partners was an success, attracting a distinguished and moneyed clientele. Gregor von Görög, chef to the family, was an enthusiast of Escoffiers zealous organization. Aristocratic women, hitherto unaccustomed to dining in public, were now seen in full regalia in the Savoy dining, Escoffier created many famous dishes at the Savoy. In 1893, he invented the pêche Melba in honour of the Australian singer Nellie Melba, other Escoffier creations, famous in their time, were the bombe Néro, fraises à la Sarah Bernhardt, baisers de Vierge and suprêmes de volailles Jeannette. He also created salad Réjane, after Gabrielle Réjane, and tournedos Rossini, on 8 March 1898, Ritz, Echenard and Escoffier were dismissed from the Savoy for. Gross negligence and breaches of duty and mismanagement, the real details of the dispute did not emerge at first. Ritz and his colleagues even prepared to sue for wrongful dismissal, for example, wines and spirits to the value of £6,400 had been diverted in the first six months of 1897. Escoffier additionally confessed to taking gifts or bribes from the Savoy’s suppliers worth up to 5% of the resulting purchases, Escoffier accepted an obligation to repay £8,000, but was allowed to settle his debt for £500
Auguste Escoffier
–
Auguste Escoffier
Auguste Escoffier
–
The Savoy Hotel, London
Auguste Escoffier
–
Ma Cuisine (1934)
14.
Saucier
–
A saucier or sauté chef is a position in the classical brigade style kitchen. It can be translated into English as sauce cook, in addition to preparing sauces, the saucier prepares stews, hot hors dœuvres, and sautés food to order. Although it is considered the highest position of the station cooks. In Georges Auguste Escoffiers system of the kitchen brigade, outlined in his Guide Culinaire. Frederic Forrests character Jay Chef Hicks in the 1979 film Apocalypse Now remarks to protagonist Capt. Benjamin Willard, who is from New Orleans, that he was raised to be a saucier. In Tropic Thunder, the character Kirk Lazarus is playing in the movie within the claims to have been a saucier in San Antonio before the war broke out
Saucier
–
Sauciers-in-training
15.
Sauce
–
In cooking, a sauce is liquid, cream, or semi-solid food served on or used in preparing other foods. Sauces are not normally consumed by themselves, they add flavor, moisture, Sauce is a French word taken from the Latin salsa, meaning salted. Possibly the oldest recorded European sauce is garum, the sauce used by the Ancient Greeks, while doubanjiang. Sauces need a liquid component, but some sauces may contain more components than liquid. Sauces are an element in cuisines all over the world. Sauces may be used for sweet or savory dishes and they may be prepared and served cold, like mayonnaise, prepared cold but served lukewarm like pesto, cooked and served warm like bechamel or cooked and served cold like apple sauce. Sauces may be prepared by the cook, especially in restaurants. Sauces for salad are called salad dressing, Sauce made by deglazing a pan are called pan sauces. A cook who specializes in making sauces is called a saucier, sauces used in traditional Japanese cuisine are usually based on shōyu, miso or dashi. Ponzu, citrus-flavored soy sauce, and yakitori no tare, sweetened soy sauce, are examples of shoyu-based sauces. Miso-based sauces include gomamiso, miso with ground sesame, and amamiso, in modern Japanese cuisine, the word sauce often refers to Worcestershire sauce, introduced in the 19th century and modified to suit Japanese tastes. Tonkatsu, okonomiyaki, and yakisoba sauces are based on this sauce, Japanese horseradish or wasabi sauce is used on sushi and sashimi or mixed with soy sauce to make wasabi-joyu. Some sauces in Chinese cuisine are soy sauce, doubanjiang, hoisin sauce, sweet sauce, chili sauces, oyster sauce. Korean cuisine uses sauces such as doenjang, gochujang, samjang, aekjeot, southeast Asian cuisines, such as Thai and Vietnamese cuisine, often use fish sauce, made from fermented fish. Indian cuisines use sauces such as tomato-based curry sauces, tamarind sauce, coconut milk-/paste-based sauces, there are substantial regional variations in Indian cuisine, but many sauces use a seasoned mix of onion, ginger and garlic paste as the base of various gravies and sauces. Various cooking oils, ghee and/or cream are also ingredients in Indian sauces. Filipino cuisine typically uses toyomansi as well as different varieties of suka, patis, bagoong and banana ketchup, indonesian cuisine uses typical sauces such as kecap manis, bumbu kacang and tauco, while popular hot and spicy sauces are sambal, dabu-dabu and rica-rica. In traditional British cuisine, gravy is a used on roast dinner
Sauce
–
Samosas accompanied by four sauces
Sauce
–
A chef
whisking a sauce
Sauce
–
Sauce being brushed on
satay in the hawker food court at in Tanjung Aru beach,
Sabah,
Borneo,
Malaysia.
