1.
Cloud seeding
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The usual intent is to increase precipitation, but hail and fog suppression are also widely practiced in airports. Cloud seeding also occurs due to ice nucleators in nature, most of which are bacterial in origin, the most common chemicals used for cloud seeding include silver iodide, potassium iodide and dry ice. Liquid propane, which expands into a gas, has also been used and this can produce ice crystals at higher temperatures than silver iodide. After promising research, the use of materials, such as table salt, is becoming more popular. When Cloud seeding increases snowfall takes place when temperatures within the clouds are between 19 and −4 °F, introduction of a substance such as silver iodide, which has a crystalline structure similar to that of ice, will induce freezing nucleation. In mid-latitude clouds, the usual seeding strategy has been based on the fact that the vapor pressure is lower over ice than over water. The formation of ice particles in super cooled clouds allows those particles to grow at the expense of liquid droplets, if sufficient growth takes place, the particles become heavy enough to fall as precipitation from clouds that otherwise would produce no precipitation. This process is known as static seeding, Seeding of warm-season or tropical cumulonimbus clouds seeks to exploit the latent heat released by freezing. Cloud seeding chemicals may be dispersed by aircraft or by dispersion devices located on the ground, for release by aircraft, silver iodide flares are ignited and dispersed as an aircraft flies through the inflow of a cloud. When released by devices on the ground, the particles are carried downwind. An electronic mechanism was tested in 2010, when infrared laser pulses were directed to the air above Berlin by researchers from the University of Geneva, the experimenters posited that the pulses would encourage atmospheric sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide to form particles that would then act as seeds. Cloud seeding has never been proven to work. Claims are made that new technology and research has produced results that make cloud seeding a dependable and affordable water supply practice for many regions. But while practiced widely around the world, the effectiveness of cloud seeding is still a matter of academic debate, in 2003 the US National Research Council released a report stating. science is unable to say with assurance which, if any, seeding techniques produce positive effects. In the 55 years following the first cloud-seeding demonstrations, substantial progress has made in understanding the natural processes that account for our daily weather. Yet scientifically acceptable proof for significant seeding effects has not been achieved, referring to 1903,1915,1919,1944, and 1947 weather modification experiments, the Australian Federation of Meteorology discounted rain making. By the 1950s, the CSIRO Division of Radiophysics switched to investigating the physics of clouds and had hoped by 1957 to better understand these processes. By the 1960s, the dreams of making had faded only to be re-ignited post-corporatisation of the Snowy Mountains Scheme in order to achieve above target water
2.
Crop dusting
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Aerial application, or what was formerly referred to as crop dusting, involves spraying crops with crop protection products from an agricultural aircraft. Planting certain types of seed are included in aerial application. The specific spreading of fertilizer is also known as aerial topdressing in some countries, agricultural aircraft are highly specialized, purpose-built aircraft. Todays agricultural aircraft are powered by turbine engines of up to 1500 hp. Helicopters are sometimes used, and some aircraft serve double duty as water bombers in areas prone to wildfires, Aerial sowing of seed still continues to this day with cover crop applications and rice planting. The first known use of a machine to disperse products occurred on 3 August 1921. Crop dusting was developed under the joint efforts of the US Agriculture Department, the first test was considered highly successful. The first commercial operations were begun in 1924, by Huff-Daland Crop Dusting, use of insecticide and fungicide for crop dusting slowly spread in the Americas and to a lesser extent other nations in the 1930s. The name crop dusting originated here, as actual dust was spread across the crops, today, aerial applicators use liquid crop protection products in very small doses. In 1951, Leland Snow begins designing the first aircraft built for aerial application. In 1957, The Grumman G-164 Ag-Cat is the first aircraft designed by a company for ag aviation. Aerial firefighting, or water bombing, was tested experimentally by Art Sellers Skyways air services in Canada in 1952, Aerial application at night is mostly liquid spray and is conducted in the southwestern US deserts. The increased heat, scheduling conflicts with workers in the fields. In high temperature areas, the insects would travel down in plants in daytime, some aircraft were equipped with an elongated metal wing called a spreader, with inbuilt channels to direct the flow of dust such as sulfur, used on melons as a pesticide and soil amendment. Very little pesticide dust was used day or night in comparison to spray, GPS systems also provide precise guidance for the applicator. Agricultural chemicals have also kept pace with advancements in technology, and have been influential in the growth of the aviation industry. In the 1930s Aerial Applicators arrived in the states to war against insect and disease pests which threatened fruit. After World War II, the industry expanded into the states where the development of new chemicals made possible the control of weeds
3.
Contrail
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Contrails are line-shaped clouds sometimes produced by aircraft engine exhaust, typically at aircraft cruise altitudes several miles above the Earths surface. Contrails are composed primarily of water, in the form of ice crystals, the combination of water vapor in aircraft engine exhaust and the low ambient temperatures that often exist at these high altitudes allows the formation of the trails. Their formation can also be triggered by changes in air pressure in wingtip vortices or in the air over the wing surface. Contrails, and other clouds directly resulting from human activity, are collectively named homogenitus, persistent contrails are of particular interest to scientists because they increase the cloudiness of the atmosphere. The resulting cloud forms are described as homomutatus, and may resemble cirrus, cirrocumulus, or cirrostratus. Persistent spreading contrails are suspected to have an effect on global climate, the main products of hydrocarbon fuel combustion are carbon dioxide and water vapor. At high altitudes this water vapor emerges into an environment. The vapor then condenses into water droplets which freeze if the temperature is low enough. These millions of tiny water droplets and/or ice crystals form the contrails, the time taken for the vapor to cool enough to condense accounts for the contrail forming some distance behind the aircraft. At high altitudes, supercooled water vapor requires a trigger to encourage deposition or condensation, the exhaust particles in the aircrafts exhaust act as this trigger, causing the trapped vapor to condense rapidly. Exhaust contrails usually form at altitudes, usually above 8,000 m. They can also form closer to the ground when the air is cold, a 2013-2014 study jointly hosted by NASA, German aerospace center DLR, and Canadas National Research Council NRC, determined that biofuels could reduce contrail generation. This reduction was explained by demonstrating that biofuels produce fewer soot particles, the tests were performed by flying a DC-8 at cruising altitude with a sample-gathering aircraft flying in trail. In these samples, the contrail-producing soot particle count was reduced by 50 to 70 percent, using a 50% blend of conventional Jet A1 fuel and HEFA biofuel produced from camelina. As a wing generates lift, it causes a vortex to form at the wingtip, the reduction in pressure and temperature across each vortex can cause water to condense and make the cores of the wingtip vortices visible. This effect is common on humid days. Wingtip vortices can sometimes be seen behind the wing flaps of airliners during takeoff and landing, the visible cores of wingtip vortices contrast with the other major type of contrails which are caused by the combustion of fuel. Contrails produced from jet engine exhaust are seen at high altitude and they trail behind the wingtips and wing flaps rather than behind the engines
4.
Chemtrails (song)
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Chemtrails is a 2008 single by American musician Beck. The song, taken from his studio album, Modern Guilt, was released digitally on June 22,2008. The artwork for the uses a design based on Houndstooth patterning. Digital download Chemtrails –4,397 Chemtrails –4,39 Vampire Voltage No, the song was made available to stream from Becks official website and his MySpace. The song was available to download on June 22,2008, or a day later in the United States, the songs title refers to the chemtrail conspiracy theory, as do the lyrics, I cant believe/What weve seen outside/You and me/Watching the jets go by. The critical reception for Chemtrails was generally positive, kitty Empire of The Observer compared the beautiful song to a clash between The Beatles and My Bloody Valentine. USA Today featured the song on its weekly playlist, complimenting Becks eerie falsetto over slow-building industrialized Radiohead-like ambience, billboard said that Becks falsetto singing rides along a bouncing bassline and crashing drums, with Danger Mouses trademark production touches filing the crannies. The song was described as trippy by MTV News, Chemtrails received high praise for its woozy textures. With Becks distracted vocal and a drum track complementing each other perfectly. James Lawrenson, writing for ClickMusic, said the song was like a more electrified Sea Change, ambient and slightly sombre, the review described the songs synth washes and sparse instrumentation as creating an airy, atmospheric feel. As promotion for the album, limited copies of a Chemtrails 7 were distributed to independent record stores and were given to customers upon purchase of the album. The b-side is a song entitled Vampire Voltage No.6, copies made in the UK were pressed on glow-in-the-dark white vinyl, while copies made for the US were pressed on standard black vinyl. In Italy, this song is used as the song to Lera glaciale, a talk show hosted by Italian TV personality Daria Bignardi on Rai 2
5.
