1.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
2.
Ramos Arizpe
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Ramos Arizpe is a city and seat of the surrounding municipality of the same name in the Mexican state of Coahuila. Ramos Arizpe is located 11 km from the capital of Saltillo. It is part of the Saltillo metropolitan area, the city reported a population of 48,228 in the 2005 census, the municipality had a population of 56,708. Ramos Arizpe was established originally in 1577 as Valle de las Labores, in the year 1606 the town was renamed Valle de San Nicolás de la Capellanía, because Spanish missionaries had taken there a sacred image of Saint Nicholas of Tolentino. It is now an industrial center, founded in 1974. As of 2016 the plant produces one third of the firms full-sized pickups. Plan de Guadalupe International Airport serving Saltillo and Ramos Arizpe is located there, winters are mild with warm temperatures during the day and cold nights. The January average temperature is 11.9 °C. On average, temperatures drop below freezing on 18 days per year, precipitation is low during the winter months and many days are clear and sunny, averaging 20-22 clear days from December to March. Summers are warm to hot with the warmest month being June and July, temperatures frequently exceed 30 °C and occasionally 40.0 °C during the summer months. Most of the precipitation that Ramos Arizpe receives falls during the summer months, on average, Ramoz Arizpe receives 245.6 millimetres of precipitation per year and there are 37 days with measureable precipitation. The wettest record month was June 1990 with 385 millimetres and the wettest day record was 28 June 2007 with 166 millimetres, historical landmarks are Don Miguel Ramos Arizpes house, father of Mexican federalism, Hacienda Santa María built in 1721, where Fr. Miguel Hidalgo conducted his final mass, and Hacienda de Guadalupe, where the Plan de Guadalupe was signed during the Mexican Revolution in 1913
3.
Coahuila
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The state is located in Northeastern Mexico on the US border. Coahuila borders the Mexican states of Nuevo León to the east, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí to the south, and Durango and Chihuahua to the west. To the north, Coahuila accounts for a 512 kilometres stretch of the Mexico–United States border, with an area of 151,563 square kilometres, it is the nations third-largest state. In 2010, Coahuilas population is 2,748,391 inhabitants, the Spanish explored the north of Mexico some decades after their victory in Tenochtiitlán the capital of the Aztecs. Such exploration was delayed because the climate was harsher and there was no gold. The first Spanish settlement in the now called Coahuila was at Minas de la Trinidad in 1577. Saltillo was settled in 1586, to part of the province of Nueva Vizcaya of the Vice-royalty of New Spain. Later it became one of the first provinces of Nueva Extremadura to be explored by Europeans, Coahuila and Texas was one of the constituent states of the newly independent United Mexican States under their 1824 Constitution, and included Texas, Coahuila and Nuevo León. Later in the same year Nuevo León was detached, but Texas remained a part of the state until 1836, Monclova was the capital of the state from 1833 to 1835. In 1840 Coahuila briefly became a member of the short lived Republic of the Rio Grande, on February 19,1856, Santiago Vidaurri annexed Coahuila to his state, Nuevo León, but it regained its separate status in 1868. During the Mexican Revolution, Francisco Villa attacked the city of Torreón, on April 4,2004, the border city of Piedras Negras was flooded. More than 30 people died and more than 4,000 lost their homes, in 2007 Coahuila became the first state in Mexico to offer civil unions to same-sex couples. The Sierra Madre Oriental runs northwest to southeast through the State, the northernmost fingers of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra del Burro and the Sierra del Carmen, reach to the border with the United States at the Rio Grande. East of the range, the land slopes gently toward the Rio Grande, and is drained by rivers, including the Salado and its tributary. The Tamaulipan mezquital, a dry shrubland ecoregion, occupies the portion of the State. The portion of the State west of the Sierra Madre Oriental lies on the Mexican Plateau, the Bolsón de Mapimí is a large endorheic basin which covers much of the western portion of the State and extends into adjacent portions of Chihuahua, Durango, and Zacatecas. The Nazas River, which flows east from Durango, and the Aguanaval River, Torreón, the most populous city in the State, lies on the Nazas in the irrigated Laguna Region, the, which straddles the border of Coahuila and Durango. Maderas del Carmen lies on the border of the State
4.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
5.
Automotive design
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Automotive design is the profession involved in the development of the appearance, and to some extent the ergonomics, of motor vehicles or more specifically road vehicles. This most commonly refers to automobiles but also refers to motorcycles, trucks, buses, coaches, the functional design and development of a modern motor vehicle is typically done by a large team from many different disciplines included within automotive engineering. Automotive design in context is primarily concerned with developing the visual appearance or aesthetics of the vehicle. Automotive design is practiced by designers who usually have an art background, the task of the design team is usually split into three main aspects, exterior design, interior design, and color and trim design. Graphic design is also an aspect of design, this is generally shared amongst the design team as the lead designer sees fit. Design focuses not only on the outer shape of automobile parts. The aesthetic value will need to correspond to ergonomic functionality and utility features as well, though not all the new vehicular gadgets are to be designated as factory standard items, some of them may be integral to determining the future course of any specific vehicular models. The stylist responsible for the design of the exterior of the vehicle develops the proportions, shape, Exterior design is first done by a series of digital or manual drawings. Progressively, drawings that are more detailed are executed and approved by appropriate layers of management, Clay and or digital models are developed from, and along with the drawings. The data from these models are used to create a full sized mock-up of the final design. With three- and five-axis CNC milling machines, the model is first designed in a computer program and then carved using the machine. Even in times of high-class 3d software and virtual models on power walls, here the emphasis is on ergonomics and the comfort of the passengers. The procedure here is the same as with exterior design, the color and trim designer is responsible for the research, design, and development of all interior and exterior colors and materials used on a vehicle. These include paints, plastics, fabric designs, leather, grains, carpet, headliner, wood trim, Color, contrast, texture, and pattern must be carefully combined to give the vehicle a unique interior environment experience. Designers work closely with the exterior and interior designers, designers draw inspiration from other design disciplines such as, industrial design, fashion, home furnishing, architecture, and sometimes product design. Specific research is done into global trends to design for two to three model years in the future. Trend boards are created from research in order to keep track of design influences as they relate to the automotive industry. The designer then uses this information to develop themes and concepts that are further refined and tested on the vehicle models
6.
