1.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
2.
Seoul
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The Seoul Capital Area houses up to half of the countrys population of 50.22 million people with 678,102 international residents. Situated on the Han River, Seouls history stretches back more than two years when it was founded in 18 BCE by Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It continued as the capital of Korea under the Joseon Dynasty, the Seoul Capital Area contains five UNESCO World Heritage Sites, Changdeok Palace, Hwaseong Fortress, Jongmyo Shrine, Namhansanseong and the Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty. Seoul is surrounded by mountains, the tallest being Mt. Bukhan, in 2015, it was rated Asias most livable city with the second highest quality of life globally by Arcadis. In 2014, the citys GDP per capita of $39,786 was comparable to that of France and Finland. Ranked sixth in the Global Power City Index and Global Financial Centres Index, Seoul is the worlds most wired city and ranked first in technology readiness by PwCs Cities of Opportunity report. It is served by the KTX high-speed rail and the Seoul Subway, providing 4G LTE, WiFi, Seoul is connected via AREX to Incheon International Airport, rated the worlds best airport nine years in a row by Airports Council International. Lotte World Tower, a 556-metre supertall skyscraper with 123 floors, has built in Seoul and become the OECDs tallest in 2016. Its Lotte Cinema houses the worlds largest cinema screen, Seouls COEX Mall is the worlds largest underground shopping mall. Seoul hosted the 1986 Asian Games,1988 Summer Olympics,2002 FIFA World Cup, the Miss Universe 1980 pageant, a UNESCO City of Design, Seoul was named the 2010 World Design Capital. The city has known in the past by the names Wirye-seong, Hanju. During Japans annexation in Korea, Hanseong was renamed to Keijō by the Imperial authorities to prevent confusion with the hanja 漢, in reality, the ancient name of Seoul, Hanseong, originally had the meaning of big or vast. Its current name originated from the Korean word meaning city, which is believed to be derived from the word Seorabeol, which originally referred to Gyeongju. Unlike most place names in Korea, Seoul has no corresponding hanja, on January 18,2005, Seoul government officially changed its official Chinese language name to Shouer from the historic Hancheng, of which use is becoming less common. Settlement of the Han River area, where present-day Seoul is located, Seoul is first recorded as Wiryeseong, the capital of Baekje in the northeastern Seoul area. There are several city walls remaining in the area date from this time. Pungnaptoseong, a wall just outside Seoul, is widely believed to have been at the main Wiryeseong site. As the Three Kingdoms competed for this region, control passed from Baekje to Goguryeo in the 5th century
3.
Jongno District
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Jongno District is a gu, or district, in central Seoul, South Korea. It takes its name from a local street, Jongno. Jongno District has been the center of the city for 600 years, Jongno District is commonly referred to as the face and heart of Korea because of its important roles in the politics, economics, culture, and history as the capital city. Jongno District is home to palaces in which the kings used to reside and work, such as Gyeongbok Palace, Changdeok Palace, Changgyeong Palace, the South Korean presidents current residence, the Cheongwadae, is also located in Jongno District. With the historical value and cultural properties, Jongno District attracts visitors attention and these include the restored Cheonggyecheon stream, the traditional neighborhood of Insa-dong, and the Jongmyo shrine. Art Center Nabi and Gahoe Museum, a museum is also located in the district. A number of colleges and universities are located here, these include the main campuses of Sungkyunkwan University, Jongno District is also home to Jogyesa, the chief temple of the Jogye Order of Korean Buddhism. It is also of historical significant as the location for administrative buildings and features statues of the Admiral Yi Sun-sin of Joseon Dynasty. As the traditional heart of Seoul, Jongno is still an important business center, notable companies based in Jongno include Kumho Asiana Group, Kyobo Life. Lotte Group, SK Group, Hyundai Engineering & Construction, Daewoo E&C, Daelim Group, East Asia Daily, the headquarters of South Korean skincare retailer The Face Shop is located in the LG Gwanghwamun Building on sinmunno 2-ga. The head office of Air Seoul is in the Kumho Asiana Main Tower in Sinmunno 1-ga, the headquarters of the Ministry of Security and Public Administration is located in the Seoul Government Complex in Jongno District. The third and fourth floors of the building house the Ministry of Unification. The headquarters of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is located in the MOFA Building in Jongno District, previously the Ministry of Education had its headquarters in the Central Government Complex in Jongno District. The Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism also had its headquarters in Jongno District, the Ministry of Health and Welfare had its headquarters in the Hyundai Building. The offices of those ministries have moved to Sejong City, before merged into another ministry in 2008, the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries was located in Jongro-gu. It was re-established in Sejong City and those are some of the district administrative dongs. For a complete list, see here, the current mayor of Jong-no district is Kim Yeong-jong
4.
Jungnangcheon
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The Jungnangcheon is a tributary of Seouls Han River. It is generated in the valley of Dorak Mountain of Yangju, cheonggyecheon is a tributary of Jungnangcheon. Its whole river basin extends to 299.9 km², most of the stream is located in Uijeongbu and Seoul. Citizens enjoy jogging and cycling near the river, the cycling track links to other tracks on both the nearby Cheongyecheon stream and the Han river. Seoul Selection reports that there are some areas alongside the stream where rape flowers are visible in May, the river contains a large amount of pollutants especially from domestic pollution. Experts have pointed out that the pollution originates from the reaches of the stream. In summer 2007, more than 200 fish died after a heavy rain, pollutants at the bottom of the riverbed contaminated the stream after a storm, and citizens called environmental authorities. Uijeongbu city government reported its plan to build more ecologically-friendly sewage disposal plants, despite the likelihood that the water is not clean, many people fish in the river downstream from Uijeongbu
5.
Seongdong District
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Seongdong District is one of the 25 gu which make up the city of Seoul, South Korea. It is situated on the bank of the Han River. It is divided into 20 dong, however, due to its extraordinarily huge size, Seoul Metropolitan Government divided the district into 5, and made Seongdong District cede some part of the district to Jung District. Yeongdeungpo District, Seodaemun District, Seongbuk District, and Dongdaemun District underwent similar changes, the building was previously used as Seongdong District Office
6.
Hangul
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The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul in South Korea and as Chosŏngŭl/Chosŏn Muntcha in North Korea is the alphabet that has been used to write the Korean language since the 15th century. It was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443 by King Sejong the Great, in South Korea, Hangul is used primarily to write the Korean language as using Hanja in typical Korean writing had fallen out of common usage during the late 1990s. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 19 consonant and 21 vowel letters, however, instead of being written sequentially like the letters of the Latin alphabet, Hangul letters are grouped into blocks, such as 한 han, each of which transcribes a syllable. That is, although the syllable 한 han may look like a single character, each syllabic block consists of two to six letters, including at least one consonant and one vowel. These blocks are arranged horizontally from left to right or vertically from top to bottom. Each Korean word consists of one or more syllables, hence one or more blocks, of the 11,172 possible Hangul syllables, the most frequent 256 have a cumulative frequency of 88. 2%, with the top 512, it reaches 99. 9%. The modern name Hangul was coined by Ju Sigyeong in 1912, han meant great in archaic Korean, and geul is the native Korean word for script. Taken together, then, the meaning is great script, as the word han had also become one way of indicating Korea as a whole the name could also potentially be interpreted as Korean script. Korean 한글 is pronounced, and in English as /ˈhɑːn. ɡʊl/ or /ˈhɑːŋɡʊl/, when used as an English word, it is often rendered without the diacritics, hangul, and it is often capitalized as Hangul, as it appears in many English dictionaries. Hankul in the Yale romanization, a system recommended for technical linguistic studies, North Koreans call it Chosŏngŭl, after Chosŏn, the North Korean name for Korea. Because of objections to the names Hangeul, Chosŏngŭl, and urigeul by Koreans in China, until the early 20th century, Hangul was denigrated as vulgar by the literate elite, who preferred the traditional hanja writing system. They gave it such names as these, Achimgeul, in the original Hanja, it is rendered as 故智者不終朝而會，愚者可浹旬而學。 Gugmun Eonmun Amgeul. Am is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine Ahaetgeul or Ahaegeul Hangul was promulgated by Sejong the Great, the Hall of Worthies, a group of scholars who worked with Sejong to develop and refine the new alphabet, is often credited for the work. The project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, the publication date of the Hunmin Jeong-eum, October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosongul Day, is on January 15, various speculations about the creation process were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics, to assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. However, it entered popular culture as Sejong had intended, being used especially by women, the late 16th century, however, saw a revival of Hangul, with gasa literature and later sijo flourishing. In the 17th century, Hangul novels became a major genre, by this point spelling had become quite irregular
7.