Chemical weapon
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A chemical weapon is a specialized munition that uses chemicals formulated to inflict death or harm on humans. Munitions or other devices designed to deliver chemical weapons, whether filled or unfilled, are also considered weapons themselves. Chemical weapons are classified as weapons of destruction, though they are distinct from nuclear weapons, biological weapons. All may be used in warfare and are known by the military acronym NBC, Weapons of mass destruction are distinct from conventional weapons, which are primarily effective due to their explosive, kinetic, or incendiary potential. Chemical weapons can be dispersed in gas, liquid and solid forms. Nerve gas, tear gas and pepper spray are three examples of CW. Lethal, unitary, chemical agents and munitions are extremely volatile, unitary agents are effective on their own and do not require mixing with other agents. The most dangerous of these are agents, GA, GB, GD, and VX as well as vesicant agents, which are formulations of sulfur mustard such as H, HT. They all are liquids at room temperature, but become gaseous when released. Widely used during the First World War, the effects of so-called mustard gas, phosgene gas and others caused lung searing, blindness, death and maiming. As of 2016, CS gas and pepper spray remain in use for policing and riot control, while CS is considered a non-lethal weapon. Under the Chemical Weapons Convention, there is a binding, worldwide ban on the production, stockpiling. Notwithstanding, large stockpiles of CW continue to exist, usually justified as a precaution against putative use by an aggressor. A separate declaration stated that in any war between signatory powers, the parties would abstain from using projectiles the object of which is the diffusion of asphyxiating or deleterious gases. The Washington Naval Treaty, signed February 6,1922, also known as the Five-Power Treaty, aimed at banning CW, the subsequent failure to include CW has contributed to the resultant increase in stockpiles. It was signed at Geneva June 17,1925, and entered force on February 8,1928. 133 nations are listed as state parties to the treaty, ukraine is the newest signatory, acceding August 7,2003. This treaty states that chemical and biological weapons are justly condemned by the opinion of the civilised world
6.
Biological agent
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In addition to these living and/or replicating pathogens, biological toxins are also included among the bio-agents. More than 1,200 different kinds of potentially weaponizable bio-agents have been described and studied to date, Biological agents have the ability to adversely affect human health in a variety of ways, ranging from relatively mild allergic reactions to serious medical conditions, including death. Many of these organisms are ubiquitous in the environment where they are found in water, soil, plants. Bio-agents may be amenable to weaponization to render them easier to deploy or disseminate, genetic modification may enhance their incapacitating or lethal properties, or render them imprevious to conventional treatments or preventives. Since many bio-agents reproduce rapidly and require minimal resources for propagation, the Biological Weapons Convention is an international treaty banning the use or stockpiling of bio-agents, as of February 2015 there were 171 state signatories. Bio-agents are, however, widely studied for defensive purposes under various biosafety levels, in 2008, according to a U. S. The former US biological warfare program categorized its weaponized anti-personnel bio-agents as either Lethal Agents or Incapacitating Agents, since 1997, United States law has declared a list of bio-agents designated by the U. S. Department of Health and Human Services or the U. S. Select agents are divided into HHS select agents and toxins, USDA select agents and toxins and Overlap select agents, centers for Disease Control and Prevention breaks biological agents into three categories, Category A, Category B, and Category C. Category A agents pose the greatest threat to the U. S, Category A agents include anthrax, botulism, plague, smallpox, tularemia, and viral hemorrhagic fevers. The following pathogens and toxins were weaponized by one nation or another at some time, NATO abbreviations are included where applicable. Additionally, the Soviet Union is known to have weaponized Marburg virus in the 1970s and 80s, simulants are organisms or substances which mimic physical or biological properties of real biological agents, without being pathogenic. They are used to study the efficiency of various dissemination techniques or the risks caused by the use of agents in bioterrorism. The typical size of simulants enables it to buildings with closed windows and doors. This bears a sigificant health risk, even if the agent is normally not pathogenic
7.
Conspiracy theory
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Conspiracy theories often produce hypotheses that contradict the prevailing understanding of history or simple facts. The term is a derogatory one, people formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces. Conspiracy theories have chiefly psychological or socio-political origins, some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events. Some philosophers have argued that belief in conspiracy theories can be rational, the Oxford English Dictionary defines conspiracy theory as the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties, spec. A belief that some covert but influential agency is responsible for an unexplained event, as a neutral term, conspiracy is derived from Latin con- and spirare. In many respects, they have a right to be angry, the phrase conspiracy theory is not neutral. It is value-laden and carries with it condemnation, ridicule, and it is a lot like the word cult, which we use to describe religions we do not like. Clare Birchall at Kings College London describes conspiracy theory as a form of knowledge or interpretation. By acquiring the knowledge, conspiracy theory is considered alongside more legitimate modes of knowing. The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is far closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory would have us believe, other popular knowledge might include alien abduction narratives, gossip, some new age philosophies, religious beliefs, and astrology. Harry G. West discusses conspiracy theories as a part of American popular culture, comparing them to hypernationalism, some theories have dealt with censorship and excoriation from the law such as the Holocaust denial. Currently, conspiracy theories are present on the Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos. Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is a research question. By contrast, the term Watergate conspiracy theory is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. In criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to commit a crime at some time in the future, as one basic American police academy text defines it, When a crime requires a large number of people, a conspiracy is formed. Conspiracy theory examines the actions of secretive coalitions of individuals. S, sociologist Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the real, according to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold, First, conspiracy theories claim to explain what institutional analysis cannot. They appear to sense out of a world that is otherwise confusing
8.
Solar radiation management
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Solar radiation management projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming. Proposed examples include the creation of stratospheric sulfate aerosols, Solar radiation management projects could, for example, be used as a temporary response while levels of greenhouse gases can be brought under control by greenhouse gas remediation techniques. They would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, Solar radiation management projects are a type of climate engineering which seek to reflect sunlight and thus reduce global warming. Climate engineering projects have been proposed in order to reduce global warming, as early as 1974, Russian expert Mikhail Budyko suggested that if global warming became a problem, we could cool down the planet by burning sulfur in the stratosphere, which would create a haze. The annual cost of delivering a sufficient amount of sulfur to counteract expected greenhouse warming is estimated at 2 to 8 billion USD, SRM or albedo modification, is considered to be a potential option for addressing climate change. A third potentially viable option, currently under development but not yet deployed, is carbon dioxide removal from the atmosphere accompanied by reliable sequestration. A fourth, more speculative family of approaches called albedo modification seeks to offset climate warming by greenhouse gases by increasing the amount of sunlight reflected back to space. In this context, solar radiation management is widely viewed as a complement, not a substitute, or put another way, The safest and most predictable method of moderating climate change is to take early and effective action to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases. No geoengineering method can provide an easy or readily acceptable alternative solution to the problem of climate change, the phenomenon of global dimming is widely known, and is not necessarily a climate engineering technique. It already occurs under current conditions, due to aerosols caused by pollution, or caused naturally as a result of volcanoes, however, its deliberate manipulation is a tool of the geoengineer. A 2% albedo increase would roughly halve the effect of CO2 doubling, models also strongly suggest that the benefits and risks will not be uniformly distributed around the globe. The applicability of many techniques listed here has not been comprehensively tested, various small-scale experiments have been carried out on techniques such as cloud seeding, increasing the volume of stratospheric sulfate aerosols and implementing cool roof technology. SRM has been suggested to control climate, but precise control over the geographical boundaries of the effect is not possible. Solar radiation management has certain advantages relative to emissions cuts, adaptation, some proposed solar radiation management techniques are expected to have very low direct financial costs of implementation. This creates a different problem structure, whereas the provision of emissions reduction and carbon dioxide removal present collective action problems, a single countries or a handful of countries could implement solar radiation management. Finally, the climatic effects of solar radiation management are reversible on short timescales. As well as the cancellation of the climatic effect of greenhouse gases. SRM is temporary in its effect, and thus and long-term restoration of the climate would rely on long-term SRM, however, short-term SRM programs are potentially beneficial
9.
Weather modification
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Weather modding is the act of intentionally manipulating or altering the weather. The most common form of modification is cloud seeding to increase rain or snow. Weather modification in warfare has been banned by the United Nations, wilhelm Reich performed cloudbusting experiments in the 1950s to 1960s, the results of which are controversial and not widely accepted by mainstream science. Dr Walter Russell wrote of weather control in Atomic Suicide 1956, —give him complete power to cause rains, wherever he desires, on deserts or meadows and to dissipate cyclones while forming. For the 2008 Olympics, China had plans to utilize 30 airplanes,4,000 rocket launchers, each system would shoot various chemicals into any threatening clouds in the hopes of shrinking rain drops before they reached the stadium. The artificial rainstorms were said to have sometimes caused hail, gales and thunderstorms, cloud seeding is a common technique to enhance precipitation. Cloud seeding entails spraying small particles, such as iodide, onto clouds in order to affect their development. Cloud seeding only works to the extent that there is water vapor present in the air. Critics generally contend that claimed successes occur in conditions which were going to lead to rain anyway and it is used in a variety of drought-prone countries, including the United States, the Peoples Republic of China, India, and the Russian Federation. In mountainous areas of the United States such as the Rocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada, project Stormfury was an attempt to weaken tropical cyclones by flying aircraft into storms and seeding the eyewall with silver iodide. The project was run by the United States Government from 1962 to 1983, a similar project using soot was run in 1958, with inconclusive results. Various methods have been proposed to reduce the effects of hurricanes. Alexandre Chorin of the University of California, Berkeley, proposed dropping large amounts of environmentally friendly oils on the sea surface to prevent droplet formation, experiments by Kerry Emanuel of MIT in 2002 suggested that hurricane-force winds would disrupt the oil slick, making it ineffective. Other scientists disputed the factual basis of the theoretical mechanism assumed by this approach, the Florida company Dyn-O-Mat and its CEO, Peter Cordani, proposed the use of a patented product it developed, called Dyn-O-Gel, to reduce the strength of hurricanes. The substance is a polymer in powder form which reportedly has the ability to absorb 1,500 times its own weight in water. The theory is that the polymer is dropped into clouds to remove their moisture and force the storm to use energy to move the heavier water drops. When the gel reaches the surface, it is reportedly dissolved. Peter Cordani teamed up with Mark Daniels and Victor Miller, the owners of a government contracting aviation firm AeroGroup which operated unique tactical aircraft, the tests were documented on film and made international news showing the storms were successfully removed on monitored Doppler radar
10.