Bryan Nesbitt
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Bryan Nesbitt is an automobile designer and currently head of General Motors Corporation International Operations Design, based in Shanghai, China. Nesbitt is also chairman for Wuling and Baojun, two automakers with which G. M. joint ventures. Previously Nesbitt had held the position of GMs North American Exterior Design, Bryan Edward Nesbitt was born in Phoenix, Arizona on January 24,1969 and had wanted to be an automobile designer since his childhood. Nesbitt joined General Motors in April 2001, as designer for the Chevrolet brand. In January 2002, Nesbitt was appointed director in design. Bryan Nesbitt was named Executive Director, GM Europe Design in February 2004, in June 2007, Bryan returned to the U. S. In July 2009, GM named Nesbitt the new head of General Motors Cadillac premium division, GM announced his removal from this position on March 2,2010 and back to his old position as executive director, advanced concept group. Photo of Bryan Nesbitt Bryan Nesbitt presents the Saab 9-4x BioPower Concept at the Boston Auto Show, Jan 2008
7.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
8.
Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
9.
Sedan delivery
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Sedan deliveries have spartan interior trim and were used by businesses ranging from plumbers, couriers and local merchants such as bakeries as cargo vans are used today. Ford produced two vehicles, known as a Town Car Delivery and Wood Panel Delivery, as part of its Ford Model A lineup, later Plymouth produced a sedan delivery from 1935 until 1941. Pontiac produced deliveries until 1953 in the U. S. and this was possible because Canadian Pontiacs of the 1940s and 1950s actually used Chevrolet bodies, in fact, they are known to have used the rear sections of Chevrolet bodies through 1954. It may be Canadian Pontiacs of the 1940s similarly were Chevrolets at the rear, with Pontiac sheet-metal and these models were usually produced in very small numbers,449 Canadian Pontiac sedan deliveries were built in 1958. The 1949-1952 Chevrolet sedan deliveries were attractive and dependable work vehicles, the 1957150 series delivery is a valuable Chevy sought by collectors. From 1959 on, the delivery was no longer practical, it was phased out in 1960 as a Chevrolet model. Sedan deliveries were typically used as vehicles, so they tended to wear out faster than a better cared for passenger car. With the growing sales of the Volkswagen Type 2 and the introduction of compact vans, Chevrolet dropped the body type after 1960, while Ford moved it to the Falcon line-up until 1965. Chevrolet and Ford offered subcompact sedan deliveries in the 1970s - The Chevrolet Vega Panel Express, the Vega Panel Express was introduced in September 1970. It was Chevys first sedan delivery in ten years since the 1960 final full-size model, Chevrolet offered the rare body style Vega for the 1971 through 1975 model years. First year sales peaked at 7,800 units, After leveling off to 4,000 units per year, the Pontiac Astre Panel, Pontiacs version of the Vega Panel Express, was available in Canada in the 1973-75 model years, and in the US for 1975. The Pinto Panel Wagon was introduced in 1976 and was offered in commercial and factory customized Cruising Wagon versions, featuring round port-hole rear side windows. The Courier name, previously used for Ford sedan delivery vans, had dropped and applied to foreign pickup trucks. Chrysler showed a concept car edition of a sedan based on the PT Cruiser at the North American International Auto Show in 2002. In 2007 Chevrolet released a Sedan delivery version of the HHR, in 2012, Ford of Europe introduced a Sedan Delivery configuration of the Ford Fiesta. The Volkswagen Type 3 sedan delivery was also built and sold in Australia, in the past, deliveries were also popular in Europe. However, in the 1950s the larger sedan deliveries were replaced by vans like the Volkswagen Type 2, the DKW van, the smaller sedan deliveries continued, but now they are frequently replaced by small panel vans like the Renault Kangoo and the Opel Combo. Today, some station wagons like the Škoda Fabia, the Opel Astra or the generation of the Ford Escort
10.
Station wagon
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The body style transforms a standard three-box design into a two-box design — to include an A, B, and C-pillar, as well as a D-pillar. Station wagons can flexibly reconfigure their interior volume via fold-down rear seats to prioritize passenger or cargo volume. Can be loaded through a tailgate, when a model range includes multiple body styles, such as sedan, hatchback and station wagon, the models typically share their platform, drivetrain and bodywork forward of the A-pillar. In 1969, Popular Mechanics said, Station wagon-style, follows that of the production sedan of which it is the counterpart. Most are on the wheelbase, offer the same transmission and engine options. Station wagons have evolved from their use as specialized vehicles to carry people and luggage to and from a train station. Station wagon and wagon are the names in American, Canadian, New Zealand, Australian and African English, while estate car. Both names harken to the role as a shuttle, with storage space for baggage. Having shared antecedents with the British shooting-brake, station wagons have been marketed as breaks, early U. S. models often had exposed wooden bodies and were therefore called woodies. Manufacturers may designate station wagons across various model lines with a proprietary nameplate. Examples include Estate, Avant, Touring, Tourer and Cross-Tourer, SW for Station Wagon or Sports Wagon, Estate, MCV, Tourer, Kombi or Variant and Sports Tourer, SW - Sportswagon or Caravan. Both station wagons and hatchbacks typically share a two-box design configuration, with one shared, flexible, interior volume for passengers and cargo — and a rear door for cargo access. Further distinctions are highly variable, Pillars, Both configurations typically feature A, B & C-pillars, station wagons feature a D-pillar, cargo Volume, Station wagons prioritize passenger and cargo volume — with windows aside the cargo volume. Cargo floor contour, Favoring cargo capacity, a station wagon may prioritize a fold-flat floor, seating, Station wagons may have two or three rows of seats while hatchbacks may only have one or two. Rear suspension, A station wagon may include reconfigured rear suspension for additional load capacity, Station wagons have also enjoyed numerous tailgate configurations. Hatchbacks may be called Liftbacks when the area is very sloped. You could have a 90-degree break in the back and have a station wagon, a model range may include multiple configurations, as with the 2005–2007 Ford Focus which offered sedan, wagon and three and five-door hatchback models. The first station wagons were a product of the age of train travel and they were originally called depot hacks because they worked around train depots as hacks
11.
Panel van
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A panel van is a form of solid van, smaller than a lorry or truck, without rear side windows. In the U. K. this body style is referred to as a car-derived van, panel vans are widely used in many parts of the world for transporting cargo. In some national usages it is distinct from a van in that it is based on the chassis of a family car design. In places where they are distinct from a van, they have less space but better agility and maneuverability. Tracing their roots back to the days of automobiles, panel vans have historically been a part of major American car manufacturers line-ups. Known as a delivery in American English, it is a basically a two-door station wagon with sheet-metal panels in place of rear side doors. Sedan deliveries have spartan interior trim and were used by businesses much as cargo vans are used today and this format was pioneered from the 1950s by the Citroën 2CV Fourgonnette and the Morris Minor. In Australia, local panel vans were a development of the Australian ute, panel vans were also especially popular with younger car buyers in Australia during the 1970s. Examples of the new wave of panel vans are the Renault Kangoo and they are also purpose-designed to be utilitarian base model MPVs / people carriers, for a range of such vehicles. Due to economic crisis and strong shift on SUVs and CUVs, only two panel vans which are all-new models being released recently are Dacia Dokker and Ford Transit Connect
12.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
13.