Hanja
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Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. Borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation, hanja-mal or hanja-eo refers to words that can be written with hanja, and hanmun refers to Classical Chinese writing, although hanja is sometimes used loosely to encompass these other concepts. Because hanja never underwent major reform, they are almost entirely identical to traditional Chinese, only a small number of hanja characters are modified or unique to Korean. By contrast, many of the Chinese characters currently in use in Japan and Mainland China have been simplified, and contain fewer strokes than the corresponding hanja characters. Today, a working knowledge of Chinese characters is still important for anyone who wishes to study older texts. Learning a certain number of hanja is very helpful for understanding the etymology of Sino-Korean words, hanja are not used to write native Korean words, which are always rendered in hangul, and even words of Chinese origin—hanja-eo —are written with the hangul alphabet most of the time. A major motivation for the introduction of Chinese characters into Korea was the spread of Buddhism, the major Chinese text that introduced hanja to Koreans, however, was not a religious text but the Chinese text, Cheonjamun. One way of adapting hanja to write Korean in such systems was to represent native Korean grammatical particles, for example, Gugyeol uses the characters 爲尼 to transcribe the Korean word hăni, in modern Korean, that means does, and so. However, in Chinese, the characters are read as the expression wéi ní. This is an example of Gugyeol words where the radical is read in Korean for its meaning. Hanja was the means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of hangul in the 15th century. However, even after the invention of hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in hanmun and it was not until the 20th century that hangul truly replaced hanja. Officially, hanja has not been used in North Korea since June 1949, additionally, many words borrowed from Chinese have been replaced in the North with native Korean words. However, there are a number of Chinese-borrowed words in widespread usage in the North. The replacement has been less total in South Korea where, although usage has declined over time, some remains in common usage in some contexts. Each hanja is composed of one of 214 radicals plus in most cases one or more additional elements, the vast majority of hanja use the additional elements to indicate the sound of the character, but a few hanja are purely pictographic, and some were formed in other ways. This dual meaning-sound reading of a character is called eumhun, the word or words used to denote the meaning are often—though hardly always—words of native Korean origin, and are sometimes archaic words no longer commonly used. South Korean primary schools abandoned the teaching of hanja in 1971 and it is taught in separate courses in South Korean high schools, separately from the normal Korean-language curriculum
8.
Urban renewal
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Urban renewal, which is generally called urban regeneration, revitalization in the United States, is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high density urban land use. Renewal has had both successes and failures and its modern incarnation began in the late 19th century in developed nations and experienced an intense phase in the late 1940s – under the rubric of reconstruction. The process has had a impact on many urban landscapes. This process is carried out in rural areas, referred to as village renewal. In some cases, renewal may result in urban sprawl and less congestion when areas of cities receive freeways and expressways, Urban renewal has been seen by proponents as an economic engine and a reform mechanism, and by critics as a mechanism for control. It may enhance existing communities, and in some cases result in the demolition of neighborhoods, many cities link the revitalization of the central business district and gentrification of residential neighborhoods to earlier urban renewal programs. The agenda that emerged was a doctrine that assumed better housing conditions would reform its residents morally and economically. The first area to be targeted was the notorious slum called the Devils Acre near Westminster and this new movement was largely funded by George Peabody and the Peabody Trust and had a lasting impact on the urban character of Westminster. Slum clearance began with the Rochester Buildings, on the corner of Old Pye Street and Perkins Rent and they are one of the earliest large-scale philanthropic housing developments in London. The Rochester Buildings were sold to the Peabody Trust in 1877, angela Burdett-Coutts, 1st Baroness Burdett-Coutts funded an experimental social housing estate, among the first of its kind, on the corner of Columbia Road and Old Pye Street. In 1869 the Peabody Trust built one of its first housing estates at Brewers Green, between Victoria Street and St. Jamess Park. What remained of the Devils Acre on the side of Victoria Street was cleared. In 1882, the Peabody Trust built the Abbey Orchard Estate on former marshland at the corner of Old Pye Street, like many of the social housing estates, the Abbey Orchard Estate was built following the square plan concept. Blocks of flats were built around a courtyard, creating a space within the estate functioning as recreation area. The courtyards were meant to create a community atmosphere and the blocks of flats were designed to allow sunlight into the courtyards, the blocks of flats were built using high-quality brickwork and included architectural features such as lettering, glazing, fixtures and fittings. The estates built in the area at the time were considered model dwellings and included shared laundry and sanitary facilities, innovative at the time, the design was subsequently repeated in numerous other housing estates in London. State intervention was first achieved with the passage of the Public Health Act of 1875 through Parliament, the Act focused on combating filthy urban living conditions that were the cause of disease outbreaks. It required all new construction to include running water and an internal drainage system
9.
Miracle on the Han River
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The term Miracle on the Han River was coined after the phrase Miracle on the Rhine was used to refer to the economic rebirth of West Germany after World War II. The resultant growth has been attributed to the work of the labour force. Between 1910-1945, Korea was a colony of the Japanese Empire, as a result of Japanese capital investment, especially during the 1930s-1940s, it experienced a phase of industrialization, modernization, and economic growth. During the period of Japanese colonialism, eight companies were founded and other firms grew as a result of aid. However, following the Pacific War, the Korean economy declined as trade relations between Korea and Japan broke down, at this time, the economy was largely agricultural. Through the Farmland Reform Act of 1950, the United States Army Military Government in Korea redistributed previously Japanese-owned land, the Second Republic of South Korea existed for only one year, but had a great effect on economy and history of South Korea through ideology and policy. When a military coup in 1961 led by general Park Chung-hee overthrew the Democratic Party, during this time, the first national Five-Year Plan was implemented, becoming an important factor in the Miracle on the Han River. Parks motto of treating employees like family has been credited with increasing productivity within the South Korean workforce, South Korean workers were reportedly 2.5 times more productive than American workers, even though they were paid a tenth of American wages. At the same time, morality laws established mandatory curfews and regulations on attire, in his program of Yushin Kaehyuk, he caused Korean cinema to enter into a moribund period considered by many to be the lowest periods in the history of Korean cinema. Park had believed that South Korea was not ready to be a democratic nation nor a free nation. As he stated, Democracy cannot be realized without an economic revolution, Park argued that the poverty of the nation would make it vulnerable, and therefore an urgent task was to eliminate poverty rather than establish a democratic nation. During his presidency the Korean Central Intelligence Agency became a feared institution. Park Chung-hees rule ended on October 26,1979 when he was killed by his chief of security services, the government used this money to accomplish a self-supporting economy, launching the Saemaeul movement in order to develop rural areas. The strong leadership of the government as well as the use of cheap labor served as catalysts for the growth of the South Korean economy. During the Fourth Republic, South Korea invested in its chemical industry. Civilians cooperated by investing in these markets, and business employers did their part ensuring that employees were loyal and this continued to be the case even when marginal utility seemed to be decreasing because of the overproduction of goods. Another motivating factor in the sector was the influence of a series of policy loans that were closely associated with negative interest rates. With the government backing heavy industries, electronics and steel industries flourished, money subsequently came pouring into the economy as consumer confidence in heavy industries grew
10.
Transport
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Transport or transportation is the movement of people, animals and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, rail, road, water, cable, pipeline, the field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles and operations. Transport is important because it enables trade between people, which is essential for the development of civilizations, terminals may be used both for interchange of passengers and cargo and for maintenance. Vehicles traveling on these networks may include automobiles, bicycles, buses, trains, trucks, people, helicopters, operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be public or private, depending on the country. Passenger transport may be public, where operators provide scheduled services, freight transport has become focused on containerization, although bulk transport is used for large volumes of durable items. Transport plays an important part in growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution. While it is subsidized by governments, good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow. A mode of transport is a solution that makes use of a type of vehicle, infrastructure. The transport of a person or of cargo may involve one mode or several of the modes, each mode has its own advantages and disadvantages, and will be chosen for a trip on the basis of cost, capability, and route. Human powered transport, a form of transportation, is the transport of people and/or goods using human muscle-power. Modern technology has allowed machines to enhance human power, human-powered vehicles have also been developed for difficult environments, such as snow and water, by watercraft rowing and skiing, even the air can be entered with human-powered aircraft. Animal-powered transport is the use of working animals for the movement of people, humans may ride some of the animals directly, use them as pack animals for carrying goods, or harness them, alone or in teams, to pull sleds or wheeled vehicles. A fixed-wing aircraft, commonly called airplane, is a craft where movement of the air in relation to the wings is used to generate lift. The term is used to distinguish this from rotary-wing aircraft, where the movement of the lift surfaces relative to the air generates lift, a gyroplane is both fixed-wing and rotary-wing. Fixed-wing aircraft range from small trainers and recreational aircraft to large airliners, two things necessary for aircraft are air flow over the wings for lift and an area for landing. The majority of aircraft also need an airport with the infrastructure to receive maintenance, restocking, refueling and for the loading and unloading of crew, cargo and passengers. While the vast majority of land and take off on land, some are capable of take off and landing on ice, snow
11.