Human population planning
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Human population planning is the practice of intentionally managing the rate of growth of a human population. Historically human population planning has been implemented with the goal of increasing the rate of population growth. More recently, some countries, such as Iran and Spain, have begun efforts to increase their birth rates once again. Instead of trying to control the rate of growth per se. This is not eugenics, because it does not discriminate, while a specific population planning practice may be legal/mandated in one country, it may be illegal or restricted in another, indicative of the controversy surrounding this topic. Abortion Changing status of women causing departure from traditional sexual division of labour, sterilization One-child and Two-child policies, and other policies restricting or discouraging births directly. Family planning Create small family role models Tighter immigration restrictions The method chosen can be influenced by the religious. The failure of other methods of population planning can lead to the use of abortion or infanticide as solutions, at about 300 BC, the Indian political philosopher Chanakya considered population a source of political, economic, and military strength. Though a given region can house too many or too few people, Chanakya favored the remarriage of widows, opposed taxes encouraging emigration, and believed in restricting asceticism to the aged. In order to maintain a population size, the philosophers advised that procreation. Emigration to colonies would be encouraged should the population become too large, Aristotle concluded that a large increase in population would bring, certain poverty on the citizenry, and poverty is the cause of sedition and evil. To halt rapid population increase, Aristotle advocated the use of abortion, confucius and other Chinese writers cautioned that, excessive growth may reduce output per worker, repress levels of living for the masses and engender strife. Confucius also observed that, mortality increases when food supply is insufficient, that premature marriage makes for high infantile mortality rates, ancient Rome, especially in the time of Augustus, needed manpower to acquire and administer the vast Roman Empire. A series of laws were instituted to encourage marriage and frequent childbirth. Severe limitations were imposed on those who did not, for example, the surviving spouse of a childless couple could only inherit one-tenth of the deceased fortune, while the rest was taken by the state. These laws encountered resistance from the population led to the disregard of their provisions. Tertullian, an early Christian author, was one of the first to describe famine, the scourges of pestilence, famine, wars and earthquakes have come to be regarded as a blessing to overcrowded nations, since they serve to prune away the luxuriant growth of the human race. Khaldoun concluded that population density rather than high absolute population numbers were desirable to achieve more efficient division of labour
11.
Biological warfare
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Biological weapons are living organisms or replicating entities that reproduce or replicate within their host victims. Entomological warfare is considered a type of biological weapon. None of these are conventional weapons, which are deployed primarily for their explosive, kinetic, Biological weapons may be employed in various ways to gain a strategic or tactical advantage over the enemy, either by threats or by actual deployments. Like some of the weapons, biological weapons may also be useful as area denial weapons. These agents may be lethal or non-lethal, and may be targeted against a single individual and they may be developed, acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation states or by non-national groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state uses it clandestinely, toxins and psychochemical weapons are often referred to as midspectrum agents. Unlike bioweapons, these agents do not reproduce in their host and are typically characterized by shorter incubation periods. Offensive biological warfare, including production, stockpiling and use of biological weapons, was outlawed by the 1972 Biological Weapons Convention. Many countries, including signatories of the BWC, currently pursue research into the defense or protection against BW, a nation or group that can pose a credible threat of mass casualty has the ability to alter the terms on which other nations or groups interact with it. Therefore, biological agents may be useful as strategic deterrents in addition to their utility as offensive weapons on the battlefield. As a tactical weapon for use, a significant problem with a BW attack is that it would take days to be effective. Some biological agents have the capability of person-to-person transmission via aerosolized respiratory droplets and this feature can be undesirable, as the agent may be transmitted by this mechanism to unintended populations, including neutral or even friendly forces. While containment of BW is less of a concern for criminal or terrorist organizations, it remains a significant concern for the military. Rudimentary forms of warfare have been practiced since antiquity. During the 6th century BC, the Assyrians poisoned enemy wells with a fungus that would render the enemy delirious, in 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors of the Golden Horde who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa. Specialists disagree over whether this operation may have been responsible for the spread of the Black Death into Europe, the British Army used smallpox against Native Americans during the Siege of Fort Pitt in 1763. An outbreak that left as many as one hundred Native Americans dead in Ohio Country was reported in 1764, the spread of the disease weakened the natives resistance to the British troops led by Henry Bouquet. It is not clear, however, whether the smallpox was a result of the Fort Pitt incident or the virus was present among the Delaware people
12.
Atmospheric Conditions
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Steve Roach is an American composer and performer of ambient electronic music, whose recordings are also classified in the genres of space, drone, and new-age. His debut album Now appeared in 1982, followed by Structures from Silence in 1984, in 1988 he released his acclaimed Quiet Music series, along with what has been described by critics as his masterpiece, the double-album Dreamtime Return. Some recordings are strictly synthesizer based, whereas some recordings include ambient guitar experiments and he was an early proponent of the didgeridoos use in ambient music and learned to play it during his extended trips to Australia during the 1980s. He later worked with Mexican musician Jorge Reyes who would introduce a Prehispanic element, Roach is married to author and equine teacher Linda Kohanov
13.
Cover-up
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A cover-up is an attempt, whether successful or not, to conceal evidence of wrongdoing, error, incompetence or other embarrassing information. In a passive cover-up, information is not provided, in an active cover-up. The expression is usually applied to people in positions of authority who abuse power to avoid or silence criticism or to deflect guilt of wrongdoing, perpetrators of a cover-up may be responsible for a misdeed, a breach of trust or duty, or a crime. While the terms are used interchangeably, cover-up involves withholding incriminatory evidence. When a scandal breaks, the discovery of an attempt to cover up is often regarded as more reprehensible than the original deeds. Initially a cover-up may require little effort, it will be carried out by those involved with the misdeed. This may be regarded as approval of that behaviour. It is likely that some cover-ups are successful, although by definition this cannot be confirmed, as it spreads, the cover-up itself creates yet more suspicious circumstances. Cover-ups do not necessarily require the manipulation of facts or circumstances. Arguably the most common form of cover-up is one of non-action and it is the conscious failure to release incriminating information by a third party. Yet, because of the passive cover-up, the misdeed often goes undiscovered, snowjob is an American and Canadian colloquialism for a deception or a cover-up, for example, Helen Gahagan Douglas described the Nixon Administration as the greatest snow job in history. Sometimes an apparently simple and low-risk cover-up grows out of control, compulsive gamblers, who irrationally think that they will bet the embezzled money, win, return the stake, and keep their winnings are an example. They will typically steal more, still intending to repay it with winnings, the case of derivatives trader Nick Leeson is similar. The following list is considered to be a typology since those who engage in cover-ups tend to use many of the methods of hiding the truth. The methods in actual cover-ups tend to follow the order of the list below. The Roman Catholic sex abuse cases of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, roswell UFO incident September 11,2001, terrorist attacks Attack on the U. S
14.
Portmanteau
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In linguistics, a portmanteau is defined as a single morph that represents two or more morphemes. A portmanteau also differs from a compound, which not involve the truncation of parts of the stems of the blended words. For instance, starfish is a compound, not a portmanteau, of star and fish, whereas a hypothetical portmanteau of star and fish might be stish. Humpty Dumpty explains the practice of combining words in various ways by telling Alice, for instance, take the two words fuming and furious. Make up your mind that you will say both words, but leave it unsettled which you will say first … if you have the rarest of gifts, in then-contemporary English, a portmanteau was a suitcase that opened into two equal sections. The etymology of the word is the French porte-manteau, from porter, to carry, in modern French, a porte-manteau is a clothes valet, a coat-tree or similar article of furniture for hanging up jackets, hats, umbrellas and the like. It has also used especially in Europe as a formal description for hat racks from the French words porter. An occasional synonym for portmanteau word is frankenword, an autological word exemplifying the phenomenon it describes, blending Frankenstein, many neologisms are examples of blends, but many blends have become part of the lexicon. In Punch in 1896, the word brunch was introduced as a portmanteau word, in 1964, the newly independent African republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar chose the portmanteau word Tanzania as its name. Similarly Eurasia is a portmanteau of Europe and Asia, a scientific example is a liger, which is a cross between a male lion and a female tiger. Jeoportmanteau. is a category on the American television quiz show Jeopardy. The categorys name is itself a portmanteau of the words Jeopardy, responses in the category are portmanteaus constructed by fitting two words together. The term gerrymander has itself contributed to portmanteau terms bjelkemander and playmander, oxbridge is a common portmanteau for the UKs two oldest universities, those of Oxford and Cambridge. Many portmanteau words receive some use but do not appear in all dictionaries, for example, a spork is an eating utensil that is a combination of a spoon and a fork, and a skort is an item of clothing that is part skirt, part shorts. On the other hand, turducken, a made by inserting a chicken into a duck. Similarly, the word refudiate was first used by Sarah Palin when she misspoke, though initially a gaffe, the word was recognized as the New Oxford American Dictionarys Word of the Year in 2010. The business lexicon is replete with newly coined portmanteau words like permalance, advertainment, advertorial, infotainment, a company name may also be portmanteau as well as a product name. By contrast, the public, including the media, use portmanteaux to refer to their favorite pairings as a way to. giv people an essence of who they are within the same name and this is particularly seen in cases of fictional and real-life supercouples
15.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
16.