Front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FWD, or front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout places both the internal combustion engine and driven roadwheels at the front of the vehicle. Historically, this designation was used regardless of whether the engine was behind the front axle line. Most pre-World War II front engine cars would qualify as front-mid engine, using the front-mid designation and this layout is the most traditional form, and remains a popular, practical design. The engine which takes up a deal of space is packaged in a location passengers. The main deficit is weight distribution — the heaviest component is at one end of the vehicle, car handling is not ideal, but usually predictable. Like the rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout layouts, it places the engine over the drive wheels, improving traction in many applications. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FWD cars are generally considered superior to RWD cars in conditions where there is low traction such as snow, mud. When hill climbing in low traction conditions RR is considered the best two-wheel-drive layout, the cornering ability of a FWD vehicle is generally better, because the engine is placed over the steered wheels. However, as the wheels have the additional demands of steering, if a vehicle accelerates quickly, less grip is available for cornering. Electronic traction control can avoid wheel-spin but largely negates the benefit of extra power and this was a reason for the adoption of the four-wheel-drive quattro system in the high performance Jensen FF and Audi Quattro road cars. Early cars using the FWD layout include the 1929 Cord L-29,1931 DKW F1, the 1948 Citroën 2CV,1949 Saab 92, in the 1980s, the traction and packaging advantages of this layout caused many compact and mid-sized vehicle makers to adopt it in the US. Most European and Japanese manufacturers switched to front wheel drive for the majority of their cars in the 1960s and 1970s, the last to change being VW, Ford of Europe, Toyota was the last Japanese company to switch in the early 1980s. BMW, focussed on luxury vehicles, however retained the layout in even their smaller cars. There are four different arrangements for this layout, depending on the location of the engine. The earliest such arrangement was not technically FWD, but rather mid-engine, the engine was mounted longitudinally behind the wheels, with the transmission ahead of the engine and differential at the very front of the car. With the engine so far back, the distribution of such cars as the Cord L-29 was not ideal. The 1934 Citroën Traction Avant solved the weight issue by placing the transmission at the front of the car with the differential between it and the engine. Combined with the low slung unibody design, this resulted in handling which was remarkable for the era
14.
Car platform
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It is practiced in the automotive industry to reduce the costs associated with the development of products by basing those products on a smaller number of platforms. This further allows companies to create models from a design perspective on similar underpinnings. Platform sharing is a development method where different products and the brand attached share the same components. The purpose with platform sharing is to reduce the cost and have a more efficient product development process, the companies gain on reduced procurement cost by taking advantage of the commonality of the components. However, this limits their ability to differentiate the products. The companies have to make a trade-off between reducing their development costs and the degree of differentiation of the products, one of the first car companies to use this product development approach was General Motors in 1908. A basic definition of a platform in cars, from a point of view, includes, underbody and suspensions — where the underbody is made of front floor, underfloor, engine compartment. Many vendors refer to this as product or vehicle architecture, the concept of product architecture is the scheme by which the function of a product is allocated to physical components. The car platform strategy has become important in new product development, the finished products have to be responsive to market needs and to demonstrate distinctiveness while — at the same time — they must be developed and produced at low cost. Adopting such a strategy affects the development process and also has an important impact on an organizational structure. A platform strategy also offers advantages for the process of automobile firms. Manufacturers are then able to offer products at a lower cost to consumers, additionally, economies of scale are increased, as is return on investment. In the 1980s, Chryslers K-cars all wore a badge with the letter K to indicate their shared platform, in later stages, the K platform was extended in wheelbase, as well as use for several of the Corporations different models. GM used similar strategies with its J platform that debuted in mid-1981 in four of GMs divisions and they were popular through the 1980s, primarily. Even Cadillac started offering a J body model called the Cimarron, a similar strategy applied to what is known as the N-J-L platform, arguably the most prolific of GMs efforts on one platform. Once more, GMs four lower level divisions all offered various models on this throughout the 1980s. For example, the Lexus ES is essentially an upgraded and rebadged Toyota Camry, after Daimler-Benz purchased Chrysler, Chrysler engineers used several M-B platforms for new models including the Crossfire which was based on the M-B SLK roadster. Other models that share platforms are the European Ford Focus, Mazda 3, differences between shared models typically involve styling, including headlights, tail lights, and front and rear fascias
15.
GM Delta platform
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The platform debuted in the 2003 Saturn Ion. Vehicles of this platform generally carry the symbol A in the digit of their VINs. The Volkswagen Jetta is said to have been the target for the design group, Delta uses an independent suspension in front and Twist beam type in the rear. The Ecotec engine is used, as are a 4-speed automatic. It is the successor to the GM Delta platform, internally it is simply known as a new Global Compact Vehicle Architecture or GCV. This can mildly compromise the handling and ride quality of the vehicle, for this reason, some manufacturers have changed to different linkage designs. As an example, Volkswagen dropped the torsion beam in favour of a true IRS for the Volkswagen Golf Mk5, opel/Vauxhall have continued to use twist or torsion beam suspension. This is at a cost saving of €100 per car compared to multi-link rear suspension and their latest version as used in the 2009-on Opel Astra uses a Watts linkage at a cost of €20 to address the drawbacks and provide a competitive and cost effective rear suspension. The Renault Megane and Citroen C4 also have stayed with the twist beam, the twist beam has been shown to suffer less from bush wear, than fully independent multi-link suspension, thus resulting in a virtually maintenance free rear suspension. GM chose this compact vehicle architecture for its first Voltec application, the new platform is being mainly engineered by GMs German subsidiary Opel in Rüsselsheim. According to GM the company has invested USD $220 million for the all new D2XX platform, the platform is being developed for compact vehicle architecture, replacing both Delta II and the midsize crossover exclusive GM Theta platform
16.