Sauce
–
Caramel sauce
16.
Fish
–
A fish is any member of a group of animals that consist of all gill-bearing aquatic craniate animals that lack limbs with digits. They form a group to the tunicates, together forming the olfactores. Included in this definition are the living hagfish, lampreys, and cartilaginous, tetrapods emerged within lobe-finned fishes, so cladistically they are fish as well. However, traditionally fish are rendered obsolete or paraphyletic by excluding the tetrapods, because in this manner the term fish is defined negatively as a paraphyletic group, it is not considered a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. The traditional term pisces is considered a typological, but not a phylogenetic classification, the earliest organisms that can be classified as fish were soft-bodied chordates that first appeared during the Cambrian period. Although they lacked a true spine, they possessed notochords which allowed them to be more agile than their invertebrate counterparts, fish would continue to evolve through the Paleozoic era, diversifying into a wide variety of forms. Many fish of the Paleozoic developed external armor that protected them from predators, the first fish with jaws appeared in the Silurian period, after which many became formidable marine predators rather than just the prey of arthropods. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water and they can be found in nearly all aquatic environments, from high mountain streams to the abyssal and even hadal depths of the deepest oceans. With 33,100 described species, fish exhibit greater species diversity than any group of vertebrates. Fish are an important resource for humans worldwide, especially as food, commercial and subsistence fishers hunt fish in wild fisheries or farm them in ponds or in cages in the ocean. They are also caught by fishers, kept as pets, raised by fishkeepers. Fish have had a role in culture through the ages, serving as deities, religious symbols, fish do not represent a monophyletic group, and therefore the evolution of fish is not studied as a single event. Early fish from the record are represented by a group of small, jawless. Jawless fish lineages are mostly extinct, an extant clade, the lampreys may approximate ancient pre-jawed fish. The first jaws are found in Placodermi fossils, the diversity of jawed vertebrates may indicate the evolutionary advantage of a jawed mouth. It is unclear if the advantage of a hinged jaw is greater biting force, improved respiration, fish may have evolved from a creature similar to a coral-like sea squirt, whose larvae resemble primitive fish in important ways. The first ancestors of fish may have kept the form into adulthood. Fish are a group, that is, any clade containing all fish also contains the tetrapods
Fish
–
Giant grouper swimming among
schools of other fish
Fish
Fish
–
Leedsichthys (left) the largest known fish.
Fish
–
Dunkleosteus was a gigantic, 10 meter (33 feet) long
prehistoric fish.
17.
Butcher
–
A butcher is a person who may slaughter animals, dress their flesh, sell their meat or do any combination of these three tasks. They may prepare standard cuts of meat and poultry for sale in retail or wholesale food establishments, a butcher may be employed by supermarkets, grocery stores, butcher shops and fish markets, slaughter house, or may be self-employed. An ancient trade, whose duties may date back to the domestication of livestock, today, many jurisdictions offer trade certifications for butchers. Some areas expect a three-year apprenticeship followed by the option of becoming a master butcher, butchery is a traditional line of work. In the industrialized world, slaughterhouses use butchers to slaughter the animals, the steps include stunning, exsanguination, skinning or scalding and dehairing, evisceration and splitting. Secondary butchery involves boning and trimming primal cuts in preparation for sale, historically, primary and secondary butchery were performed in the same establishment, but the advent of methods of preservation and low cost transportation has largely separated them. In parts of the world, it is common for butchers to perform many or all of the butchers duties, where refrigeration is less common, these skills are required to sell the meat of slaughtered animals. Some butchers sell their goods in specialized stores, commonly termed a butcher shop, butchers at a butcher shop may perform primary butchery, but will typically perform secondary butchery to prepare fresh cuts of meat for sale. These shops may also sell related products, such as food supplies, baked goods. Butcher shops can have a variety of animal types, meat cuts. Additionally, butcher shops may focus on a culture, or nationality. Some butcher shops, termed meat delis, may include a delicatessen. In the United States and Canada, butcher shops are becoming common because of the increasing popularity of supermarkets. A primal cut is a piece of meat initially separated from the carcass during butchering, different countries and cultures make these cuts in different ways, and primal cuts also differ between type of carcass. The British, American and French primal cuts all differ in some respects, a notable example is fatback, which in Europe is an important primal cut of pork, but in North America is regarded as trimmings to be used in sausage or rendered into lard. The primal cuts may be complete or cut further. See also Butcher In various periods and cultures, the butcher has been applied to people who act cruelly to other human beings or slaughter them
Butcher
–
A butcher's,
Tacuinum sanitatis casanatensis (XIV (14th) century)
Butcher
–
Primary butchery in a meat packing plant, 1873
Butcher
–
Boucherie du Bac, 82
Rue du Bac,
Paris.