Internet forum
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An Internet forum, or message board, is an online discussion site where people can hold conversations in the form of posted messages. They differ from chat rooms in that messages are often longer than one line of text, also, depending on the access level of a user or the forum set-up, a posted message might need to be approved by a moderator before it becomes visible. Forums have a set of jargon associated with them, example. A discussion forum is hierarchical or tree-like in structure, a forum can contain a number of subforums, within a forums topic, each new discussion started is called a thread, and can be replied to by as many people as so wish. Depending on the settings, users can be anonymous or have to register with the forum. On most forums, users do not have to log in to read existing messages, the modern forum originated from bulletin boards, and so-called computer conferencing systems, and are a technological evolution of the dialup bulletin board system. From a technological standpoint, forums or boards are web applications managing user-generated content, early Internet forums could be described as a web version of an electronic mailing list or newsgroup, allowing people to post messages and comment on other messages. Later developments emulated the different newsgroups or individual lists, providing more than one forum, Internet forums are prevalent in several developed countries. Japan posts the most with two million per day on their largest forum, 2channel. China also has millions of posts on forums such as Tianya Club. Some of the very first forum systems were the Planet-Forum system, developed in the beginning of the 1970-s, the EIES system, first operational in 1976, one of the first forum sites, and still active today, is Delphi Forums, once called Delphi. The service, with four members, dates to 1983. Forums perform a similar to that of dial-up bulletin board systems. Early web-based forums date back as far as 1994, with the WIT project from W3 Consortium and starting from this time, a sense of virtual community often develops around forums that have regular users. Technology, video games, sports, music, fashion, religion, and politics are popular areas for forum themes, Internet slang and image macros popular across the Internet are abundant and widely used in Internet forums. Forum software packages are available on the Internet and are written in a variety of programming languages, such as PHP, Perl, Java. The configuration and records of posts can be stored in files or in a database. Each package offers different features, from the most basic, providing text-only postings, to more advanced packages, offering multimedia support, many packages can be integrated easily into an existing website to allow visitors to post comments on articles
17.
Art Bell
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Arthur William Art Bell III is an American broadcaster and author known as one of the founders and the original host of the paranormal-themed radio program Coast to Coast AM. He also created and formerly hosted its companion show Dreamland, semi-retired from Coast to Coast AM since 2003, he hosted the show many weekends for the following four years. He announced his retirement from hosting on July 1,2007. He attributed the reason for his retirement to a desire to spend time with his new wife and their daughter and he added that unlike his previous retirements, this one was permanent, while leaving open the option to return. Classic Bell-hosted episodes of Coast to Coast AM can be heard in markets on Saturday nights under the name Somewhere in Time. He started a new show, Art Bells Dark Matter, on Sirius XM Radio that began on September 16,2013. He returned to radio on July 20,2015 with a new show, Midnight in the Desert, available online, via TuneIn and he retired yet again on December 11,2015, citing security concerns at his home. He and his family were subject to repeated intrusions on his property in Pahrump, in fear for his familys safety, he opted to leave the air, and ostensibly, public life, as he believed the intruder or intruders wanted him off the air. Bell founded and was the owner of Pahrump, Nevada-based radio station KNYE95.1 FM. His broadcast studio and transmitter were located near his home in Pahrump while he hosted Coast to Coast AM except from June to December 2006, when he lived in the Philippines. He and his family returned to the Philippines in March 2009, after having significant difficulties obtaining a U. S. visa for his wife, Airyn. Art Bell III was born in Jacksonville, North Carolina to Arthur Bell, Jr. a United States Marine Corps Captain, and Jane Gumaer Bell, Arthur Bell, Jr. died in 2000, and Jane Bell died December 23,2008. Bell has always interested in radio, and at the age of 13 became a licensed amateur radio operator. Bell now holds an Amateur Extra Class license, which is in the top U. S. Federal Communications Commission license class. Bell served in the U. S. Air Force as a medic during the Vietnam War and he would make a point of playing anti-war music that was not aired on the American Forces Network. After leaving military service he stayed in Asia, living on the Japanese island of Okinawa where he worked as a jockey for KSBK. While there, he set a Guinness World Record by staying on the air for 116 hours and 15 minutes, the money raised there allowed Bell to charter a DC-8, fly to Vietnam, and rescue 130 Vietnamese orphans stranded in Saigon at the wars end. They were eventually brought to the United States and adopted by American families, Bell returned to the United States and studied engineering at the University of Maryland, College Park
18.
United States Environmental Protection Agency
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The EPA was proposed by President Richard Nixon and began operation on December 2,1970, after Nixon signed an executive order. The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House, the agency is led by its Administrator, who is appointed by the president and approved by Congress. The current administrator is Scott Pruitt, the EPA is not a Cabinet department, but the administrator is normally given cabinet rank. The EPA has its headquarters in Washington, D. C. regional offices for each of the ten regions. The agency conducts environmental assessment, research, and education and it has the responsibility of maintaining and enforcing national standards under a variety of environmental laws, in consultation with state, tribal, and local governments. It delegates some permitting, monitoring, and enforcement responsibility to U. S. states, EPA enforcement powers include fines, sanctions, and other measures. The agency also works with industries and all levels of government in a variety of voluntary pollution prevention programs. In 2016, the agency had 15,376 full-time employees, more than half of EPAs employees are engineers, scientists, and environmental protection specialists, other employees include legal, public affairs, financial, and information technologists. Beginning in the late 1950s and through the 1960s, Congress reacted to increasing concern about the impact that human activity could have on the environment. Senator James E. Murray introduced a bill, the Resources and Conservation Act of 1959, the 1962 publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson alerted the public about the detrimental effects on the environment of the indiscriminate use of pesticides. In the years following, similar bills were introduced and hearings were held to discuss the state of the environment, in the colloquium, some members of Congress expressed a continuing concern over federal agency actions affecting the environment. The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 was modeled on RCA, President Nixon signed NEPA into law on January 1,1970. The law created the Council on Environmental Quality in the Executive Office of the President, NEPA required that a detailed statement of environmental impacts be prepared for all major federal actions significantly affecting the environment. The detailed statement would ultimately be referred to as an impact statement. On July 9,1970, Nixon proposed a reorganization that consolidated many environmental responsibilities of the federal government under one agency. After conducting hearings during that summer, the House and Senate approved the proposal, the agency’s first administrator, William Ruckelshaus, took the oath of office on December 4,1970. In May 2013, Congress renamed the EPA headquarters as the William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building, the EPA is led by an Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency. As of 2017 Scott Pruitt is the 14th administrator, each EPA regional office is responsible within its states for implementing the Agencys programs, except those programs that have been specifically delegated to states
19.
Federal Aviation Administration
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The Federal Aviation Administration of the United States is a national authority with powers to regulate all aspects of civil aviation. The FAAs roles include, Regulating U. S, each LOB has a specific role within the FAA. Airports — plans and develops projects involving airports, overseeing their construction, Air Traffic Organization — primary duty is to safely and efficiently move air traffic within the National Airspace System. ATO employees manage air traffic facilities including Airport Traffic Control Towers, Aviation Safety — Responsible for aeronautical certification of personnel and aircraft, including pilots, airlines, and mechanics. Commercial Space Transportation — ensures protection of U. S. assets during the launch or reentry of commercial space vehicles, the FAA is headquartered in Washington, D. C. as well as the William J. The newly created Aeronautics Branch, operating under the Department of Commerce assumed primary responsibility for aviation oversight, in fulfilling its civil aviation responsibilities, the Department of Commerce initially concentrated on such functions as safety regulations and the certification of pilots and aircraft. It took over the building and operation of the system of lighted airways. The Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 to reflect its status within the Department. As commercial flying increased, the Bureau encouraged a group of airlines to establish the first three centers for providing air traffic control along the airways, in 1936, the Bureau itself took over the centers and began to expand the ATC system. The pioneer air traffic controllers used maps, blackboards, and mental calculations to ensure the separation of aircraft traveling along designated routes between cities. In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil aviation responsibilities from the Commerce Department to a new independent agency. The legislation also expanded the role by giving them the authority. President Franklin D. Roosevelt split the authority into two agencies in 1940, the Civil Aeronautics Administration and the Civil Aeronautics Board, CAA was responsible for ATC, airman and aircraft certification, safety enforcement, and airway development. CAB was entrusted with safety regulation, accident investigation, and economic regulation of the airlines, the CAA was part of the Department of Commerce. The CAB was an independent federal agency, on the eve of Americas entry into World War II, CAA began to extend its ATC responsibilities to takeoff and landing operations at airports. This expanded role eventually became permanent after the war, the application of radar to ATC helped controllers in their drive to keep abreast of the postwar boom in commercial air transportation. The approaching era of jet travel, and a series of midair collisions and this legislation gave the CAAs functions to a new independent body, the Federal Aviation Agency. The act transferred air safety regulation from the CAB to the new FAA, the FAAs first administrator, Elwood R. Quesada, was a former Air Force general and adviser to President Eisenhower
20.