Chevrolet Cobalt
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The Chevrolet Cobalt is a compact car initially introduced by Chevrolet in 2004 for the 2005 model year. The Cobalt replaced both the Cavalier and the Toyota-based Prizm as Chevrolets compact car, the Cobalt was available as both a coupe and sedan, and is based on the GM Delta platform also shared with the Chevrolet HHR wagon and Saturn Ion. Also available was a performance, Super Sport variant. In all cases, the G5 replaced the Cavalier-related Pontiac Sunfire, as with their predecessors, all Cobalts and its Pontiac equivalents were manufactured at GMs plant in Ramos Arizpe, Mexico and Lordstown, Ohio. The United States Environmental Protection Agency classifies the Cobalt as a subcompact car, the front suspension is independent with MacPherson struts, while a semi-independent torsion beam is used in the rear. The wheelbase is 103.3 in, longer than its competitors, weight is average in-class, at 2,681 lb for the coupe and 2,747 lb for the sedan. The engine output was increased to 155 hp,2006, A non-supercharged Cobalt SS was added to the lineup. This car was equipped with a 2.4 L naturally aspirated Ecotec inline-4, the LS became the base model while the LT was marketed as a mid-range package, the top level trim was now the LTZ. In addition, as with most other GM vehicles that year,2007, Both engines were retuned for more power while retaining the same fuel economy. The 2.2 L Ecotec was now rated at 148 hp with the 2.4 L Ecotec rated at 173 hp, other changes include a new console, new steering wheel and new radio head unit that features an audio input jack. In addition, all models except the LS and LT1 now used a 5x110 wheel bolt pattern, the LS and LT1 retained the standard 4x100. In addition, the 2007 model year marked the introduction of a new 32-bit computer that replaced the 16-bit unit from 2006,2008, The 2.4 L naturally aspirated, high-output SS coupe and SS sedan were renamed to just Sport Coupe and Sport Sedan respectively. The new Cobalt SS features a 260 hp turbocharged engine, replacing the Supercharged engine which was offered from 2005–2007, XM Radio, side-impact air bags for improved safety, and MP3 player were now standard instead of optional. StabiliTrak stability control system was introduced, other changes include the adding and removal of several exterior and interior colors. The new SS coupe launched near the end of May 2008,2008, The special edition package for the Cobalt was introduced on August 16,2008, which featured all the options that was available on the previous SS models except the turbocharged 2.0 engine. Instead it was again built with the 2.4 naturally aspirated engine similar to the Cobalt Sport models. The special edition package could come with a sunroof, GM ground effects kit, the Getrag F23 5-speed manual transmission, the special editions were all had a Special Edition badge and came with unique variations of colors, and racing stripes. 2009, The 2.4 L naturally aspirated Sport Coupe, Both were replaced by the 2.2 L LAP engine thus providing better fuel economy and more power, as well an SS sedan being added to the lineup
17.
Saturn Ion
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The Saturn ION was a compact car sold by Saturn between the 2003 and 2007 model years. It used the GM Delta platform, the Ion replaced the Saturn S-Series in 2002, and was replaced by the new Saturn Astra in 2008. As of 2006, the Ion was the longest compact car sold in North America, Production and sales of the ION both ended in March 2007. The 2003 Saturn Ion quad coupe production car first appeared at the 2002 New York International Auto Show, the 2003 Ion came standard with a 2.2 L140 hp DOHC Ecotec I4 engine. The Ions instrument panel was mounted on the top center of the dashboard, rather than behind the steering wheel. The Ion is available in sedan level 1,2,3 the level three with a user friendly setup with power everything, and on the lower levels included only crank up windows. Other extras included fog lights, and the option of a sunroof, and or spoiler. quad coupe forms, the quad featured a set of bi-parting doors. The Saturn Ion Quad Coupe has rear half-sized suicide doors while the sedan has the lack of rear hinged doors, a Getrag F23 5-speed manual or an Aisin AF23 5-speed automatic transmission were available. The compact 5-speed automatic had several unique characteristics, the unit was also “fill-for-life”, meaning that it was not intended to be serviced for the life of the vehicle. The 2003 and 2004 Ion Coupes were available with the VTi continuously variable transmission or a Getrag F23 5-speed manual, for 2004, Saturn also re-calibrated the electric power steering, as well as upgraded interior materials, and offered new sound systems. The VTi CVT used in the quad-coupes between 2002 and 2004 was also discontinued, for reliability reasons, GMs 4-speed 4T45-E replaced both transmissions, becoming the only available automatic transmission option. The 2005 ION sedan models received a new steering wheel. In the middle of the 2005 model year, the seats in the base Ion1 model received upgraded fabrics, quiet Steel multilaminate sound-reduction technology was also introduced in 2005. Cosmetic changes included an upgraded fascia with a larger grille opening and redesigned wheel covers, under the hood, an acoustic engine cover was added to the engine bay to reduce noise emissions. The Level 2 and Level 3 models were offered with GMs new standard radio,2006 saw the 170 hp,162 lb·ft torque,2.4 L I4 engine with variable valve timing become available for the Ion3. Along with that, the ION was discontinued after the 2007 model year, the new engine was fitted with the ECU from the 2. 4-liter engine. The 2. 4-liter Ecotec received an upgrade, power increased from 170 hp to 175 hp at 6500 rpm. An Appearance Package was offered for the 2007 Ion 3 Quad Coupe, including redesigned front and rear bumpers, side moldings, elliptical fog lamps, the Recaro seats in the Red Line version were replaced with black leather-appointed seats, which featured a passenger-sensing system
18.