Tourism in South Korea
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Tourism in South Korea refers to the tourist industry in the Republic of Korea. In 2012,11.1 million foreign tourists visited South Korea, making it the 20th most visited country in the world, most non-Korean tourists come from Japan, China, Taiwan and Hong Kong. The recent popularity of Korean popular culture, often known as the Korean Wave, Seoul is the principal tourist destination for visitors, popular tourist destinations outside of Seoul include Seorak-san national park, the historic city of Gyeongju and subtropical Jeju Island. Traveling to North Korea is not normally possible without a special permission, the majority of the South Korean tourist industry is supported by domestic tourism. Thanks to the extensive network of trains and buses, most of the country lies within a days round trip of any major city. International tourists come primarily from nearby countries in Asia, Japan, China, Hong Kong and Taiwan together account for roughly 75% of the total number of international tourists. In addition, the Korean Wave has brought increasing numbers of tourists from Southeast Asia and India, the Korea Tourism Organization is targeting 100,000 arrivals from India in 2013. The number of Korean domestic tourists has increased since 2010, the number of people who participated in domestic travel was about 238.3 million. It increased by 4. 9% compared to 2014, in 2014, Koreans domestic tourism expenditure was ₩14.4 trillion. Also, Korean oversea tourists are keep increasing since 2010, from 2012 to 2014, the number of people travelling overseas has risen by about 8. 2% on average. In 2014, number of Korean oversea tourists was about 16.1 million, and Korean oversea tourism expenditure was $19,469.9 million. Since the 1960s, overseas travel restrictions and regulations have been reviewed to prevent foreign currency waste from traveling abroad. However, during the 1980s, the liberalization of travel has begun to take place in catering to the globalization of the South Korea society. Since then, South Koreans have been able to travel freely abroad, therefore, the popularity of destinations close to South Korea, where South Koreans can go for short vacations alone, are increasing. According to the results of a plane ticket analysis in 2016, moreover, Osaka, Tokyo, and Shanghai have high re-visit rates for South Koreans. However European destinations such as London, Paris, and Rome have fallen in re-visit rating, due to distances, expensive air fares. Japanese tourists to South Korea declined by half from 3.5 million in 2012 to 1.8 million in 2015, International tourists typically enter the country through Incheon International Airport, near Seoul, which was found to be the worlds best airport in 2006. Also international airports in Busan and Jeju are frequently used, in 2013, travel and tourism directly contributed KRW26.7 trillion to South Korean GDP and directly supported 617,500 jobs in the country
12.
Stream
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A stream is a body of water with a current, confined within a bed and banks. Streams are important as conduits in the cycle, instruments in groundwater recharge. The biological habitat in the vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. Given the status of the ongoing Holocene extinction, streams play an important corridor role in connecting fragmented habitats, the study of streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology and is a core element of environmental geography. Brook A stream smaller than a creek, especially one that is fed by a spring or seep and it is usually small and easily forded. A brook is characterised by its shallowness and its bed being composed primarily of rocks, creek In North America, Australia and New Zealand, a small to medium-sized natural stream. Sometimes navigable by motor craft and may be intermittent, in parts of Maryland, New England, the UK and India, a tidal inlet, typically in a salt marsh or mangrove swamp, or between enclosed and drained former salt marshes or swamps. In these cases, the stream is the stream, the course of the seawater through the creek channel at low. River A large natural stream, which may be a waterway, runnel the linear channel between the parallel ridges or bars on a shoreline beach or river floodplain, or between a bar and the shore. Tributary A contributory stream, or a stream which does not reach the sea, sometimes also called a branch or fork. There are a number of names for a stream. Allt is used in Highland Scotland, beck is used in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Dumfriesshire, Cumbria, Norfolk, and Lincolnshire. Bourne or winterbourne is used in the chalk downland of southern England, brook is used in the Midlands, Lancashire and Cheshire. Burn is used in Scotland and North East England, gill or ghyll is seen in the north of England and other areas influenced by Old Norse. Rivulet is an term encountered in Victorian era publications, stream is used in Southern England. Syke is used in lowland Scotland and Cumbria for a seasonal stream, branch is used to name streams in Maryland and Virginia. Falls is also used to name streams in Maryland, for streams/rivers which have waterfalls on them, little Gunpowder Falls and The Jones Falls are actually rivers named in this manner, unique to Maryland. Kill in New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and New Jersey comes from a Dutch language word meaning riverbed or water channel, run in Ohio, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, or West Virginia can be the name of a stream
13.
Han River (Korea)
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The Han River or Hangang is a major river in South Korea and the fourth longest river on the Korean peninsula after the Amnok, Tuman, and Nakdong rivers. The river begins as two rivers in the eastern mountains of the Korean peninsula, which then converge near Seoul. The Han River and its area have played an important role in Korean history. The Three Kingdoms of Korea strove to control of this land. However, the river is no longer used for navigation. The river serves as a source for over 12 million Koreans. In July 2000, the US military admitted to having dumped toxic chemicals in the river, currently, the lower stretches of the Han river are lined with pedestrian walkways, bicycle paths, public parks and restaurants, particularly in Seoul. The Han is formed by the confluence of the Namhan River, which originates in Mount Daedeok, and the Bukhan River, the River flows through Seoul and then merges with the Rimjin River shortly before it flows into the Yellow Sea. The two major branches of the river, the Namhan River and the Bukhan River, come together at Yangpyeong, Gyeonggi province and it then passes through Seoul and continues on to the Yellow Sea. Broad tidal flats can be found at the mouth of the Han River, the total length of the Han River is approximately 494 kilometres. Although it is not a river, the lower Han is remarkably broad for such a relatively short river. Within Seoul city limits, the river is more than 1 kilometre wide, prior to the construction of a number of major dams, the river was known for its huge coefficient of river regime of 1,390. The Namhangang is sometimes, but not always, referred to as the Han in South Korea, the term South Han is understood irrespective of which side of the border one stands. Even though Namhan and Bukhan are homophones with the acronyms Namhan and Bukhan, used commonly in South Korea, the hanja for the Han River is not 韓 but 漢. It is also easily mistaken with the use of 漢 in Seouls older name, 漢城 where 漢 does not refer to Chinese people, Han River has been called by different names through the course of Korean history. During the period of the Han Commanderies on the peninsula and the part of the three kingdoms period the river was often referred to as the Daesu. The state of Goguryeo called it the Arisu, Baekje called it the Ungniha, while the kingdom of Silla termed it the Iha. The Han River has played a role in Korean history from the earliest times
14.