NASA
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President Dwight D. Eisenhower established NASA in 1958 with a distinctly civilian orientation encouraging peaceful applications in space science. The National Aeronautics and Space Act was passed on July 29,1958, disestablishing NASAs predecessor, the new agency became operational on October 1,1958. Since that time, most US space exploration efforts have led by NASA, including the Apollo Moon landing missions, the Skylab space station. Currently, NASA is supporting the International Space Station and is overseeing the development of the Orion Multi-Purpose Crew Vehicle, the agency is also responsible for the Launch Services Program which provides oversight of launch operations and countdown management for unmanned NASA launches. NASA shares data with various national and international such as from the Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite. Since 2011, NASA has been criticized for low cost efficiency, from 1946, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics had been experimenting with rocket planes such as the supersonic Bell X-1. In the early 1950s, there was challenge to launch a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. An effort for this was the American Project Vanguard, after the Soviet launch of the worlds first artificial satellite on October 4,1957, the attention of the United States turned toward its own fledgling space efforts. This led to an agreement that a new federal agency based on NACA was needed to conduct all non-military activity in space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency was created in February 1958 to develop technology for military application. On July 29,1958, Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, a NASA seal was approved by President Eisenhower in 1959. Elements of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency and the United States Naval Research Laboratory were incorporated into NASA, earlier research efforts within the US Air Force and many of ARPAs early space programs were also transferred to NASA. In December 1958, NASA gained control of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, NASA has conducted many manned and unmanned spaceflight programs throughout its history. Some missions include both manned and unmanned aspects, such as the Galileo probe, which was deployed by astronauts in Earth orbit before being sent unmanned to Jupiter, the experimental rocket-powered aircraft programs started by NACA were extended by NASA as support for manned spaceflight. This was followed by a space capsule program, and in turn by a two-man capsule program. This goal was met in 1969 by the Apollo program, however, reduction of the perceived threat and changing political priorities almost immediately caused the termination of most of these plans. NASA turned its attention to an Apollo-derived temporary space laboratory, to date, NASA has launched a total of 166 manned space missions on rockets, and thirteen X-15 rocket flights above the USAF definition of spaceflight altitude,260,000 feet. The X-15 was an NACA experimental rocket-powered hypersonic research aircraft, developed in conjunction with the US Air Force, the design featured a slender fuselage with fairings along the side containing fuel and early computerized control systems
21.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
22.
Hoax
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A hoax is a deliberately fabricated falsehood made to masquerade as the truth. It is distinguishable from errors in observation or judgment, rumors, urban legends, pseudosciences, although practical jokes have likely existed for thousands of years, one of the earliest recorded hoaxes in history was the drummer of Tedworth in 1661. The communication of hoaxes can be accomplished in almost any manner that a story can be communicated, in person, via word of mouth, via words printed on paper. However, hoaxes could also be spread via chain letters, which became easier as the cost of mailing a letter dropped. The invention of the press in the 15th century brought down the cost of a mass-produced books and pamphlets. During the 20th century, the hoax found a market in the form of supermarket tabloids. Hocus is a shortening of the magic incantation hocus pocus, whose origin is disputed, robert Nares defined the word hoax as meaning to cheat, dating from Thomas Adys 1656 book A candle in the dark, or a treatise on the nature of witches and witchcraft. T. Barnum, whose Fiji mermaid contributed to his wealth—often acquire monetary gain or fame through their fabrications, one of the earliest recorded media hoaxes is a fake almanac published by Jonathan Swift under the pseudonym of Isaac Bickerstaff in 1708. Swift predicted the death of John Partridge, one of the astrologers in England at that time, in the almanac. Partridges reputation was damaged as a result and his astrological almanac was not published for the six years. It is possible to perpetrate a hoax by making only true statements using unfamiliar wording or context, political hoaxes are sometimes motivated by the desire to ridicule or besmirch opposing politicians or political institutions, often before elections. A hoax differs from a trick or from fiction in that the audience is unaware of being deceived. A hoax is often intended as a joke or to cause embarrassment. It can also emerge from a marketing or advertising purpose, a resulting video clip of Chloe and Keiths Wedding was uploaded to YouTube and was viewed by over 30 million people and the couple was interviewed by numerous talk shows. Viewers were deluded into thinking that it was a clip of a real accident at a real wedding. A borderline case between fiction and hoax is a 1938 radio broadcast by Orson Welles describing a Martian invasion of Earth, many people who tuned in without hearing the introduction of the program as fiction were concerned that the invasion was real. Governments sometimes spread false information to facilitate their objectives, such as going to war, the Iraq dossier is an example of this, there is often a mixture of outright hoax and suppression and management of information to give the desired impression. In wartime and times of international tension rumors abound, some of which may be deliberate hoaxes, examples of politics-related hoaxes, Belgium is a country with a Flemish-speaking region and a French-speaking region
23.
Air University (United States Air Force)
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The Air University is a major component of the United States Air Forces Air Education and Training Command. AU is headquartered at Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama and is the U. S. Air Forces primary center for military education. Air Force Institute of Technology Carl A. Lemay Center for Doctrine Development & Education Ira C, Spaatz Center for Officer Education unifies the continuum of Air Force officer professional military education. Activated on 29 Apr 2008, the Spaatz Center is named in honor of the Air Forces first Chief of Staff, the Spaatz Center remains committed to being the global leader in officer education by developing leaders, spurring innovation, and nurturing partnerships to advance air power. Squadron Officer College Squadron Officer College was a successor to the previous legacy twelve-week. SOC was a shortened version of the previously conducted twelve-week SOS for 1st Lieutenants. SOCs mission was to develop company grade officers as leaders of integrity, ready, willing, SOC and its successor, the since-reinstated eight-week Squadron Officer School, provided/provides a professional military education experience devoted to junior officer leadership development. SOC was open to all active duty Regular Air Force, Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard Captains, their international counterparts, SOC was disestablished on 28 June 2011 when SOS was reestablished. The goal is 100% opportunity for in-residence attendance by all active duty USAF, AWC prepares students to lead in a joint, interagency and multi-national environment at the strategic level of military operations. It is also available via distance learning as a correspondence course typically requiring 18 to 24 months to complete, the Thomas N. Barnes Center for Enlisted Education is responsible for the instructional programs and faculty development for all Air Force enlisted professional military education programs. It is located on Maxwell AFBs Gunter Annex, NCO Academies The NCO Academies provide selected noncommissioned officers quality professional military education to develop their skills and responsibilities in the United States Air Force. The objective is for the student to gain an understanding of their positions in the military structure, several NCO Academies operate worldwide on various Air Force installations. The academys vision is to execute a standardized, state-of-the-art program to maximize first sergeants capabilities, the Institute achieves this by featuring artifacts, collections, and pictorial exhibits, written and oral documentation, audiovisuals, equipment, and selected aircraft parts. Additionally, students use the in-house and on-line research capabilities to enhance learning and these are the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps at civilian colleges and universities across the United States, and the Air Force Officer Training School at Maxwell AFB. Although they are USAF officer accession and training programs, the United States Air Force Academy, the U. S. Air Force Academy is a Direct Reporting Unit, and the Superintendent of the USAF Academy reports directly to the Chief of Staff of the Air Force. Admission to and administration of the ANG Academy of Military Science is controlled by the Director of the Air National Guard via the National Guard Bureau, through the Holm Center, the Air University also administers two additional programs. Instruction is conducted by retired field grade USAF officers employed by the school systems. The Air University is also the command echelon equivalent to an air force for the Civil Air Patrol
24.
National Academy of Sciences
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The National Academy of Sciences is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering, as a national academy, new members of the organization are elected annually by current members, based on their distinguished and continuing achievements in original research. Election to the National Academies is one of the highest honors in the scientific field, members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. The group holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code, … to provide scientific advice to the government whenever called upon by any government department. The Academy receives no compensation from the government for its services, as of 2016, the National Academy of Sciences includes about 2,350 members and 450 foreign associates. It employed about 1,100 staff in 2005, the current members annually elect new members for life. Approximately 200 members have won a Nobel Prize, the National Academy of Sciences is a member of the International Council for Science. Although there is no relationship with state and local academies of science. The National Academies is governed by a 17-member Council, made up of five officers and 12 Councilors, the National Academy of Sciences meets annually in Washington, D. C. which is documented in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, its scholarly journal. The National Academies Press is the publisher for the National Academies, since 2004, the National Academy of Sciences has administered the Marian Koshland Science Museum to provide public exhibits and programming related to its policy work. The museums current exhibits focus on change and infectious disease. The National Academy of Sciences maintains multiple buildings around the United States, the building has a neoclassical architectural style and was built by architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue. The building was dedicated in 1924 and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the building is used for lectures, symposia, exhibitions, and concerts, in addition to annual meetings of the NAS, NAE, and NAM. The 2012 Presidential Award for Math and Science Teaching ceremony was held here on March 5,2014, approximately 150 staff members work at the NAS Building. More than 1,000 National Academies staff members work at The Keck Center of the National Academies at 500 Fifth Street in northwest Washington, the Keck Center provides meeting space and houses the National Academies Press Bookstore. The NAS also maintains conference centers in California and Massachusetts, the J. Erik Jonsson Conference Center located at 314 Quissett Avenue in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, is another conference facility. The Act of Incorporation, signed by President Abraham Lincoln on March 3,1863, created the National Academy of Sciences, many of the original NAS members came from the so-called Scientific Lazzaroni, an informal network of mostly physical scientists working in the vicinity of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Senator Henry Wilson of Massachusetts was to name Agassiz to the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Agassiz was to come to Washington at the governments expense to plan the organization with the others
25.