Butcher
–
A butcher at work in Syria
18.
Roasting
–
Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air envelops the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least 150 °C from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance flavor through caramelization and Maillard browning on the surface of the food, Roasting uses indirect, diffused heat, and is suitable for slower cooking of meat in a larger, whole piece. Meats and most root and bulb vegetables can be roasted, any piece of meat, especially red meat, that has been cooked in this fashion is called a roast. A roast joint of meat can take one, two, even three hours to cook—the resulting meat is tender, also, meats and vegetables prepared in this way are described as roasted, e. g. roasted chicken or roasted squash. For roasting, the food may be placed on a rack, in a pan or, to ensure even application of heat. If a pan is used, the juice can be retained for use in gravy, Yorkshire pudding, during oven roasting, hot air circulates around the meat, cooking all sides evenly. There are several plans for roasting meat, low-temperature cooking, high-temperature cooking, each method can be suitable, depending on the food and the tastes of the people. A low-temperature oven,95 °C to 160 °C, is best when cooking with large cuts of meat, turkey and this is not technically roasting temperature, but it is called slow-roasting. The benefit of slow-roasting an item is less moisture loss and a tender product. More of the collagen that makes meat tough is dissolved in slow cooking, at true roasting temperatures,200 °C or more, the water inside the muscle is lost at a high rate. Cooking at high temperatures is beneficial if the cut is tender enough—as in filet mignon or strip loin—to be finished cooking before the juices escape. A reason for high temperature roasting is to brown the outside of the food, fast cooking gives more variety of flavor, because the outside is brown while the center is much less done. The combination method uses high heat just at either the beginning or the end of the cooking process, searing and then turning down to low is also beneficial when a dark crust and caramelized flavor is desired for the finished product. The objective in any case is to retain as much moisture as possible, while providing the texture, as meat cooks, the structure and especially the collagen breaks down, allowing juice to come out of the meat. So meat is juiciest at about medium rare while the juice is coming out, during roasting, meats and vegetables are frequently basted on the surface with butter, lard, or oil to reduce the loss of moisture by evaporation. In recent times, plastic bags have become popular for roasts. These cut cooking times and reduce the loss of moisture during roasting and they are particularly popular for turkeys. Until the late 19th century, roasting by dry heat in an oven was called baking, Roasting originally meant turning meat or a bird on a spit in front of a fire
Roasting
–
A
Sunday roast consisting of
roast beef, roast
potatoes,
vegetables, and
Yorkshire pudding
Roasting
–
Whole roast chicken
Roasting
–
Shwarma prepared on a rotating spit
Roasting
–
A 3 kg (6.6 lb) top round roast of beef, tied and ready to be browned and roasted.
19.
Braising
–
Braising of meat is often referred to as pot roasting, though some authors make a distinction between the two methods, based on whether additional liquid is added. Many classic braised dishes are highly evolved methods of cooking tough, both pressure cooking and slow cooking are forms of braising. Most braises follow the basic steps. The food to be braised is first pan-seared to brown its surface and enhance its flavor, if the food will not produce enough liquid of its own, a certain amount of cooking liquid that often includes an acidic element is added to the pot, often with stock. A classic braise is done with a whole cut of meat. Then, the dish is covered and cooked at a low simmer. Often the cooking liquid is finished to create a sauce or gravy, sometimes, foods with high water content can be cooked in their own juices, making the addition of liquid unnecessary. A successful braise intermingles the flavors of the foods being cooked with those of the cooking liquid and this cooking method dissolves the meats collagen into gelatin, which can greatly enrich and thicken the liquid. Familiar braised dishes include pot roast, Swiss steak, chicken cacciatore, goulash, Carbonade Flamande, coq au vin, sauerbraten, beef bourguignon, beef brisket, and tajines, among others. Braising is also used extensively in the cuisines of Asia, particularly Chinese cuisine and Vietnamese cuisine, adobo Hot pot Jugging Kho Lancashire hotpot Pot roast Red cooking Stew
Braising
–
Braised ox cheek in
star anise and
soy sauce
Braising
–
Braised pork spare ribs with preserved mustard greens
Braising
–
Braised baby artichokes
Braising
–
Chinese braised
pork belly
20.