Yellow Sea
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The Yellow Sea is the name given to the northern part of the East China Sea, which is a marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean. It is located between mainland China and the Korean Peninsula and its name comes from the sand particles from Gobi Desert sand storms that turn the surface of the water golden yellow. The innermost bay of the Yellow Sea is called the Bohai Sea, into it flow both the Yellow River and Hai He. Deposits of sand and silt from those rivers contribute to the sea colour, the northern extension of the Yellow Sea is called the Korea Bay. The Yellow Sea is one of four seas named after common colour terms — the others being the Black Sea, the Red Sea, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Yellow Sea as follows, On the South. The parallel of 33°17 North from Saisyu To to the mainland. The Yellow Sea, excluding the Bohai, extends by about 960 km from north to south and about 700 km from east to west, it has an area of about 380,000 km2 and the volume of about 17,000 km3. Its depth is only 44 m on average, with a maximum of 152 m, the sea is a flooded section of continental shelf that formed after the last ice age as sea levels rose 120 m to their current levels. The sea bottom is slowly rising toward China and more rapidly at the Korean Peninsula, the depth gradually increases from north to south. The sea bottom and shores are dominated by sand and silt brought by the rivers through the Bohai Sea and those deposits, together with sand storms are responsible for the yellow water color and the sea name. The area has cold, dry winters with strong northerly monsoons blowing from late November to March, average January temperatures are −10 °C in the north and 3 °C in the south. Summers are wet and warm with frequent typhoons between June and October, air temperatures range between 10 and 28 °C. The average annual precipitation increases from about 500 mm in the north to 1,000 mm in the south, fog is frequent along the coasts, especially in the upwelling cold-water areas. The sea has a warm cyclone current and it is a part of the Kuroshio Current, which diverges near the western part of Japan and flows northward into the Yellow Sea at the speed of below 0.8 km/h. Southward currents prevail near the sea coast, especially in the monsoon period. The water temperature is close to freezing in the part in winter, so drift ice patches and continuous ice fields form. The water temperature and salinity are homogeneous across the depth, the southern waters are warmer at 6–8 °C. In spring and summer, the layer is warmed up by the sun and diluted by the fresh water from rivers, while the deeper water remains cold
15.
President of South Korea
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The president is directly elected to a five-year term with no possibility of re-election. While in office, the chief executive lives in Cheong Wa Dae, on February 25,2013, Park Geun-hye became the 18th President of South Korea. She was also the first woman to assume this post and she has since been impeached on corruption charges, which was confirmed by the Constitutional Court of Korea on March 10,2017, removing her from office. Prime minister Hwang Kyo-ahn has been Acting President since 9 December 2016, chapter 3 of the Constitution of the Republic of Korea states the duties and the powers of the president. The president may refer important policy matters to a referendum, declare war, conclude peace and other treaties, appoint senior public officials. Emergency measures may be taken only when the National Assembly is not in session, the measures are limited to the minimum necessary. The 1987 Constitution removed the 1980 Constitutions explicit provisions that empowered the government to suspend the freedoms. However, the president is permitted to take measures that could amend or abolish existing laws for the duration of a crisis. It is unclear whether such emergency measures could temporarily suspend portions of the Constitution itself, emergency measures must be referred to the National Assembly for concurrence. If not endorsed by the assembly, the measures can be revoked. In a change from the 1980 Constitution, the 1987 Constitution stated that the president is not permitted to dissolve the National Assembly, the official residence of the president is Cheong Wa Dae. It means the House of the Blue Roof Tiles, so it is called the Blue House in English. The president is assisted by the staff of the Presidential Secretariat, apart from the State Council, or cabinet, the chief executive relies on several constitutional organs. These constitutional organs included the National Security Council, which provided advice concerning the foreign, military, another important body is the National Unification Advisory Council, inaugurated in June 1981 under the chairpersonship of the president. The president also was assisted in 1990 by the Audit and Inspection Board, in addition to auditing the accounts of all public institutions, the board scrutinized the administrative performance of government agencies and public officials. Its findings were reported to the president and the National Assembly, Board members were appointed by the president. One controversial constitutional organ was the Advisory Council of Elder Statesmen, the government announced plans to reduce the size and functions of this body immediately after Rohs inauguration. Article 68 of the Constitution requires the president to hold new elections within 60 days
16.
Park Chung-hee
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Park Chung-hee was a South Korean president and military general who led South Korea as a dictator from 1961 until his assassination in 1979. In 1972, Park declared martial law and recast the constitution into a highly authoritarian document, after surviving several assassination attempts, including two operations associated with North Korea, Park was assassinated on 26 October 1979 by Kim Jae-gyu, the chief of his own security services. He had led South Korea for 18 years, Parks first-born daughter, Park Geun-hye, later served as the 11th President of South Korea until her impeachment. Park was born on 14 November 1917, in Gumi, North Gyeongsang in Korea under Japanese rule, to parents Park Sung-bin and he was the youngest of five brothers and two sisters in a poor Yangban family. As a youth, he won admission to a school in Daegu and worked as a teacher in Mungyeong-eup after graduating with a teaching degree. During this time, he adopted the Japanese name Takagi Masao and he graduated top of his class in 1942 and was recognized as a talented officer by his Japanese instructors, who recommended him for further studies at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in Japan. He changed his name again from Takagi Masao to Okamoto Minoru in order to engage in activities against Korean guerrillas operating in the region. The Japanese used Korean turncoats to suppress Korean armed resistance, Park returned to Korea after the war and enrolled at the Korea Military Academy. He graduated in the class of 1946 and became an officer in the constabulary army under the United States Army Military Government in South Korea. The newly established South Korean government, under the leadership of Syngman Rhee, Park was subsequently sentenced to death by a military court, but his sentence was commuted by Rhee at the urging of several high-ranking Korean military officers. While Park had been a member of the South Korean Workers Party, nevertheless, he was forced out of the army. After the Korean War began and with help from Paik Sun-Yup and he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in September 1950 and to colonel in April 1951. As a colonel, Park was the deputy director of the Army Headquarters Intelligence Bureau in 1952 before switching to artillery, by the time the war ended in 1953, Park had risen to become a brigadier general. After the signing of the Korean Armistice Agreement, Park was selected for training at Fort Sill in the United States. After returning to Korea, Park rose rapidly in the military hierarchy and he was the head of the Armys Artillery School and commanded the 5th and 7th Divisions of the South Korean army before his promotion to major general in 1958. Park was then appointed Chief of Staff of the First Army and made the head of the Korean 1st and 6th District Command, which gave him responsibility for the defense of Seoul. In 1960, Park became commander of the Pusan Logistics Command before becoming Chief of the Operations Staff of the South Korean Army, as such, he was one of the most powerful and influential figures in the military. On 25 April 1960, Syngman Rhee, the authoritarian inaugural President of South Korea, was forced out of office and into exile following the April 19 Movement, a new democratic government took office on 13 August 1960
17.
Concrete
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Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete
18.
Joseon
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The Kingdom of Joseon was a Korean kingdom founded by Yi Seonggye that lasted for approximately five centuries, from July 1392 to October 1897. It was officially renamed the Korean Empire in October 1897 and it was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow of Goryeo in what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul, the kingdoms northernmost borders were expanded to the natural boundaries at the Yalu and Tumen Rivers through the subjugation of the Jurchens. Joseon was the last dynasty of Korea and its longest-ruling Confucian dynasty, during its reign, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment of Chinese Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society. Neo-Confucianism was installed as the new state ideology. Buddhism was accordingly discouraged and occasionally faced persecutions by the dynasty, Joseon consolidated its effective rule over the territory of current Korea and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, science, literature, and technology. After the end of invasions from Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace, by the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old Goryeo established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war and de facto occupation from the disintegrating Mongol Empire. Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty, the court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, the group led by General Yi and the camp led by General Choe. Goryeo claimed to be the successor of the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo, as such, Yi was chosen to lead the attack, however, he revolted and swept back to Gaegyeong and initiated a coup détat, overthrowing King U in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo. He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration, in 1392, Yi eliminated Jeong Mong-ju, highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju, and before he ascended the throne. The Goryeo Dynasty had come to an end after almost 500 years of rule. After much deliberation, the Taejo Emperor declared the name of the new dynasty to be Joseon, after the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon and he also moved the capital to Hanyang from Kaesong. When the new dynasty was promulgated and officially brought into existence, with Taejos support, Jeong Dojeon kept limiting the royal familys power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were aware of each others great animosity and were getting ready to strike first. This incident became known as the First Strife of Princes, one of King Jeongjongs first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Kaesong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bangwon retained real power and was soon in conflict with his older brother. Yi Banggan, who yearned for power. In 1400, the tensions between Yi Bangwons faction and Yi Banggans camp escalated into a conflict that came to be known as the Second Strife of Princes
19.