International Business Times
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The International Business Times is an online news publication, that publishes seven national editions and four languages. The publication, sometimes called IBTimes or IBT, offers news, opinion, IBT is one of the worlds largest online news sources, IBTs 2014 media kit claims that its online properties receive 40 million unique visitors each month. Its 2013 revenues were around $21 million, IBTimes was launched in 2005, it is owned by IBT Media, and was founded by Etienne Uzac and Johnathan Davis. Its headquarters are in a former Newsweek office in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, founder Etienne Uzac, a native of France, came up with the idea for the global business news site while a student at the London School of Economics. He found that the strongest business newspapers had a focus on the U. S and Europe, Uzac recruited Johnathan Davis to join him in the enterprise. In late 2005, Uzac and Davis moved to New York to launch the site, with Uzac primarily focused on business strategy, on August 4,2013, IBT Media, the owner of IBTimes, announced its purchase of Newsweek and newsweek. com from IAC/InterActiveCorp. The purchase did not include The Daily Beast, peter S. Goodman, previously the executive business editor and global news editor of The Huffington Post, became the editor in 2014. From March to July 2016, IBT laid off an estimated 30 percent of its editorial staff and this period marked a new era for the company as it expanded into branded content and events with its sister publication Newsweek. At the same time, Dev Pragad who had started the EMEA business in 2009 was promoted from managing director of Europe to global CEO of Newsweek and this was followed in January 2017 by the appointment of Alan Press in the “newly-created, strategic role of President”. In late 2011, Google allegedly moved the outlets articles down in search results in response to search engine optimization activity. An internal IBT memo allegedly advised IBT journalists on how to re-work a story already done. Some people have been just re-posting the exact same story, with a new headline, similarly, employees told The Guardian in 2014 that that at times they seemed to operate more as content farms demanding high-volume output than a source of quality journalism. At least two journalists were threatened with firing unless traffic to their articles increased sharply. In 2016, IBT hired John Crowley, the Wall Street Journals Europe, Middle East and Africa digital editor, according to The Guardian, “Crowley said his focus would be on helping the site break exclusives, in-depth storytelling and new forms of digital journalism. He said IBT was putting together a UK business desk and hiring an audience team. ”Crowley stated We are not a service or so-called paper of record. But I have a vision of where I want to take a site, weve got to have a USP. make ourselves distinctive in journalistic terms. The standard of content on IBTimes. co. uk has notably improved in recent years with reputable papers such as The Times quoting exclusive content from the publication, sports and entertainment coverage often gets pick up in the British press and on the BBC. In early 2017, International Business Times UK joined a partnership along with the likes of Bloomberg, Channel 4, Media Matters also criticized IBT for publishing an article with the headline Is Climate Change Real
26.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
27.
Flight test
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The flight test phase can range from the test of a single new system for an existing vehicle to the complete development and certification of a new aircraft, launch vehicle, or reusable spacecraft. Therefore, the duration of a flight test program can vary from a few weeks to many years. There are typically two categories of flight test programs – commercial and military, commercial flight testing is conducted to certify that the aircraft meets all applicable safety and performance requirements of the government certifying agency. Since commercial aircraft development is funded by the aircraft manufacturer and/or private investors. These civil agencies are concerned with the safety and that the pilot’s flight manual accurately reports the aircraft’s performance. The market will determine the suitability to operators. Normally, the certification agency does not get involved in flight testing until the manufacturer has found. Military programs differ from commercial in that the government contracts with the manufacturer to design. These performance requirements are documented to the manufacturer in the aircraft specification, in this case, the government is the customer and has a direct stake in the aircraft’s ability to perform the mission. Since the government is funding the program, it is involved in the aircraft design. Often military test pilots and engineers are integrated as part of the flight test team. The final phase of the aircraft flight test is the Operational Test. OT is conducted by a government-only test team with the dictate to certify that the aircraft is suitable, Flight testing of military aircraft is often conducted at military flight test facilities. The US Navy tests aircraft at Naval Air Station Patuxent River, the U. S. Air Force Test Pilot School and the U. S. Naval Test Pilot School are the programs designed to teach military test personnel. In the UK, most military flight testing is conducted by three organizations, the RAF, BAE Systems and QinetiQ, all launch vehicles, as well as a few reusable spacecraft, must necessarily be designed to deal with aerodynamic flight loads while moving through the atmosphere. Many launch vehicles are flight tested, with more extensive data collection. Reusable spacecraft or reusable booster test programs are more involved. For both commercial and military aircraft, as well as vehicles, flight test preparation begins well before the test vehicle is ready to fly
28.
Center of gravity
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The distribution of mass is balanced around the center of mass and the average of the weighted position coordinates of the distributed mass defines its coordinates. Calculations in mechanics are simplified when formulated with respect to the center of mass. It is a point where entire mass of an object may be assumed to be concentrated to visualise its motion. In other words, the center of mass is the equivalent of a given object for application of Newtons laws of motion. In the case of a rigid body, the center of mass is fixed in relation to the body. The center of mass may be located outside the body, as is sometimes the case for hollow or open-shaped objects. In the case of a distribution of separate bodies, such as the planets of the Solar System, in orbital mechanics, the equations of motion of planets are formulated as point masses located at the centers of mass. The center of mass frame is a frame in which the center of mass of a system is at rest with respect to the origin of the coordinate system. The concept of center of mass in the form of the center of gravity was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse. He worked with simplified assumptions about gravity that amount to a uniform field, in work on floating bodies he demonstrated that the orientation of a floating object is the one that makes its center of mass as low as possible. He developed mathematical techniques for finding the centers of mass of objects of uniform density of various well-defined shapes, Newtons second law is reformulated with respect to the center of mass in Eulers first law. The center of mass is the point at the center of a distribution of mass in space that has the property that the weighted position vectors relative to this point sum to zero. In analogy to statistics, the center of mass is the location of a distribution of mass in space. Solving this equation for R yields the formula R =1 M ∑ i =1 n m i r i, solve this equation for the coordinates R to obtain R =1 M ∭ Q ρ r d V, where M is the total mass in the volume. If a continuous mass distribution has density, which means ρ is constant. The center of mass is not generally the point at which a plane separates the distribution of mass into two equal halves, in analogy with statistics, the median is not the same as the mean. The coordinates R of the center of mass of a system, P1 and P2, with masses m1. The percentages of mass at each point can be viewed as projective coordinates of the point R on this line, another way of interpreting the process here is the mechanical balancing of moments about an arbitrary point
29.
Jim Marrs
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Jim Marrs is an American former newspaper journalist and New York Times best-selling author of books and articles on a wide range of alleged cover ups and conspiracies. Marrs is a prominent figure in the JFK conspiracy press and his book Crossfire was a source for Oliver Stones film JFK and he has written books asserting the existence of government conspiracies regarding aliens, 9/11, telepathy, and secret societies. He was once a reporter in the Dallas–Fort Worth Metroplex and has taught a class on the assassination of John F. Kennedy at University of Texas at Arlington for 30 years. Marrs is a member of the Scholars for 9/11 Truth, after a leave of absence to serve with a Fourth Army intelligence unit during the Vietnam War, he became military and aerospace writer for the newspaper and an investigative reporter. Since 1980, Marrs has been a writer, author. He has also published a weekly newspaper along with a monthly tourism tabloid, a cable television show. Since 1976, Marrs has taught a course on the assassination of Kennedy at the University of Texas at Arlington, in May 1997, Marrs investigation of UFOs, Alien Agenda, was published by HarperCollins Publishers. The paperback edition was released in mid-1998 and it has been translated into several foreign languages and become the top-selling UFO book in the world. Marrs even devotes a chapter to theories that the moon may be a UFO, but if rigorous analysis escapes Marrs, little else does, this is the most entertaining and complete overview of flying saucers and their crew in years. In early 2000, HarperCollins published Rule by Secrecy, which claimed to trace a hidden history connecting modern secret societies to ancient and this book also reached the New York Times Best Seller list. In 2003, his book The War on Freedom probed the alleged conspiracies of the 9/11 attacks and it was released in 2006 under the title The Terror Conspiracy. Beginning in 2000, he began teaching a course on UFOs at the University of Texas at Arlington, Marrs usually also gives a book signing at Brave New Books in Austin, Texas at least once a year. In October 2011, Marrs started his own program, The View from Marrs on the Jeff Rense Radio network airing three times a week, Monday, Wednesday and Friday at 3 pm Central time. Marrs has on his show a variety of guests and dedicated the entire month of November to the latest information regarding the JFK assassination. He also has subject matter on UFO research, survival tips and this radio program was put on hiatus due to his two upcoming book contracts. February 2013 Marrs book, Our Occulted History, Do the Global Elite Conceal Ancient Aliens. was published by HarperCollins. In 1989, Marrs book, Crossfire, The Plot That Killed Kennedy, was published and reached the New York Times Paperback Non-Fiction Best Seller list in mid-February 1992 and it became a basis for the Oliver Stone film JFK. According to Stephen E. Johnson from the ticket in 1964, sylvia Meagher is a critic of the Warren Commission and author of Master Index to the JFK Assassination and Accessories After the Fact
30.
Louisiana
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Louisiana is a state located in the southern region of the United States. Louisiana is the 31st most extensive and the 25th most populous of the 50 United States and its capital is Baton Rouge and largest city is New Orleans. Louisiana is the state in the U. S. with political subdivisions termed parishes. The largest parish by population is East Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana is bordered by Arkansas to the north, Mississippi to the east, Texas to the west, and the Gulf of Mexico to the south. Much of the lands were formed from sediment washed down the Mississippi River, leaving enormous deltas and vast areas of coastal marsh. These contain a rich southern biota, typical examples include birds such as ibis, there are also many species of tree frogs, and fish such as sturgeon and paddlefish. In more elevated areas, fire is a process in the landscape. These support a large number of plant species, including many species of orchids. Louisiana has more Native American tribes than any other state, including four that are federally recognized, ten that are state recognized. Before the American purchase of the territory in 1803, the current Louisiana State had been both a French colony and for a period, a Spanish one. In addition, colonists imported numerous African people as slaves in the 18th century, many came from peoples of the same region of West Africa, thus concentrating their culture. Louisiana was named after Louis XIV, King of France from 1643 to 1715, when René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle claimed the territory drained by the Mississippi River for France, he named it La Louisiane. The suffix -ana is a Latin suffix that can refer to information relating to an individual, subject. Thus, roughly, Louis + ana carries the idea of related to Louis, the Gulf of Mexico did not exist 250 million years ago when there was but one supercontinent, Pangea. As Pangea split apart, the Atlantic Ocean and Gulf of Mexico opened, Louisiana slowly developed, over millions of years, from water into land, and from north to south. The oldest rocks are exposed in the north, in such as the Kisatchie National Forest. The oldest rocks date back to the early Tertiary Era, some 60 million years ago, the history of the formation of these rocks can be found in D. Spearings Roadside Geology of Louisiana. The sediments were carried north to south by the Mississippi River
31.