Meat
–
Meat is animal flesh that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and killed animals for meat since prehistoric times, the advent of civilization allowed the domestication of animals such as chickens, sheep, pigs and cattle. This eventually led to their use in production on an industrial scale with the aid of slaughterhouses. Meat is mainly composed of water, protein, and fat and it is edible raw, but is normally eaten after it has been cooked and seasoned or processed in a variety of ways. Unprocessed meat will spoil or rot within hours or days as a result of infection with and decomposition by bacteria, most often, meat refers to skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as offal. The word meat comes from the Old English word mete, which referred to food in general, the term is related to mad in Danish, mat in Swedish and Norwegian, and matur in Icelandic and Faroese, which also mean food. The word mete also exists in Old Frisian to denote important food, differentiating it from swiets, paleontological evidence suggests that meat constituted a substantial proportion of the diet of even the earliest humans. Early hunter-gatherers depended on the hunting of large animals such as bison. Several breeds of sheep were established in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt by 3500–3000 BC, today, more than 200 sheep-breeds exist. Cattle were domesticated in Mesopotamia after settled agriculture was established about 5000 BC, modern domesticated cattle fall into the groups Bos taurus and Bos indicus, both descended from the now-extinct aurochs. The breeding of cattle, cattle optimized for meat production as opposed to animals best suited for draught or dairy purposes. Domestic pigs, which are descended from boars, are known to have existed about 2500 BC in modern-day Hungary and in Troy, earlier pottery from Jericho. Pork sausages and hams were of commercial importance in Greco-Roman times. Pigs continue to be bred intensively as they are being optimized to produce meat best suited for meat products. Other animals are or have raised or hunted for their flesh. The type of meat consumed varies much between different cultures, changes over time, depending on such as tradition and the availability of the animals. The amount and kind of meat consumed also varies by income, horses are commonly eaten in France, Italy, Germany and Japan, among other countries. Horses and other mammals such as reindeer were hunted during the late Paleolithic in western Europe
Meat
–
Varieties of meat
Meat
–
A typical shoulder cut of
lamb
Meat
–
A
Hereford bull, a breed of cattle frequently used in beef production.
Meat
–
Blade steaks are an example of "red" meat
21.
Grilling
–
Grilling is a form of cooking that involves dry heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from above or below. Grilling usually involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat, food to be grilled is cooked on a grill, a grill pan, or griddle. Heat transfer to the food when using a grill is primarily through thermal radiation, heat transfer when using a grill pan or griddle is by direct conduction. In the United States, when the source for grilling comes from above. In this case, the pan that holds the food is called a broiler pan, direct heat grilling can expose food to temperatures often in excess of 260 °C. Grilled meat acquires a distinctive roast aroma and flavor from a process called the Maillard reaction. The Maillard reaction only occurs when foods reach temperatures in excess of 155 °C, marination may reduce the formation of these compounds. Grilling is often presented as an alternative to cooking with oils, although the fat. In Japanese cities, yakitori carts, restaurants, or shops can be found and these contain charcoal-fired grills and marinated grilled meat on a stick. Yakiniku is a type of food where meat and/or vegetables are grilled directly over small charcoal or gas grills at high temperatures. In Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, and Thailand, a food item from food vendors is satay. In Germany, the most prominent outdoor form of grilling is using the gridiron over a bed of burning charcoal, care is taken that the charcoal does not produce flames. Often beer is sprinkled over the sausages or meat and used to suppress flames, the meat is usually marinated before grilling. Besides charcoal, sometimes gas and electric heat sources are used, other methods are used less frequently. In Argentina and Uruguay, both asado and steak a la parrilla are staple dishes and even hailed as national specialties, in Sweden, grilling directly over hot coals is the most prominent form of grilling. Usually the meat is Boston butt, pork chops or pork fillet and it is also common to cook meat and vegetables together on a skewer, this is called grillspett. In the United Kingdom, Commonwealth countries, and Ireland, grilling refers to cooking food directly under a source of direct. The grill is usually a part of an oven where the food is inserted just under the element
Grilling
–
Close-up view of meat fillets being grilled
Grilling
–
Hamburgers being grilled over a
charcoal fire
Grilling
–
Grilling
mangals and
kebabs
Grilling
–
Japanese traditional portable charcoal grill "
Shichirin "
22.