Taejong of Joseon
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Taejong of Joseon was the third king of the Joseon dynasty in Korea and the father of King Sejong the Great. He was born as Yi Bang-won in 1367 as the son of King Taejo. During his early days, he helped his father to extend his support with the citizens, Taejong helped his father found a new dynasty by assassinating powerful officials such as Jeong Mong-ju, who remained loyal to the Goryeo dynasty. He was called as Prince Jeong-an during the reign of King Taejo, in 1392 he helped his father to overthrow Goryeo and establish a new dynasty, Joseon. Both sides were aware of each others great animosity and were getting ready to strike first. This incident became known as the First Strife of Princes, one of King Jeongjongs first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Gaeseong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable. Yet Yi Bangwon retained real power and was soon in conflict with his older brother Yi Bang-gan. Yi Bangwon successfully defeated his brothers forces, then executed Bak Po, King Jeongjong, who was afraid of his powerful brother, named Yi Bangwon as crown prince and abdicated in the same year. Yi Bangwon assumed the throne of Joseon at long last as King Taejong, in the beginning of Taejongs reign, the Grand King Former, Taejo, refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any kings rule. Taejong began to initiate policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule, one of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and the aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revoking of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, Taejongs next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold and he also initiated the system of hopae, an early form of identification recording the bearers name and residence, used to control the movement of people. He also set a big drum in front of his court, so that the common people, in addition, he created a strong central government and an absolute monarchy. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, however, Taejong kept Jeong Do-jeons reforms intact for the most part. He closed many temples that were established by Goryeo kings, and seized their large possessions, in foreign policy, he was a straight hardliner — he attacked the Jurchens on the northern border and Japanese pirates on the southern coast. Taejong is also known for being responsible for the Ōei Invasion of Tsushima Island in 1419 and he also promoted publications, commerce and education. He also founded and encouraged Uigeumbu, the guard and secret police at the same time. Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who helped him ascend to the throne in order to strengthen the royal authority, to limit influence of in-laws, he also killed all four brothers of his Queen Won-gyeong and his son Sejongs in-laws
20.
Yeongjo of Joseon
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Yeongjo of Joseon was the 21st king of the Korean Joseon Dynasty. He was the son of King Sukjong. His mother was Consort Suk of the Choe clan, before ascending to power, his name was Prince Yeoning. In 1720, a few months after the accession of his older brother and this induced a large controversy between political factions. Nevertheless, four years later, at the death of Gyeongjong and his reign was also marked by the highly controversial execution of his son, Prince Sado, in 1762. In spite of the controversies, Yeongjos reign has earned a reputation in Korean history due to his sincere efforts to rule by Confucian virtue. In 1720, his father King Sukjong died and Crown Prince Yi Yun, Sukjongs eldest son, ascended to the throne as King Gyeongjong, at the age of 33. When Sukjong died in 1720, he supposedly told Yi Yi-myoung to name Yeoning-gun as Gyeongjongs heir, during his time there was infighting and resentment for his low-born origins. The Noron faction of the bureaucracy pressured King Gyeongjong to step down in favor of his half-brother Prince Yeoning, in 1720, two months after the Kings enthronement, Prince Yeoning was installed as Royal Prince Successor Brother. This aggravated the power struggle and led to a great massacre, afterwards, he told his half-brother the king that he rather would go and live as a commoner. On 11 October 1724, King Gyeongjong died, soron then accused Prince Yeoning of having something to do with his brothers death due to the earlier attempt by the Noron faction to have him replace Gyeongjong on the throne. But historians now agree that he could have died of eating contaminated seafood, on 16 October 1724, Prince Yeoning ascended the throne as King Yeongjo, the 21st ruler of Joseon. King Yeongjo was a deeply Confucian monarch, and is said to have had a knowledge of the classics than his officials. During the reign of Yeongjo and his grandson Jeongjo, Confucianization was at its height, as well as the recovery from the wars of the late 16th. His rulership has been called one of the most brilliant reigns of all the Joseon Dynasty, Yeongjo worried deeply for his people. Annals of the Joseon Dynasty record that one day in the 4th year of his reign, King Yeongjo woke up to the sound of early morning rain and said to his courtiers, Oh dear. We have had flood, drought and famines for the past four years because of my lack of virtue, how can my poor people manage their livelihood under such hardship. There is an old saying, War is always followed by a lean year, fortunately, however, we haven’t had a big famine for the past two years and we pin our hopes on a good harvest this year
21.
Korea under Japanese rule
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Korea under Japanese rule began with the end of the Joseon dynastic monarchy in Korea in 1910 and ended at the conclusion of World War II in 1945. A major stepping-stone towards Japanese occupation of Korea was the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, the annexation of Korea by Japan was set up in the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910, which was never actually signed by the Korean regent, Gojong. Imperial Japanese rule over Korea ended in 1945, when American, Japanese administration of the Korean Peninsula was directed through the General Government. The industrialization of the Korean Peninsula began with the Joseon dynasty while Korea was still independent and it continues to be the subject of controversy between the two Koreas and Japan. In South Korea, the period is described as the Japanese forced occupation. Other terms include Japanese Imperial Period, period of the Japanese imperial colonial administration, in Japan, the term Chōsen of the Japanese-Governed Period has been used. The newly modernized government of Meiji Japan sought to join these colonizing efforts, the debate concerned Korea, then in the sphere of influence of Qing China, which certain elements in the Japanese government sought to separate from Chinese influence and establish as a puppet state. Further, the acquisition of Korea would provide both a foothold on the Asian continent for Japanese expansion and a source of raw materials for Japanese industry. Okubos views were supported by the faction, which mostly consisted of those returning from the Iwakura Mission in 1873. Iwakura Tomomi, the diplomat who had led the mission, persuaded the emperor to reconsider, of special note is the corruption of the local functionaries, who could purchase an appointment as an administrator and so cloak their predations on the farmers with an aura of officialdom. Yangban families, formerly well-respected for their status as a class, were increasingly seen as little more than commoners unwilling to meet their responsibilities to their communities. Despite the government abolishing slavery and burning the records in 1801, increasing numbers of peasants, at this time, Catholic and Protestant missions were well-tolerated among the yangban, most notably in and around the area of Seoul. Animus and persecution by more conservative elements, the Pungyang Jo clan, took the lives of priests and followers known as the Korean Martyrs, peasants continued to be drawn to Christian egalitarianism, though mainly in urban and suburban areas. Arguably of greater influence were the teachings of Choe Je-u, called Donghak. Themes of exclusionism, nationalism, salvation and social consciousness were set to music, allowing farmers to understand. Along with many other Koreans, Choe was alarmed by the intrusion of Christianity and he believed the best way to counter foreign influence in Korea was to introduce democratic and human rights reforms internally. Nationalism and social reform struck a chord among peasant guerrillas, Progressive revolutionaries organized the peasants into a cohesive structure. Arrested in 1863 following the Jinju uprising led by Yu Kye-chun, Choe was charged with misleading the people, Choe was executed in 1864, sending many of his followers into hiding in the mountains
22.
Korean War
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The Korean War began when North Korea invaded South Korea. The United Nations, with the United States as the principal force, China came to the aid of North Korea, and the Soviet Union gave some assistance. Korea was ruled by Japan from 1910 until the days of World War II. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, as a result of an agreement with the United States, U. S. forces subsequently moved into the south. By 1948, as a product of the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Korea was split into two regions, with separate governments, both governments claimed to be the legitimate government of all of Korea, and neither side accepted the border as permanent. The conflict escalated into open warfare when North Korean forces—supported by the Soviet Union, on that day, the United Nations Security Council recognized this North Korean act as invasion and called for an immediate ceasefire. On 27 June, the Security Council adopted S/RES/83, Complaint of aggression upon the Republic of Korea and decided the formation, twenty-one countries of the United Nations eventually contributed to the UN force, with the United States providing 88% of the UNs military personnel. After the first two months of war, South Korean forces were on the point of defeat, forced back to the Pusan Perimeter, in September 1950, an amphibious UN counter-offensive was launched at Inchon, and cut off many North Korean troops. Those who escaped envelopment and capture were rapidly forced back north all the way to the border with China at the Yalu River, at this point, in October 1950, Chinese forces crossed the Yalu and entered the war. Chinese intervention triggered a retreat of UN forces which continued until mid-1951, after these reversals of fortune, which saw Seoul change hands four times, the last two years of fighting became a war of attrition, with the front line close to the 38th parallel. The war in the air, however, was never a stalemate, North Korea was subject to a massive bombing campaign. Jet fighters confronted each other in combat for the first time in history. The fighting ended on 27 July 1953, when an armistice was signed, the agreement created the Korean Demilitarized Zone to separate North and South Korea, and allowed the return of prisoners. However, no treaty has been signed, and the two Koreas are technically still at war. Periodic clashes, many of which are deadly, continue to the present, in the U. S. the war was initially described by President Harry S. Truman as a police action as it was an undeclared military action, conducted under the auspices of the United Nations. In South Korea, the war is referred to as 625 or the 6–2–5 Upheaval. In North Korea, the war is referred to as the Fatherland Liberation War or alternatively the Chosǒn War. In China, the war is called the War to Resist U. S
23.