Opel Astra
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The Opel Astra is a compact car/small family car engineered and manufactured by the German automaker Opel since 1991. It is branded as the Vauxhall Astra in the United Kingdom, the Holden Astra was discontinued in Australia and New Zealand in 2009, because exchange rates made the car uncompetitive, and was replaced by the Holden Cruze. It briefly returned to the Australian market in 2012, for the first time badged as an Opel, on 1 May 2014, Opel announced that the Astra GTC and Astra VXR would return to Australia and New Zealand in 2015, again bearing the Holden badge. The Astra nameplate originates from Vauxhall, which had manufactured and marketed earlier generations of the Opel Kadett as the Vauxhall Astra, as of 2009, there have been four generations of the Astra. In a fashion typical for Opel they are designated with subsequent letters of the Latin alphabet, Opels official convention is that the Astra is a logical continuation of the Kadett lineage, thus, the first generation of Opel Astra as the Astra F. Another convention used by GM starts with Astra A, adopting the notion that the Astra is a separate model, models sold as Vauxhall, Holden, or Chevrolet have different generation designations reflecting the history of those nameplates in their home markets and their naming conventions. The Opel Astra F debuted in September 1991, with the Kadett Es successor, Opel adopted the Astra nameplate, which was already used by Vauxhall for the Kadett D and E. It was offered as a three- or five-door hatchback, a saloon, a cabriolet was also offered, designed and built by Bertone in Italy. While the Astra F finished production in Germany in 1998, Polish-built Astras remained on offer in Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Turkey, the Opel Astra F consisted of two main revisions and was revised in 1995, with the launch of Opels new Ecotec engine. Aside from the South Africa-only 200t S, the model was the GSi – a 2.0 L I4 16V petrol injected model with 151 hp. It also featured sports bodykit and widened front seats in the interior, some Astra models had an 1.6 L engine with 83 hp. After the Astra F was replaced by the new generation Astra G in 1998, the model was also launched in South Africa in 1991, where it was produced under licence by Delta. The Kadett name was retained for the hatchback Astras until 1999, the sedan and station wagon models were offered under the Astra name. The Kadett and Astra in South Africa won the title of Car of the Year in two years even though they were versions of the same car. South African nomenclature was denoted in centilitres, so the Astra and Kadett ranges featured 140, the South African Astra turbo included a variant with the same turbocharged engine called the Opel Kadett 200t S. The 200t S was a name where Delta Motor Corporation wanted to show the specialty of the type. The t stands for the turbocharger, the Opel Astra also became available in Australasia badged as a Holden, first in New Zealand in 1995, and then Australia in 1996. The first models were imported from the UK, but later models were imported from Belgium, the Holden Astra name had previously been used on rebadged Nissan Pulsar models from 1984 to 1989
19.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
20.
GM Ecotec engine
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The GM Ecotec engine, also known by its codename L850, is a family of all-aluminium inline-four engines, displacing between 2.0 and 2.5 litres. While these engines were based on the GM Family II engine and this engine family replaced the GM Family II engine, the GM122 engine, the Saab H engine, and the Quad 4 engine. It is manufactured in multiple locations, to include Spring Hill Manufacturing, in Spring Hill, the Ecotec name was adopted in 2000 for the new generation of Family II engines. The name was used for the Opel GM Family II engine, Family 1. GM intends this new Ecotec to become its global 4-cylinder, the Ecotec engine is a DOHC 4-valve design with an forged steel block and head, designed for displacements from 1.8 to 2.4 L. Much of the development work on this project was carried out by Lotus Engineering, Hethel, the engine uses aluminum pistons and cast iron cylinder liners. Vibration is reduced with twin balance shafts, the first engine in the Ecotec Gen I line-up was Ecotec 2.2 L61, introduced in 2000. The current Ecotec line is manufactured in Tonawanda, New York and this engine is also known as B207 when used by Saab and Z20NET by Opel for use in the Vectra C and Signum. LK9 is a turbocharged 2.0 L—1,998 cc —version of the L850 series Ecotec utilizing an all-new reinforced sand cast aluminum cylinder head, the exhaust valves are liquid sodium-cooled. All vehicles using this engine feature Saabs Trionic 8 engine management system as well as a valve train. The timing chain and timing gears are also new, along with Saabs Direct Ignition system, the reinforcements, turbocharging, intercooling, internals, dual overhead camshaft, and such were developed by GM Powertrain Sweden. It features an 86 millimetres bore and stroke and a 9.5,1 compression ratio, maximum power is 210 horsepower at 5300 rpm and 221 ft·lb of torque at 2500 rpm. The LSJ shares many of its components with the LK9 such as, piston cooling jets, oil cooler, pistons, connecting rods, crankshaft, oil pan, sodium-filled exhaust valves and cylinder head. It is rated at 205 hp at 5600 rpm and 200 ft·lb at 4400 rpm with a ratio of 9.5,1. With the end of the Chevy Cobalt S/C SS and Saturn Ion Red Line, in late 2005 Brammo Motorsports struck a deal with GM for the Supercharged 2.0 L Ecotec for their Ariel Atom. The engine came in various ratings from 205 hp to 300 hp, the LSJ was on the Wards 10 Best Engines list for 2006. This engine is used in, This engine is known as a Z22SE in other countries such as The United Kingdom. The basic Family II architecture was substantially re-engineered in 2000 to become the Ecotec Gen I, unlike its notably harsh predecessor, the engine was designed for smoothness
21.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
22.
Turbocharger
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Turbochargers were originally known as turbosuperchargers when all forced induction devices were classified as superchargers. Nowadays the term supercharger is usually applied only to mechanically driven forced induction devices, compared to a mechanically driven supercharger, turbochargers tend to be more efficient, but less responsive. Twincharger refers to an engine with both a supercharger and a turbocharger, turbochargers are commonly used on truck, car, train, aircraft, and construction equipment engines. They are most often used with Otto cycle and Diesel cycle internal combustion engines and they have also been found useful in automotive fuel cells. Forced induction dates from the late 19th century, when Gottlieb Daimler patented the technique of using a pump to force air into an internal combustion engine in 1885. During World War I French engineer Auguste Rateau fitted turbochargers to Renault engines powering various French fighters with some success, in 1918, General Electric engineer Sanford Alexander Moss attached a turbocharger to a V12 Liberty aircraft engine. Turbochargers were first used in aircraft engines such as the Napier Lioness in the 1920s. Ships and locomotives equipped with turbocharged diesel engines began appearing in the 1920s, turbochargers were also used in aviation, most widely used by the United States. During World War II, notable examples of U. S. aircraft with turbochargers include the B-17 Flying Fortress, B-24 Liberator, P-38 Lightning, and P-47 Thunderbolt. Turbochargers are widely used in car and commercial vehicles because they allow smaller-capacity engines to have improved fuel economy, reduced emissions, higher power, in contrast to turbochargers, superchargers are mechanically driven by the engine. Belts, chains, shafts, and gears are common methods of powering a supercharger, for example, on the single-stage single-speed supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin engine, the supercharger uses about 150 horsepower. Yet the benefits outweigh the costs, for the 150 hp to drive the supercharger the engine generates an additional 400-horsepower, a net gain of 250 hp. This is where the principal disadvantage of a supercharger becomes apparent, another disadvantage of some superchargers is lower adiabatic efficiency as compared to turbochargers. Adiabatic efficiency is a measure of an ability to compress air without adding excess heat to that air. Even under ideal conditions, the compression process always results in elevated temperature, however. Roots superchargers impart significantly more heat to the air than turbochargers, thus, for a given volume and pressure of air, the turbocharged air is cooler, and as a result denser, containing more oxygen molecules, and therefore more potential power than the supercharged air. In practical application the disparity between the two can be dramatic, with turbochargers often producing 15% to 30% more power based solely on the differences in adiabatic efficiency. By comparison, a turbocharger does not place a direct mechanical load on the engine, although turbochargers place exhaust back pressure on engines, in contrast to supercharging, the primary disadvantage of turbocharging is what is referred to as lag or spool time
23.