Frying
–
Frying is the cooking of food in oil or another fat. Chemically, oils and fats are the same, differing only in melting point, foods can be fried in a variety of fats, including lard, vegetable oil, rapeseed oil and olive oil. In commerce, many fats are called oils by custom, e. g. palm oil and coconut oil, a variety of foods may be fried, including the potato chip, bread, eggs and foods made from eggs, such as omelettes or pancakes. Frying is believed to have first appeared in the Ancient Egyptian kitchen, during the Old Kingdom, fats can reach much higher temperatures than water at normal atmospheric pressure. Through frying, one can sear or even carbonize the surface of foods while caramelizing sugars, the food is cooked much more quickly and has a characteristic crispness and texture. Depending on the food, the fat will penetrate it to varying degrees, contributing richness, lubricity, Frying techniques vary in the amount of fat required, the cooking time, the type of cooking vessel required, and the manipulation of the food. Sautéing, stir frying, pan frying, shallow frying, pan frying, sautéing and stir-frying involve cooking foods in a thin layer of fat on a hot surface, such as a frying pan, griddle, wok, or sauteuse. Stir frying involves frying quickly at high temperatures, requiring that the food be stirred continuously to prevent it from adhering to the cooking surface. Shallow frying is a type of pan frying using only enough fat to immerse approximately one-third to one-half of each piece of food, fat used in this technique is typically only used once. Deep-frying, on the hand, involves totally immersing the food in hot oil. Deep-frying is typically a more involved process, and may require specialized oils for optimal results. Deep frying is now the basis of a large and expanding worldwide industry. The end products can then be easily packaged for storage and distribution, examples are potato chips, french fries, nuts, doughnuts, instant noodles, etc. Media related to Frying at Wikimedia Commons
Frying
–
A painting by the Russian artist A. I. Morozov showing frying in the open air
Frying
–
Fried
polenta,
French fries, and
fried chicken at a Brazilian eatery
Frying
–
Poultry and game
Frying
23.
Appetizer
–
An hors doeuvre, appetizer, or starter is a small dish served before a meal. Some hors doeuvres are served cold, others hot, Hors doeuvres may be served at the dinner table as a part of the meal, or they may be served before seating. Formerly, hors doeuvres were also served between courses, typically smaller than a main dish, it is often designed to be eaten by hand. Hors doeuvre in French means outside the work—that is, not part of the set of courses in a meal. Appetizer is a synonym for hors doeuvre, starter is sometimes used to denote an hors doeuvre, sometimes to denote more substantial courses, known in Europe and North America as entrées. A small number of historians believe that the tradition may have begun in Russia. However, it may be that the custom originated in China, possibly coming through Steppes, into Russia, Scandinavia, France, the tradition may have reached Italy, Greece and the Balkan nations through Russia or Persia. Many national customs are related, including the Swedish smörgåsbord, Russian zakuska, Lebanese mezze, during the Roman Period the meal practice was to have two main courses which were supplemented before the meal with small amounts of fish, vegetables, cheeses, olives and even stuffed dormice. These would be served at the start of the known as either gustatio or promulsis. The Greeks called the appetizer course propoma, during the Middle Ages formal French meals were served with entremets between the serving of plates. These secondary dishes could be either actual food dishes, or elaborate displays, in the 14th century, recipes for entremets were mostly made with meat, fish, pork and vegetables. Along with this came elaborate silver and ceramic table displays as well as pièces montées, the entremets were placed between the other dishes within the main work of the meal. At about this time in the 17th century, smaller dishes began to be served by being placed outside the work of symmetrically placed dishes. These were known as hors doeuvre, Hors doeuvres were originally served as a canapé of small toasted bread with a savoury topping before a meal. In the French publication Les plaisirs de la table, Edouard Nignon stated that hors doeuvres originated in Asia and he went on to state that the French considered hors-doeuvres to be superfluous to a well cooked meal. Service à la française continued in Europe until the early 19th century, after the 19th century the entremet would become almost exclusively a sweet dish or dessert with the British custom of the savoury being the only remaining tradition of the savoury entremet. The style of formal dining changed drastically in the 19th century, some traditional hors doeuvres would remain on the table throughout the meal. These included olives, nuts, celery and radishes, the changing, contemporary hors doeuvres, sometimes called dainty dishes became more complicated in preparation
Appetizer
–
Tomato
bruschetta
Appetizer
–
Assortment of hors d'oeuvres
Appetizer
–
A selection of modern hors d'oeuvre
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Learning resources from Wikiversity
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