Mayor of Seoul
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The Mayor of Seoul is the chief executive for the metropolitan government of Seoul, the capital and largest city of South Korea. The position is one of the most powerful in the country. He is charged with managing a budget of 23 trillion won. Many Seoul mayors have gone on to higher office. Yun Bo-seon and Lee Myung-bak both went on to become President of the Republic of Korea, military Mayor Major James S. Killough 1945. The modern office of mayor succeeds the historic offices of Hansong-bu Panyun, in the modern era, there have been 32 mayors of Seoul. Government of South Korea Politics of South Korea List of Korea-related topics Mayors Office
24.
Lee Myung-bak
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Lee Myung-bak is a South Korean politician and businessman who served as the 17th President of South Korea from 25 February 2008 to 25 February 2013. Before his election as president, he was the CEO of Hyundai Engineering and Construction, as well as the mayor of Seoul from 1 July 2002 and he is married to Kim Yoon-ok and has three daughters and one son. His older brother, Lee Sang-deuk, is a South Korean politician and he attends the Somang Presbyterian Church. Lee is a graduate of Korea University and received a degree from Paris Diderot University on 13 May 2011. Under Lee, South Korea increased its visibility and influence in the global scene, the reformist faction within the Saenuri Party is at odds against Lee. He ended his term on 25 February 2013, and was succeeded by Park Geun-hye. Lee Myung-bak was born 19 December 1941, in Osaka, Japan and his parents had emigrated to Japan in 1929, nineteen years after the Japanese annexation of Korea. Lees father, Lee Chung-u, was employed as a farmhand on a ranch in Japan. He was the fifth of his parents four sons and three daughters, in 1945, after the end of World War II, his family returned to his fathers hometown of Pohang, in Gyeongsangbuk-do in the American-occupied portion of the Korean Peninsula. Lees sister, Lee Ki-sun, believed that they smuggled themselves into the country in order to avoid having the officials confiscate the property acquired in Japan. However, their ship was wrecked off the coast of Tsushima island and they lost all their belongings and barely survived. Lee attended night school at Dongji Commercial High School in Pohang, a year after graduation, Lee gained admission to Korea University. In 1964, during his year in college, Lee was elected president of the student council. That year, Lee participated in student demonstrations against President Park Chung-hees Seoul-Tokyo Talks and he was charged with plotting insurrection and was sentenced to five years probation and three years imprisonment by the Supreme Court of South Korea. He served a little under three months of his sentence at the Seodaemun Prison in Seoul, in his autobiography, Lee wrote that he was discharged from Koreas mandatory military service due to a diagnosis of acute bronchiectasis while at the Nonsan Training Facility. Shortly after he was hired by the company, Lee was sent to Thailand to participate in the project, Lee returned to Korea and was subsequently given charge of Hyundais heavy machinery plant in Seoul. It was during his three decades with the Hyundai Group that Lee earned the nickname Bulldozer, on one occasion, he completely dismantled a malfunctioning bulldozer to study its mechanics and figure out how to repair it. Lee became a director at the age of 29 – only five years after he joined the company – and CEO at age 35
25.
Traffic congestion
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Traffic congestion is a condition on transport networks that occurs as use increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. The most common example is the use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the stream, this results in some congestion. As demand approaches the capacity of a road, extreme traffic congestion sets in, when vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic jam or traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage. Mathematically, congestion is usually looked at as the number of vehicles that pass through a point in a window of time, Congestion flow lends itself to principles of fluid dynamics. Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for greater than the available street capacity. About half of U. S. traffic congestion is recurring, Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a traffic jam may suddenly occur. It has been found that individual incidents may cause ripple effects which then spread out and create a traffic jam when, otherwise. Some traffic engineers have attempted to apply the rules of fluid dynamics to traffic flow, Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden freezing of supercooled fluid. However, unlike a fluid, traffic flow is affected by signals or other events at junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerners three-phase traffic theory, because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical models. These models are typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on the links in the network. That discovery enabled the team to solve traffic-jam equations that were first theorized in the 1950s, congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the commons. Privatization of highways and road pricing have both proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a crash or roadworks, economist Anthony Downs argues that rush hour traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a relatively standard work day. In a capitalist economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing or by queueing and they determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that new roads and widening existing ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level
26.
Central business district
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A central business district is the commercial and business centre of a city. In larger cities, it is synonymous with the citys financial district. Both the CBD and the city centre or downtown may also coincide with the central activities district, a citys CBD is usually typified by a concentration of retail and office buildings. The CBD usually has a density higher than the surrounding districts of the city. The CBD is often also the city centre or downtown, Mexico City also has a historic city centre, the colonial-era Centro Histórico, along with two CBDs, the mid-late 20th century Paseo de la Reforma - Polanco, and the new Santa Fe. The shape and type of a CBD almost always reflect the citys history. Cities with maximum building height restrictions often have a historic section quite apart from the financial. It has been said that downtowns are therefore distinct from both CBDs and city centres. CBDs usually have very small resident populations, for example, the population of the City of London declined from over 200,000 in the year 1700 to less than 10,000 today. In some instances, however, CBD populations are increasing as younger professional, the Buenos Aires Central Business District, is the main commercial centre of Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina. The actual area was the point of first European settlement and its north-south axis runs from Monserrat in the south to Retiro railway station in the north. Its east-west axis runs from Buenos Aires Ecological Reserve and Puerto Madero, the district is the financial, commercial, and cultural hub of Argentina. Its port is one of the busiest in South America, navigable rivers by way of the Río de la Plata connect the port to northeast Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, and Paraguay. As a result, it serves as the hub for a vast area of the southeastern region of the South American continent. Tax collection related to the port has caused political problems in the past. The Buenos Aires Human Development Index is likewise high by international standards, the term is used to refer to the business and financial area of a state capital city such as the Sydney CBD, Melbourne CBD, Brisbane CBD, Perth CBD and Adelaide CBD. The city centres of some cities, such as Townsville, Bendigo. More recently, in cities the city centre, which may or may not be distinct from the CBD, is increasingly separately identified
27.
Bukchon Hanok Village
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Bukchon Hanok Village is a Korean traditional village in Seoul with a long history located between Gyeongbok Palace, Changdeok Palace and Jongmyo Royal Shrine. The traditional village is composed of lots of alleys, hanok and is preserved to show a 600-year-old urban environment, now it is used as a traditional culture center and hanok restaurant, allowing visitors to experience the atmosphere of the Joseon Dynasty. It is located north of Cheonggye Stream and Jongno, hence named Bukchon, traditionally, this place was inhabited by nobles, serving in the palace and their families. Later on, due to wars and disasters, the place was occupied by commoners, according to data by the Bukchon Traditional Culture Center 30,000 people visited the area in 2007. However, after the Village was featured in programmes, such as 1 Night 2 Days and Personal Taste. In 2012 the figure is expected to double to more than 600,000, introduction of Main Programs of Hi Seoul Festival 2007. Archived from the original on November 3,2007, Seoul Metropolitan Government Official website/ Monthly SEOUL. Archived from the original on November 4,2007, koreas hanoks offer a glimpse of centuries-old lifestyle. Seoul Metropolitan Government official website/Toronto Star, Seoul - New life for an old way of building. Restoring the Continuity of Seouls History and Culture, archived from the original on 2008-07-25. Lifestyles Of The Rich And Famous
28.