Transmission (mechanics)
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A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which provides controlled application of the power. Often the term refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to provide speed. In British English, the term refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, differential. In American English, however, the term more specifically to the gearbox alone. The most common use is in vehicles, where the transmission adapts the output of the internal combustion engine to the drive wheels. Such engines need to operate at a high rotational speed, which is inappropriate for starting, stopping. The transmission reduces the engine speed to the slower wheel speed. Transmissions are also used on bicycles, fixed machines. Often, a transmission has multiple gear ratios with the ability to switch between them as speed varies and this switching may be done manually or automatically. Directional control may also be provided, single-ratio transmissions also exist, which simply change the speed and torque of motor output. The output of the transmission is transmitted via the driveshaft to one or more differentials, while a differential may also provide gear reduction, its primary purpose is to permit the wheels at either end of an axle to rotate at different speeds as it changes the direction of rotation. Conventional gear/belt transmissions are not the mechanism for speed/torque adaptation. Alternative mechanisms include torque converters and power transformation, automatic transmissions use a valve body to shift gears using fluid pressures in conjunction with an ecm. Early transmissions included the right-angle drives and other gearing in windmills, horse-powered devices, and steam engines, in support of pumping, milling, most modern gearboxes are used to increase torque while reducing the speed of a prime mover output shaft. This means that the shaft of a gearbox rotates at a slower rate than the input shaft. A gearbox can be set up to do the opposite and provide an increase in speed with a reduction of torque. Some of the simplest gearboxes merely change the rotational direction of power transmission. Many typical automobile transmissions include the ability to select one of several gear ratios, in this case, most of the gear ratios are used to slow down the output speed of the engine and increase torque
24.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
25.
Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
26.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
27.
Opel Antara
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The Opel Antara is a compact crossover SUV designed and produced by Opel from 2006 to 2015. The Antara, based on the Theta platform, shares its underpinnings, however, it is offering only five seats instead of seven, and has a different exterior and interior design. In the United Kingdom, the car is sold as the Vauxhall Antara, in Australasia the car is badged as the Holden Captiva, and in the United States and Canada it had been sold as the Saturn Vue. The Antara was marketed as the GMC Terrain in the Middle East, Daewoo Winstorm MaXX in South Korea, the Antara was first previewed by the three-door Opel Antara GTC concept car, presented at the 2005 Frankfurt Motor Show. The Antara GTC is based on the three-door Chevrolet T2X SUV, a similar three-door SUV was later displayed at the January 2006 New York International Auto Show as the Saturn PreVue. The production Antara is a longer five-door SUV, similar to the Chevrolet S3X, in November 2010, a facelift was announced. The front end was revised, and both front and rear lights were refreshed, the new Opel badge also appear on the Opel Antara, respectively. On the inside, there is a centre console with more storage space and materials, improved instrument graphics. An electric parking brake, a hill assistance system, and a shift up indicator to optimise fuel economy in manual transmission versions are all now standard. Introduced with the 2011 facelift is a new, Euro 5 compliant 2.2 litre diesel engine to replace the previous 2.0 litre, and updated version of 2.4 litre petrol. GM in the United States and Canada introduced the Opel Antara as part of the Saturn division under the name Saturn Vue in 2007 for the 2008 model year, the Antara-based model represents the second iteration of the Vue nameplate, with production moved to Ramos Arizpe, Mexico. The Ramos Arizpe facility also supplies the Colombian, Mexican, Brazilian and Uruguayan markets with the Antara, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety awarded the 2008 model year Vue its Top Safety Pick after receiving a good overall score in both the front and side impact tests. Trim levels include the XE, XR, the sports-oriented Red Line, Saturn fitted the Vue with the 169-horsepower 2. 4-litre Ecotec inline-four. The 222-horsepower 3. 5-litre V6 and the 3. 6-litre V6 rated at 257 horsepower were optional, the Red Line uses the same 3. Exterior appearance changes for the Red Line include 18-inch alloy wheels, the front-wheel drive only Green Line petrol/electric hybrid uses the same mild BAS Hybrid system with the 2. 4-litre engine as the first generation Vue. Software updates and optimisations have smoothed the operation while also improving fuel economy, under the 2008 EPA standards, the Vue is listed at 25 mpg‑US /32 mpg‑US city/highway. Saturn dropped the Green Line badge for 2009 in favour of the name Hybrid, a full hybrid model featuring GMs two-mode system was to have been introduced for the 2009 year model. This would have combined with a motor with a direct injection version of the 3. 6-litre V6 providing a combined output of 262 horsepower and 250 pound-feet of torque
28.
Buick Envision
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The Buick Envision is a mid-size luxury crossover SUV built by Buick. The car was first introduced publicly in China on July 1,2014, with a photo of the car under a cover, on July 21, some specifications and the first official photos, as well as its Chinese name “Ang Ke Wei”, were made public. The car is produced in China by Shanghai GM and went on sale in late 2014, as of October 2016, it is available in China, the United States, Canada, and Mexico. On December 4,2015, Buick confirmed that the Envision will go on sale in the United States starting in the summer of 2016 and it will only be offered as an all-wheel drive, but would add a front wheel drive option after the 2017 model year. The North American version of the Envision will feature the turbo-charged 2, for the 2016 model year it will only be available in the premium level trim but with two options. The trims will expand to five for the 2017 model year, “We wanted to take advantage of the manufacturing already in place. We’re very confident in the vehicle. ”
29.