Barium
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Barium is a chemical element with symbol Ba and atomic number 56. It is the element in Group 2, a soft silvery metallic alkaline earth metal. Because of its chemical reactivity, barium is never found in nature as a free element. Its hydroxide, known in history as baryta, does not occur as a mineral. The most common naturally occurring minerals of barium are barite and witherite, the barium name originates from the alchemical derivative baryta, from Greek βαρύς, meaning heavy. Baric is the form of barium. Barium was identified as a new element in 1774, but not reduced to a metal until 1808 with the advent of electrolysis, historically, it was used as a getter for vacuum tubes. It is a component of YBCO and electroceramics, and is added to steel, Barium compounds are added to fireworks to impart a green color. Barium sulfate is used as an additive to oil well drilling fluid, as well as in a purer form. The soluble barium ion and soluble compounds are poisonous, and have used as rodenticides. Barium is a soft, silvery-white metal, with a slight golden shade when ultrapure, the silvery-white color of barium metal rapidly vanishes upon oxidation in air yielding a dark gray oxide layer. Barium has a specific weight and good electrical conductivity. Ultrapure barium is very difficult to prepare, and therefore properties of barium have not been accurately measured yet. At room temperature and pressure, barium has a cubic structure, with a barium–barium distance of 503 picometers. It is a soft metal with a Mohs hardness of 1.25. Its melting temperature of 1,000 K is intermediate between those of the strontium and heavier radium, however, its boiling point of 2,170 K exceeds that of strontium. The density is again intermediate between those of strontium and radium, Barium is chemically similar to magnesium, calcium, and strontium, but even more reactive. It always exhibits the oxidation state of +2, except in a few rare, reactions with chalcogens are highly exothermic, the reaction with oxygen or air occurs at room temperature, and therefore barium is stored under oil or in an inert atmosphere
32.
Discovery Channel
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Discovery Channel is an American basic cable and satellite television channel that is the flagship television property of Discovery Communications, a publicly traded company run by CEO David Zaslav. S. Flagship channel and its various owned or licensed television channels internationally, programming on the flagship Discovery Channel in the U. S. A popular annual feature on the channel is Shark Week, which airs on Discovery during the summer months, as of February 2015, Discovery Channel is available to approximately 96,589,000 pay television households in the United States. John Hendricks founded the channel and its parent company, Cable Educational Network Inc. in 1982, several investors raised $5 million in start-up capital to launch the network. The Discovery Channel began broadcasting on June 17,1985 and it was initially available to 156,000 households and broadcast for 12 hours each day between 3 p. m. and 3 a. m. About 75 percent of its content had never been broadcast on U. S. television before. In its early years, the focus centered on educational programming in the form of cultural and wildlife documentaries. It also broadcast some Soviet programming during this time, including the news program Vremya, in 1988, the channel premiered the nightly program World Monitor. By 1990, the channel was available in over 50 million households, the drop in viewership was widely attributed to an over-reliance on a few hit series, such as Monster Garage and American Chopper. Some critics said such shows strayed from Discoverys intention of providing more educationally based shows aimed at helping viewers learn about the world around them, in 2005, Discovery changed its programming focus to include more popular science and historical themes. The networks ratings eventually recovered in 2006, the network was nominated for seven Primetime Emmy Awards that year for shows including The Flight that Fought Back and Deadliest Catch. In 2007, Discovery Channels top series included the Emmy Award- and Peabody Award-winning Planet Earth, Dirty Jobs, MythBusters, Discovery Channels 2008 lineup included Fight Quest and Smash Lab. On September 1,2010, 43-year-old James Jay Lee entered the Discovery Communications headquarters in Silver Spring, Maryland, Lee fired at least one shot and held several employees hostage, he was later shot dead by police. Lee had published criticisms of the network at Savetheplanetprotest. com, in December 2015, Discovery Communications launched its TV Everywhere service, Discovery Go, which features live and video-on-demand content from Discovery Channel and eight of its sister networks. Popular programs on the channel have included the Shark Week programming event, Deadliest Catch, MythBusters, How Its Made, Dirty Jobs, Cash Cab, Christopher Lowell won a Daytime Emmy Award in 2000 for The Christopher Lowell Show. After the 2007 victory with the Spaniard Alberto Contador, Discovery Channel discontinued the cycling sponsorship, Discovery Channel Radio was a radio network, whose programming consisted of audio versions of popular programs from the Discovery Communications family of television channels. Discovery Channel Radio was previously carried by XM Satellite Radio, until its removal from the provider in early September 2005, sirius Satellite Radio dropped Discovery Radio from its lineup on February 21,2007, it was also carried on both of Canadas major satellite radio services. Discovery Channel lent its brand to stores in malls and other locations across America
33.
Fuel dumping
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This allows an aircraft on a normal, routine flight to take off at the higher weight, consume fuel en route, and arrive at a lower weight. There are other variables involving takeoff and landing weights, but they are omitted from this article for the sake of simplicity and it is the abnormal, non-routine flight where landing weight can be a problem. If an aircraft lands at more than its maximum allowable weight it might suffer structural damage, at the very least, an overweight landing would require a thorough inspection for damage. Aircraft such as the Boeing 707 and 727 and the Douglas DC-8 had fuel dump systems, in other words, for a go-around with full landing flaps and all engines operating, and at approach flap setting and one engine inoperative, respectively. Modern aircraft are designed with possible overweight landings in mind, but this is not done except in cases of emergency, many movies and TV news stories mistakenly assume that all aircraft can dump fuel, when in fact most cannot. Condensation trails coming off the trailing edge flaps can appear especially odd and it is possible that some people observe these condensation trails and wrongly assume fuel is being dumped. A Boeing 757 has no fuel dump capability as its landing weight is similar to the maximum take-off weight. Airbus positions the dumping nozzles on the wing fairing, fuel dumping operations are coordinated with air traffic control, and precautions are taken to keep other aircraft clear of such areas. Fuel dumping is usually accomplished at a high altitude where the fuel will dissipate before reaching the ground. Fuel leaves the aircraft through a point on each wing, usually closer to the wingtips and further away from engines. A large scale fuel dumping occurred on September 11,2001, international flights en route to the U. S. were either turned back to their point of origin or diverted to land in Canada and other countries. Many of these flights were fueled for travel well into the American interior, for those mid-flight aircraft unable to due to excessive fuel weight. This means the rate depends on the pressure exerted by the fuel head, the more fuel on board. This also means that the rate is not constant, but decreases while dumping because the fuel head. As a rule of thumb for the Boeing 747, pilots quote dump rates ranging from a ton per minute, in 2009 an Airbus A340-300 returning to its airport of departure shortly after takeoff dumped 53 tons of fuel in 11 minutes. A dump-and-burn is a dump in which the fuel is ignited, intentionally. A spectacular flame combined with high speed makes this a popular display for air shows or as a finale to fireworks, dump-and-burns are also referred to as torching or zippos
34.
Buenos Aires
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Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of Argentina. The city is located on the shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata. The city of Buenos Aires is neither part of Buenos Aires Province nor the Provinces capital, rather, in 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalized and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores, the 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires. Its citizens first elected a chief of government in 1996, previously, Buenos Aires is considered an alpha city by the study GaWC5. Buenos Aires quality of life was ranked 81st in the world and one of the best in Latin America in 2012 and it is the most visited city in South America, and the second-most visited city of Latin America. Buenos Aires is a top tourist destination, and is known for its preserved Spanish/European-style architecture, Buenos Aires held the 1st Pan American Games in 1951 as well as hosting two venues in the 1978 FIFA World Cup. Buenos Aires will host the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics and the 2018 G20 summit, Buenos Aires is a multicultural city, being home to multiple ethnic and religious groups. Several languages are spoken in the city in addition to Spanish, contributing to its culture, the hill was known to them as Buen Ayre, as it was free of the foul smell prevalent in the old city, which is adjacent to swampland. During the siege of Cagliari, the Aragonese built a sanctuary to the Virgin Mary on top of the hill, in 1335, King Alfonso the Gentle donated the church to the Mercedarians, who built an abbey that stands to this day. In the years after that, a story circulated, claiming that a statue of the Virgin Mary was retrieved from the sea after it miraculously helped to calm a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, the statue was placed in the abbey. Spanish sailors, especially Andalusians, venerated this image and frequently invoked the Fair Winds to aid them in their navigation, a sanctuary to the Virgin of Buen Ayre would be later erected in Seville. Pedro de Mendoza called the city Holy Mary of the Fair Winds, mendoza’s settlement soon came under attack by indigenous people, and was abandoned in 1541. For many years, the name was attributed to a Sancho del Campo, a second settlement was established in 1580 by Juan de Garay, who sailed down the Paraná River from Asunción. Garay preserved the name chosen by Mendoza, calling the city Ciudad de la Santísima Trinidad y Puerto de Santa María del Buen Aire. The short form Buenos Aires became the common usage during the 17th century, the usual abbreviation for Buenos Aires in Spanish is Bs. As. It is common as well to refer to it as B. A. or BA /ˌbiːˈeɪ/ bee-AY), while BA is used more by expats residing in the city, the locals more often use the abbreviation Baires, in one word. Seaman Juan Díaz de Solís, navigating in the name of Spain, was the first European to reach the Río de la Plata in 1516 and his expedition was cut short when he was killed during an attack by the native Charrúa tribe in what is now Uruguay
35.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
36.