Daehangno
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Daehangno is a neighborhood in Seoul north of the Han River within Jongno-gu and Seodaemun-gu. Daehangno is the street from the crossroad of 79-1, Jongno 5-ga, Jongno-gu, to Hyehwadong rotary,132 and its name was designated on May 5,1985, when the street was designated as the “street of culture” representing the characteristics of this area. Daehangno was originally the road of 3.1 km in length from Jangchung Park,187, Jangchung-dong and it was originally 25m in width, but expanded to 40m from Ihwadong crossroad to Hyehwadong rotary, owing to the construction of the Seoul Subway Line 4. This was an area where students and the youth used to gather as College of Chemistry and College of Law. But, when Seoul National University moved near Gwanaksan in 1975, Marronnier Park was formed in the area, street artists can freely express themselves at Marronnier Park. Major passage areas are Myeongnyun-dong, Yeonji-dong, Hyoje-dong, Ihwa-dong, Dongsung-dong and Yeongeon-dong in Jongno-gu, Daehangno is connected to Changgyeonggungno, Dongsomunno and Jongno, and a convenient place with Hyehwa station of the subway line No 4 and Jongno 5-ga station of Seoul Subway Line 4. Also, recently the SunggyunKwan University dormitory was built in the area, king Taejo relocated Sungkyunkwan to the current location, Daehangno, after the founding of the Joseon Dynasty. It gave the former name Sunggyobang, meaning high respect for teaching, when Korea was under Japanese rules, Keijō Imperial University was founded in this area. The university was merged with other colleges into Seoul National University. After Seoul National University was moved near to the Gwanaksan in 1975, moving of Seoul National University led the opening of the Art Gallery and Art Theater of the Literary Hall and development of cultural space by Kim Swoo Geun in the same area. Operation of the city attracted the moving population on Daehangno being increased gradually. Marronnier Park was activated as the work for street environment was pursued. Near Daehangno is Naksan Park, also, all these movements are for the space of performing culture. Daehangno– Seoul’s Theater District, Official Seoul City Tourism Daehakno Article Jongno-gu local government website Tour2Korea Article by Seoul City Government Daehangno videoclip
29.
Goh Kun
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Goh Kun is a South Korean politician, the former Prime Minister of South Korea. He is known as a solid, hardworking civil servant, one of Goh Kuns nicknames is Mr. Stability, reflecting his ability to survive changes of government and other political upheavals. Goh was a Minister during the 1980s, and then Mayor of Seoul from 1988 to 1990 and he served as Prime Minister of South Korea from 1997 to 1998 and from 2003 to 2004. He resigned from the office of Prime Minister on May 24,2004 after refusing to comply with the Presidents request to replace cabinet members, in June 2006, Goh announced his candidacy for the presidential race. On January 16,2007, he announced that he would no longer be a candidate for the Korean Presidential Elections and that he would retire from political life. Yet on December 21,2009, Goh Kun was named head of social unity council by President Lee Myung-bak. I. s, South Korea Hails U. S. Presence - NY Times South Koreas New President Gets His Choice for Prime Minister - NY Times Goh Kun - Bloomberg Businessweek Seouls Web of Anti-Correption - Bloomberg Businessweek
30.
Gentrification
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Gentrification is a process of renovation of deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of the influx of more affluent residents. This is a common and controversial topic in politics and in urban planning, conversations surrounding gentrification have evolved, as many in the social-scientific community have questioned the negative connotations associated with the word gentrification. Gentrification is typically the result of increased interest in a certain environment, early gentrifiers may belong to low-income artist or boheme communities, which increase the attractiveness and flair of a certain quarter. In addition to these benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration. The term gentrification has come to refer to a phenomenon that can be defined in different ways. Historians say that gentrification took place in ancient Rome and in Roman Britain, the word gentrification derives from gentry—which comes from the Old French word genterise, of gentle birth and people of gentle birth. In England, Landed gentry denoted the social class, consisting of gentlemen and this change has the potential to cause displacement of long-time residents and businesses. When long-time or original neighborhood residents move from an area because of higher rents, mortgages. Gentrification is a housing, economic, and health issue that affects a communitys history and culture and it often shifts a neighborhoods characteristics, e. g. racial-ethnic composition and household income, by adding new stores and resources in previously run-down neighborhoods. German geographers have a more distanced view on gentrification, actual gentrification is seen as a mere symbolic issue happening in a low amount of places and blocks, the symbolic value and visibility in public discourse being higher than actual migration trends. Gerhard Hard assumes that urban flight is more important than inner city gentrification. Volkskunde scholar Barbara Lang introduced the term symbolic gentrification with regard to the Mythos Kreuzberg in Berlin, Lang assumes that complaints about gentrification often come from those who have been responsible for the process in their youth. When former students and bohemians started raising families and earning money in better paid jobs, especially Berlin is a showcase of intense debates about symbols of gentrification, while the actual processes are much slower than in other cities. The citys Prenzlauer Berg district is, however, a child of the capitals gentrification. This leads to mixed feelings amidst the local population, the neologism Bionade-Biedermeier was coined about Prenzlauer Berg. It describes the milieu of the former quartier of the alternative scene. There are several approaches that attempt to explain the roots and the reasons behind the spread of gentrification, bruce London and J. John Palen compiled a list of five explanations, demographic-ecological, sociocultural, political-economical, community networks, and social movements. The first theory, demographic-ecological, attempts to explain gentrification through the analysis of demographics, population, social organization, environment and this theory frequently refers to the growing number of people between the ages of 25 and 35 in the 1970s, or the baby boom generation
31.
Braess's paradox
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Braess paradox or Braesss paradox is a proposed explanation for a seeming improvement to a road network being able to impede traffic through it. The paradox may have analogues in electrical grids and biological systems. It has been suggested that in theory, the improvement of a network could be accomplished by removing certain parts of it. Dietrich Braess, a mathematician at Ruhr University, Germany, noticed the flow in a network could be impeded by adding a new road. More formally, the idea behind Braess discovery is that the Nash equilibrium may not equate with the best overall flow through a network. The paradox is stated as follows, For each point of a network, let there be given the number of cars starting from it. Under these conditions one wishes to estimate the distribution of traffic flow, whether one street is preferable to another depends not only on the quality of the road, but also on the density of the flow. If every driver takes the path that looks most favorable to him, furthermore, it is indicated by an example that an extension of the road network may cause a redistribution of the traffic that results in longer individual running times. Adding extra capacity to a network when the moving entities selfishly choose their route can in some cases reduce overall performance and that is because the Nash equilibrium of such a system is not necessarily optimal. The network change induces a new structure which leads to a prisoners dilemma. In a Nash equilibrium, drivers have no incentive to change their routes, while the system is not in a Nash equilibrium, individual drivers are able to improve their respective travel times by changing the routes they take. In the case of Braess paradox, drivers continue to switch until they reach Nash equilibrium despite the reduction in overall performance. If the latency functions are linear, adding an edge can never make total travel time at equilibrium worse by a factor of more than 4/3. As a corollary, they obtain that Braess paradox is about as likely to occur as not occur, their result applies to rather than planned networks. In 1968, Dietrich Braess showed that the extension of the network may cause a redistribution of the traffic that results in longer individual running times. This paradox has a counterpart in case of a reduction of the road network, in Seoul, South Korea, a speeding up in traffic around the city was seen when a motorway was removed as part of the Cheonggyecheon restoration project. In Stuttgart, Germany, after investments into the network in 1969. In 1990 the temporary closing of 42nd Street in New York City for Earth Day reduced the amount of congestion in the area, in 2009, New York experimented with closures of Broadway at Times Square and Herald Square, which resulted in improved traffic flow and permanent pedestrian plazas
32.
Korean won
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The won was the currency of Korea between 1902 and 1910. It was subdivided into 100 jeon, won is a cognate of the Chinese yuan and Japanese yen. The won was introduced in 1902, replacing the yang at a rate of 1 won =5 yang, in 1909, the Bank of Korea was founded in Seoul as a central bank and began issuing currency of a modern type. The won was equivalent to the Japanese yen and was replaced by the Korean yen in 1910 during the Colonial Era, in 1910, the Bank of Korea was renamed the Bank of Joseon, which issued notes denominated in yen and sen. Coins were minted in the denominations of ½,1,5,10 and 20 chon, ½,5,10 and 20 won. The coins all carried the title of the state, Daehan, no banknotes were issued denominated in won. However, Korean yen notes were issued by Dai Ichi Ginko, names of Korea Economy of South Korea Economy of North Korea Collection Banknotes of Vietnam and the World
33.