Chevrolet Trax
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The Chevrolet Trax is a subcompact crossover SUV manufactured by Chevrolet since 2013. The car is based on the GM Gamma II platform, which is shared with the Chevrolet Aveo/Sonic, the concept was first unveiled at the 2012 Paris Auto Show, with the final model unveil having happened at the 2013 North American International Auto Show. It was then available for test driving at the 2013 Montreal Auto Show, during 2013 and early 2014, it was only sold in Canada, Mexico, Germany, South Korea, Lebanon, United Arab Emirates and Europe. It was also marketed as the Holden Trax in Australia, and as the Chevrolet Tracker in Russia, in Canada, the Trax was the first compact Chevrolet crossover SUV since the discontinuation of the Tracker. The vehicle started shipping on April 2, however pre-sales began as early as the quarter of 2012 for both Mexico and Canada. Korean sales started at late February 2013, in late 2014, the Trax was marketed to more countries adding China, Indonesia and the Philippines. On April 15,2014, Chevrolet announced that the Trax will come to the United States as a 2015 model, buoyed by the success of the Buick Encore and possible competition from the Jeep Renegade. The US-market Trax is largely unchanged from the version, but has some US-specific features including OnStar with AT&T 4G LTE. The US version is powered by the 1. 4-liter turbocharged inline-4 with 138 bhp @4,900 rpm and 148 lb·ft @1,850 rpm, only the 6-speed automatic transmission is available. Three trim levels, both available with front-wheel-drive and all-wheel-drive, are available, LS, LT and LTZ, Chevrolet performed a mid-cycle updated on the Trax for the 2017 model year, first unveiled at the 2016 Chicago Auto Show on February 12,2016. The updated Trax carried Chevrolets Corvette-inspired design cues from the Malibu and Volt, including new projector headlamps, LED daytime running lights. A set of 18-inch aluminium wheels are offered on the Premier model trim, the interior is also redesigned with a new dashboard and center instrument panel. Overall, the 2017 facelift improves the Traxs perceived quality, the 2017 Trax went on sale in the fall of 2016. In Australia and the overall Oceania market, the Chevrolet Trax is offered under the Holden brand, in Russia and South America it is being named Chevrolet Tracker, the name used in North and Latin America from 1989–1991 & 1999–2008 for a Chevrolet/Geo version of the Suzuki Sidekick. In Russian, the name Trax would be too closely related to the word trakh, the Trax is offered in different markets with different choices of drivetrains. In Latin America the Trax is only available with the 1.8 liter gasoline engine, in Canada and the US, only the 1.4 liter turbocharged gasoline engine is offered. In Mexico and Australia it is both in 1.8 liter and 1.4 liter turbocharged engines. European customers can choose between the 1.4 liter turbo engine, a 1.6 liter gasoline engine
30.
Chevrolet Orlando
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The Chevrolet Orlando is a compact multi-purpose vehicle manufactured by Chevrolet for worldwide markets since 2011. It is a 5-door, 7-seat concept vehicle based on Chevrolet Cruze sedan and it included a two-tier grille, headlamps that flow into the front fenders and muscular fender forms that wrap around the wheels,2. 0L 4-cylinder turbo-diesel engine rated 150 PS and 320 N·m. The vehicle was unveiled in 2008 Paris Motor Show, and later in 2009 North American International Auto Show, in August 2009, at its extended product review, GM previewed the production-spec Orlando and confirmed its production. GM originally intended that the Orlando would go into production in the United States, however, in May 2010, the Chevrolet Orlando sold in Canada starting in 2011 for the 2012 model year. This crossover is now being produced at the Kunsan Assembly Plant in South Korea, Orlando has been sold also in Europe since 2011. In 2010, GM showed the GMC Granite small MPV concept, production model was unveiled in 2010 Busan International Motor Show, followed by 2010 Paris Motor Show,2013 North American International Auto Show. European model was in sale from 2011 to 2014 when most of Chevrolets vehicles, except muscle and sports cars were withdrawn from the European market, except Russia. Later in 2015, Chevrolet Orlando was discontinued the Russian market, the model was discontinued for the 2015 model year in Canada. Diesel engine for Korean market has been updated in 2015 to meet the governments Euro 6 requirement, all diesel Chevrolet Orlando sold in Korea is equipped with 1.6 liter inline-four CDTi engine outsourced from Opel. Canadian models include 2. 4-liter direct injection petrol four-cylinder engine, European models include 1. 8-liter petrol,2. 0-liter diesel engines. South Korean models include 2. 0-liter LPG and 2. 0-liter diesel engines before update to 1. 6-liter Opel diesel in 2015, as part of the Chevrolet Orlando launch in the UK, a life-sized Play-Doh clay model replica was unveiled in London. Chevrolet Orlando Web Site Chevrolet Media Site Press kit, Chevrolet Orlando Europe, UK Chevrolet Orlando Technical Specification Data
31.
Nissan NV200
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The Nissan NV200 is a light commercial vehicle produced by Nissan. The vehicle was unveiled at the 2007 Tokyo Motor Show, followed by the 2008 Nissan Tenjin Motor Show, the vehicle was unveiled in 2009 Geneva Motor Show, followed by 2010 Beijing International Automobile Exhibition. The vehicle went on sale in Japan before summer 2009, followed by Europe in autumn 2009 and then in China, China model went on sale on June 18,2010. Early models include HR16 DOHC engine, sales of European models of NV200 van and combi began from October 2009 in most European markets, followed by Family version in 2010. Early models include 1. 6-litre HR16 petrol or 1.5 dCi 1, 461cc diesel engines, five-speed manual transmission, available in Van DX light commercial van and Wagon 16S people carrier, it is a version of Nissan NV200 replacing the older Nissan Vanette. The vehicle went on sale on May 21,2009 in Japan, early Japan models included Van DX, Van DX route van, Van GX, Wagon 16S. NV200 Vanette Chair Cab is a version of FWD NV200 Vanette with wheelchair entrance at rear hatch, NV200 Vanette Enchante step type is a version of FWD NV200 Vanette with electric slide step. Japan models went on sale on September 7,2009 and it is a version of NV200 Vanette taxi designed to provide comfortable mobility for all customers. The vehicle was unveiled in 2009 Tokyo Motor Show, the vehicle was set to go on sale at the end of 2010. Changes to NV200 Vanette Van include the addition of Van VX and Van GX, addition of coloured bumper, full cover, power windows. Japan model of NV200 Van went on sale in 2010-12-07, early models include Van DX, Van DX route van, Van GX, Van VX. They are versions of Nissan NV200 sold by Mitsubishi Motors Corporation, Japan models went on sale in 2011-10-27. Early Delica D,3 models include M, G, early Delica Van models include DX, GX. This is a version of Nissan NV200 with 2, the vehicle was unveiled in 2011 Nissan Taxi of Tomorrow Design Expo, followed by 2012 New York International Auto Show, Nissans Yokohama headquarters,2012 Paris Motor Show. Based on the Nissan NV200, Nissan introduced the Nissan e-NV200 concept all-electric van at the 2012 North American Auto Show in Detroit, the e-NV200 has a 24 kWh battery pack that is expected to have a range similar to Nissan Leaf of 73 mi. The vehicle was unveiled in 2012 North American International Auto Show, trials with a prototype were conducted with Japan Post Service beginning in July 2011, followed by trials with FedEx in London starting in December 2011, AEON Retail Co. Ltd. S. and Brazil, Coca-Cola Central Japan Co. starting in mid-November 2012, FedEx Express in Singapore, Saitama City, a more extensive 6-month trial with 28 units delivered to British Gas began in the UK in November 2013. The Evalia was launched in India on 27 September 2012, maruti Ertiga’s highest selling point is its low price that has set the ball rolling for the new compact MPV in the Indian car market
32.