Aluminium
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Aluminium or aluminum is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal, Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite, Aluminium is remarkable for the metals low density and its ability to resist corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminium and its alloys are vital to the industry and important in transportation and structures, such as building facades. The oxides and sulfates are the most useful compounds of aluminium, despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically, but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of these salts abundance, the potential for a role for them is of continuing interest. Aluminium is a soft, durable, lightweight, ductile. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite, a fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector of visible light and an excellent reflector of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel and it is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded. Aluminium atoms are arranged in a cubic structure. Aluminium has an energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2. Aluminium is a thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper. Aluminium is capable of superconductivity, with a critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin. Aluminium is the most common material for the fabrication of superconducting qubits, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. In highly acidic solutions, aluminium reacts with water to form hydrogen, primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides, such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from aluminium
37.
Salt (chemistry)
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In chemistry, a salt is an ionic compound that results from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of related numbers of cations and anions so that the product is electrically neutral and these component ions can be inorganic, such as chloride, or organic, such as acetate, and can be monatomic, such as fluoride, or polyatomic, such as sulfate. There are several varieties of salts, salts that hydrolyze to produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water are alkali salts, whilst those that hydrolyze to produce hydronium ions in water are acidic salts. Neutral salts are those salts that are neither acidic nor basic, zwitterions contain an anionic centre and a cationic centre in the same molecule, but are not considered to be salts. Examples of zwitterions include amino acids, many metabolites, peptides, usually, non-dissolved salts at standard conditions for temperature and pressure are solid, but there are exceptions. Molten salts and solutions containing dissolved salts are called electrolytes, as they are able to conduct electricity. As observed in the cytoplasm of cells, in blood, urine, plant saps and mineral waters, therefore, their salt content is given for the respective ions. Salts can appear to be clear and transparent, opaque, and even metallic, in many cases, the apparent opacity or transparency are only related to the difference in size of the individual monocrystals. Since light reflects from the boundaries, larger crystals tend to be transparent. The color of the salt is due to the electronic structure in the d-orbitals of transition elements or in the conjugated organic dye framework. Different salts can elicit all five basic tastes, e. g. salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami or savory. Salts of strong acids and strong bases are non-volatile and odorless and that slow, partial decomposition is usually accelerated by the presence of water, since hydrolysis is the other half of the reversible reaction equation of formation of weak salts. Many ionic compounds can be dissolved in water or other similar solvents, the exact combination of ions involved makes each compound have a unique solubility in any solvent. The solubility is dependent on how well each ion interacts with the solvent, for example, all salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium are soluble in water, as are all nitrates and many sulfates – barium sulfate, calcium sulfate and lead sulfate are examples of exceptions. However, ions that bind tightly to each other and form highly stable lattices are less soluble, for example, most carbonate salts are not soluble in water, such as lead carbonate and barium carbonate. Some soluble carbonate salts are, sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, solid salts do not conduct electricity. Moreover, solutions of salts also conduct electricity, the name of a salt starts with the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion. Salts are often referred to only by the name of the cation or by the name of the anion. g
38.
Polymer
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A polymer is a large molecule, or macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their range of properties, both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life. Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure, Polymers, both natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as monomers. The units composing polymers derive, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in 1920 by Hermann Staudinger, Polymers are studied in the fields of biophysics and macromolecular science, and polymer science. Polyisoprene of latex rubber is an example of a polymer. In biological contexts, essentially all biological macromolecules—i. e, proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides—are purely polymeric, or are composed in large part of polymeric components—e. g. Isoprenylated/lipid-modified glycoproteins, where small molecules and oligosaccharide modifications occur on the polyamide backbone of the protein. The simplest theoretical models for polymers are ideal chains, Polymers are of two types, Natural polymeric materials such as shellac, amber, wool, silk and natural rubber have been used for centuries. A variety of natural polymers exist, such as cellulose. Most commonly, the continuously linked backbone of a used for the preparation of plastics consists mainly of carbon atoms. A simple example is polyethylene, whose repeating unit is based on ethylene monomer, however, other structures do exist, for example, elements such as silicon form familiar materials such as silicones, examples being Silly Putty and waterproof plumbing sealant. Oxygen is also present in polymer backbones, such as those of polyethylene glycol, polysaccharides. Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a covalently bonded chain or network, during the polymerization process, some chemical groups may be lost from each monomer. This is the case, for example, in the polymerization of PET polyester, the distinct piece of each monomer that is incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue. Laboratory synthetic methods are divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain-growth polymerization. However, some methods such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category
39.
Thorium
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Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th and atomic number 90. A radioactive actinide metal, thorium is one of only two significantly radioactive elements that occur naturally in large quantities as a primordial element. It was discovered in 1829 by the Norwegian amateur mineralogist Morten Thrane Esmark and identified by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who named it after Thor, a thorium atom has 90 protons and therefore 90 electrons, of which four are valence electrons. Thorium metal is silvery and tarnishes black when exposed to air, Thorium is weakly radioactive, all of its known isotopes are unstable. Thorium-232, which has 142 neutrons, is the most stable isotope of thorium and accounts for all natural thorium. Thorium is estimated to be three to four times more abundant than uranium in the Earths crust, and is chiefly refined from monazite sands as a by-product of extracting rare earth metals. Thorium was once used as the light source in gas mantles and as an alloying material. Thorium is still used as an alloying element in TIG welding electrodes. Thorium is predicted to be able to replace uranium as fuel in nuclear reactors. Thorium is a soft, paramagnetic, bright silvery radioactive actinide metal, in the periodic table, it is located to the right of the actinide actinium, to the left of the actinide protactinium, and below the lanthanide cerium. Pure thorium is very ductile and, as normal for metals, can be cold-rolled, swaged, at room temperature, thorium metal has a face-centred cubic crystal structure, additionally, it has two other forms at exotic conditions, one at high temperature and one at high pressure. The properties of thorium vary widely depending on the amount of impurities in the sample, the purest thorium specimens usually contain about a tenth of a percent of the dioxide. These values lie intermediate between those of its neighbours actinium and protactinium, showing the continuity of trends across the early actinides, thoriums melting point of 1750 °C is above both that of actinium and that of protactinium. After thorium, there is a new smooth trend downward in the points of the early actinides from thorium to plutonium where the number of f electrons increases from about 0. Thorium has a modulus of 54 GPa, comparable to those of tin. The hardness of thorium is similar to that of steel, so heated pure thorium can be rolled in sheets. Nevertheless, while thorium is nearly half as dense as uranium and plutonium, Thorium becomes superconductive below 1.4 K. Thorium can also form alloys with many other metals. With chromium and uranium, it forms eutectic mixtures, and thorium is completely miscible in both solid and liquid states with its lighter congener cerium, as such, 232Th still occurs naturally today, four-fifths of the thorium present at Earths formation has survived to the present
40.
Climate engineering
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Climate engineering is an umbrella term for two types of measures, carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. Carbon dioxide removal addresses the cause of change by removing one of the greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. Solar radiation management attempts to offset effects of gases by causing the Earth to absorb less solar radiation. Climate engineering approaches are sometimes viewed as potential options for limiting climate change. There is substantial agreement among scientists that climate engineering cannot substitute for climate change mitigation, some approaches might be used as accompanying measures to sharp cuts in greenhouse gas emissions. Research on costs, benefits, and various types of risks of most climate engineering approaches is at a stage and their understanding needs to improve to judge their adequacy. Almost all research into solar radiation management has consisted of computer modelling or laboratory tests, some carbon dioxide removal practices, such as planting of trees and bio-energy with carbon capture and storage projects, are underway. Their scalability to effectively affect global climate is, however, debated, ocean iron fertilization has been given small-scale research trials, sparking substantial controversy. However, most experts also argue that the risks of such interventions must be seen in the context of risks of climate change. Groups such as ETC Group and some researchers are in favour of a moratorium on out-of-doors testing. With respect to climate, geoengineering is defined by the Royal Society as, the deliberate large-scale intervention in the Earth’s climate system, in order to moderate global warming. The Asilomar International Conference on Climate Intervention Technologies was convened to identify, some authors have argued that any public support for climate engineering may weaken the fragile political consensus to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Several climate engineering strategies have been proposed, IPCC documents detail several notable proposals. These fall into two categories, solar radiation management and carbon dioxide removal. Here is a list of specific proposals, Solar radiation management techniques would seek to reduce sunlight absorbed. This would be achieved by deflecting sunlight away from the Earth and these methods would not reduce greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, and thus would not seek to address problems such as the ocean acidification caused by CO2. Furthermore, many proposed SRM methods would be reversible in their direct climatic effects, while greenhouse gas remediation offers a more comprehensive possible solution to climate change, it does not give instantaneous results, for that, solar radiation management is required. Solar radiation management methods may include, Surface-based, for example, using pale-colored roofing materials, attempting to change the oceans brightness, troposphere-based, for example, marine cloud brightening, which would spray fine sea water to whiten clouds and thus increase cloud reflectivity
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