Dongdaemun Market
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Dongdaemun Market or Tongdaemun is a large commercial district comprising traditional markets and shopping centers in Jongno-gu, Seoul, South Korea. A popular shopping and tourist destination, it has designated a Special Tourism Zone since 2002. Dongdaemun Market opened in July 1905 in Yeji-dong, whose name means a neighborhood for learning politeness and it was also called Gwangjang Market as a company of the same name was set up as market management. The market was set in a structure until the Korean War. It slowly rebuilt over the years and, in 1959, a building was constructed and the market was revived. In 1998 and 1999, large shopping malls such as Geopyeong Freya, Migliore, and Doosan Tower were built in the district, Dongdaemun Market is near Dongdaemun from which it takes its name. The market is divided into five shopping districts—A, B, C, D and a town, with 26 shopping malls over 10 blocks,30,000 speciality shops. It also has many pet shops and it is on the Seoul list of Asias 10 greatest street food cities for the Korean snack Sundae and mandu. DDM was traditionally a market and wholesalers once operated from 1,00 am to 1,00 pm. Now, the area is open for 18-½ hours a day from 10,30 am to 5,00 am, with stores open 24 hours a day. The main street divides Dongdaemun Market into two sections, Section 1 is on the side where Doosan Tower is found, and Section 2 is on the side of the Dongdaemun Design Plaza & Park, the old site of Dongdaemun Stadium. Huge shopping malls in Section 1 basically sell wholesale and retail goods and they have facilities like money exchanges and information desks with English-speaking staff. Opening hours are aimed at customers, from 10 am to 5 am the next day. Major shopping malls are Doosan Tower, Migliore, Freya Town, shopping malls in Section 2 sell goods in wholesale and retail, but mainly sell in bulk. Malls here usually open at about 8 pm and close at 8 am or 5 pm the next day, the peak time comes late at night through early morning. Since most shops deal with wholesalers, there are no dressing rooms, major shopping malls in Section 2 are Designers Club, Migliore Valley, Nuzzon, Gwanghee Fashion Mall, Jeil Pyeonghwa, and Heungin Stardom. Among them, Jeil Pyeonghwa and Heungin Stardom attract customers in their thirties and forties, teens and youth in their twenties usually visit Designers Club, Migliore Valley, Nuzzon and Gwanghee Fashion Mall
34.
Daylighting (streams)
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In urban design and urban planning, daylighting is the redirection of a stream into an above-ground channel. Typically, the goal is to restore a stream of water to a natural state. Daylighting is intended to improve the environment for a stream which had been previously diverted into a culvert, pipe. In the UK, the practice is known as deculverting. The term also refers to the process toward such projects. A general consensus has developed that protecting and restoring natural creeks functions is achievable over time in an environment while recognizing the importance of property rights. Natural features — open, vegetated swales, stormwater cascades, at the heart are plants, trees, and the deep, healthy soils that support them. All three combine to form a living infrastructure that, unlike pipes and vaults, increase in value over time. Some efforts to blend urban development with natural systems use innovative drainage design and landscaping instead of traditional curbs and gutters, pipes, one such demonstration project in the Pipers Creek watershed reduced imperviousness by more than 18 percent. The project built bioswales, landscape elements intended to remove silt and pollution from runoff water. From 2001 to 2003, the reduced the volume of stormwater leaving the street in a 2-year storm event by 98%. Such a reduction can reduce damage to water quality and habitats for species such as the iconic salmon. Unfortunately, the alternatives have a relatively expensive initial price, since they are usually replacing existing structures. Further, conventional systems generally do not consider full cost accounting, the NDS alternatives can also provide returns on investment by improving urban environments. The Street Edge Alternatives Street breaks most of the conventions of 150 years of standard American street design, narrow, curved streets, open drainage swales, and an abundance of diverse plants and trees welcome pedestrians as well as diverse species. Adjacent residents maintain city infrastructure in the form of gardens in front of their homes. The Natural Drainage System united the community visually, environmentally, the 110th Cascades SEA are a creek-like cascade of stair-stepped natural, seasonal pools that intercept, infiltrate, slow and filter over 21 acres of stormwater draining through the project. With impervious surfaces having replaced most of the ground cover in urban environments
35.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
36.
International Standard Serial Number
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An International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit serial number used to uniquely identify a serial publication. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title, ISSN are used in ordering, cataloging, interlibrary loans, and other practices in connection with serial literature. The ISSN system was first drafted as an International Organization for Standardization international standard in 1971, ISO subcommittee TC 46/SC9 is responsible for maintaining the standard. When a serial with the content is published in more than one media type. For example, many serials are published both in print and electronic media, the ISSN system refers to these types as print ISSN and electronic ISSN, respectively. The format of the ISSN is an eight digit code, divided by a hyphen into two four-digit numbers, as an integer number, it can be represented by the first seven digits. The last code digit, which may be 0-9 or an X, is a check digit. Formally, the form of the ISSN code can be expressed as follows, NNNN-NNNC where N is in the set, a digit character. The ISSN of the journal Hearing Research, for example, is 0378-5955, where the final 5 is the check digit, for calculations, an upper case X in the check digit position indicates a check digit of 10. To confirm the check digit, calculate the sum of all eight digits of the ISSN multiplied by its position in the number, the modulus 11 of the sum must be 0. There is an online ISSN checker that can validate an ISSN, ISSN codes are assigned by a network of ISSN National Centres, usually located at national libraries and coordinated by the ISSN International Centre based in Paris. The International Centre is an organization created in 1974 through an agreement between UNESCO and the French government. The International Centre maintains a database of all ISSNs assigned worldwide, at the end of 2016, the ISSN Register contained records for 1,943,572 items. ISSN and ISBN codes are similar in concept, where ISBNs are assigned to individual books, an ISBN might be assigned for particular issues of a serial, in addition to the ISSN code for the serial as a whole. An ISSN, unlike the ISBN code, is an identifier associated with a serial title. For this reason a new ISSN is assigned to a serial each time it undergoes a major title change, separate ISSNs are needed for serials in different media. Thus, the print and electronic versions of a serial need separate ISSNs. Also, a CD-ROM version and a web version of a serial require different ISSNs since two different media are involved, however, the same ISSN can be used for different file formats of the same online serial
37.
YouTube
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YouTube is an American video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California. The service was created by three former PayPal employees—Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim—in February 2005, Google bought the site in November 2006 for US$1.65 billion, YouTube now operates as one of Googles subsidiaries. Unregistered users can watch videos on the site, while registered users are permitted to upload an unlimited number of videos. Videos deemed potentially offensive are available only to registered users affirming themselves to be at least 18 years old, YouTube earns advertising revenue from Google AdSense, a program which targets ads according to site content and audience. YouTube was founded by Chad Hurley, Steve Chen, and Jawed Karim, Hurley had studied design at Indiana University of Pennsylvania, and Chen and Karim studied computer science together at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Karim could not easily find video clips of either event online, Hurley and Chen said that the original idea for YouTube was a video version of an online dating service, and had been influenced by the website Hot or Not. YouTube began as a venture capital-funded technology startup, primarily from an $11.5 million investment by Sequoia Capital between November 2005 and April 2006, YouTubes early headquarters were situated above a pizzeria and Japanese restaurant in San Mateo, California. The domain name www. youtube. com was activated on February 14,2005, the first YouTube video, titled Me at the zoo, shows co-founder Jawed Karim at the San Diego Zoo. The video was uploaded on April 23,2005, and can still be viewed on the site, YouTube offered the public a beta test of the site in May 2005. The first video to reach one million views was a Nike advertisement featuring Ronaldinho in November 2005. Following a $3.5 million investment from Sequoia Capital in November, the site grew rapidly, and in July 2006 the company announced that more than 65,000 new videos were being uploaded every day, and that the site was receiving 100 million video views per day. The site has 800 million unique users a month and it is estimated that in 2007 YouTube consumed as much bandwidth as the entire Internet in 2000. The choice of the name www. youtube. com led to problems for a similarly named website, the sites owner, Universal Tube & Rollform Equipment, filed a lawsuit against YouTube in November 2006 after being regularly overloaded by people looking for YouTube. Universal Tube has since changed the name of its website to www. utubeonline. com, in October 2006, Google Inc. announced that it had acquired YouTube for $1.65 billion in Google stock, and the deal was finalized on November 13,2006. In March 2010, YouTube began free streaming of certain content, according to YouTube, this was the first worldwide free online broadcast of a major sporting event. On March 31,2010, the YouTube website launched a new design, with the aim of simplifying the interface, Google product manager Shiva Rajaraman commented, We really felt like we needed to step back and remove the clutter. In May 2010, YouTube videos were watched more than two times per day. This increased to three billion in May 2011, and four billion in January 2012, in February 2017, one billion hours of YouTube was watched every day
38.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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