Front-wheel drive
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Front-wheel drive is a form of engine and transmission layout used in motor vehicles, where the engine drives the front wheels only. Most modern front-wheel-drive vehicles feature an engine, rather than the conventional longitudinal engine arrangement generally found in rear-wheel-drive. Rear-engined layouts are possible, but rare, according to various sources, sometime between 1895 and 1898 Gräf & Stift built a voiturette with a one-cylinder De Dion-Bouton engine fitted in the front of the vehicle, powering the front axle. It was thus arguably the worlds first front-wheel-drive automobile, but it never saw mass production, in 1898, Latil, in France, devised a front-wheel-drive system for motorising horse-drawn carts. In 1898/9 the French manufacturer Société Parisienne patented their front-wheel drive articulated vehicle concept which they manufactured as a Victoria Combination and it was variously powered by 1.75 or 2.5 horsepower De Dion-Bouton engine or a water cooled 3.5 horsepower Aster engine. The engine was mounted on the front axle and so was rotated by the tiller steering and it also known as the Eureka. By 1899 Victoria Combinations were participating in motoring events such as the 371 km Paris-St Malo race, finishing 23rd overall, in October a Victoria Combination won its class in the Paris-Rambouillet-Paris event, covering the 100 kilometre course at 26 km/h. In 1900 it completed 240 kilometres non-stop at 29 km/h, when production ceased in mid-1901, over 400 copies had been sold for 3,000 Francs each. J. Walter Christie of the United States patented a design for a front-wheel-drive car and he promoted and demonstrated the vehicle by racing at various speedways in the United States, and even competed in the 1906 Vanderbilt Cup and the French Grand Prix. In 1912 he began manufacturing a line of wheeled fire engine tractors which used his front-wheel-drive system, the next successful application of front-wheel drive was the supercharged Alvis 12/50 racing car designed by George Thomas Smith-Clarke and William M. Dunn of Alvis Cars of the United Kingdom. This vehicle was entered in the 1925 Kop Hill Climb in Princes Risborough in Buckinghamshire on March 28,1925, however, the idea of front-wheel drive languished outside of the motor racing arena as no major auto manufacturer attempted the same for production automobiles. Market experiments in the United States were left to small endeavors such as the Ruxton, neither automobile maker was particularly successful on the open market. Alvis Cars introduced a commercial model of the Alvis 12/50 in 1928. The first successful consumer application came in 1929, the BSA produced the unique front-wheel-drive BSA three-wheeler. Production continued until 1936 during which time sports and touring models were available, in 1931 the DKW F1 from Germany made its debut. Buckminster Fuller adopted rear-engine, front wheel drive for his three Dymaxion Car prototypes, other German car producers followed, Stoewer offered a car with front-wheel drive in 1931, Adler in 1932 and Audi in 1933. In 1934, the very successful Traction Avant cars were introduced by Citroën of France, the Cord 810 of the United States managed a bit better in the late 1930s than its predecessor one decade earlier. These vehicles featured a layout that places the engine behind the transmission, another result of this design is a lengthened chassis
33.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
34.
Chevrolet
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Chevrolet, colloquially referred to as Chevy and formally the Chevrolet Division of General Motors Company, is an American automobile division of the American manufacturer General Motors. Louis Chevrolet and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant started the company on November 3,1911 as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2,1918. Chevrolet-branded vehicles are sold in most automotive markets worldwide, with the exception of Oceania. However, GM reversed this move in late 2013, announcing that the brand would be withdrawn from Europe, with the exception of the Camaro, Chevrolet vehicles will continue to be marketed in the CIS states, including Russia. After General Motors fully acquired GM Daewoo in 2011 to create GM Korea, in North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Durant was cast out from the management of General Motors in 1910 for five years and he took over the Flint Wagon Works, incorporating the Mason and Little companies. As head of Buick Motor Company prior to founding GM, Durant had hired Louis Chevrolet to drive Buicks in promotional races, Durant planned to use Chevrolets reputation as a racer as the foundation for his new automobile company. Actual design work for the first Chevy, the costly Series C Classic Six, was drawn up by Etienne Planche, the first C prototype was ready months before Chevrolet was actually incorporated. However the first actual production wasnt until the 1913 model, so in essence there were no 1911 or 1912 production models, only the 1 pre-production model was made and fine tuned throughout the early part of 1912. Then in the fall of that year the new 1913 model was introduced at the New York auto show, Chevrolet first used the bowtie emblem logo in 1914 on the H series models and The L Series Model. It may have been designed from wallpaper Durant once saw in a French hotel room, more recent research by historian Ken Kaufmann presents a case that the logo is based on a logo of the Coalettes coal company. An example of this logo as it appeared in an advertisement for Coalettes appeared in the Atlanta Constitution on November 12,1911, others claim that the design was a stylized Swiss cross, in tribute to the homeland of Chevrolets parents. Chevrolet eventually unified all vehicle models with the gold bowtie in 2004, Louis Chevrolet had differences with Durant over design and in 1914 sold Durant his share in the company. By 1916, Chevrolet was profitable enough with successful sales of the cheaper Series 490 to allow Durant to repurchase a controlling interest in General Motors. After the deal was completed in 1917, Durant became president of General Motors, in 1919, Chevrolets factories were located at Flint, Michigan, branch assembly locations were located in Tarrytown, N. Y. Norwood, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, Oakland, California, Ft. Worth, Texas, mcLaughlins were given GM Corporation stock for the proprietorship of their Company article Sept.23,1933 Financial Post page 9. In the 1918 model year, Chevrolet introduced the Series D, Sales were poor and it was dropped in 1919
35.
LA Auto Show
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The Los Angeles Auto Show is an annual auto show held at the Los Angeles Convention Center in mid-to-late November. The LA Auto Show is an OICA sanctioned international exhibition and also endorsed by the Greater Los Angeles New Car Dealers Association and it is open to the public for ten days each year, filling 760,000 square feet of exhibit space. Starting in 2016, the show kicks off with AutoMobility LA, four days full of activity for journalists, designers, in 2014, the show had a record number of debuts with more than 65 World and North American debuts. The Los Angeles Auto Show began in 1907 with ninety-nine vehicles on display at Morley’s Skating Rink, in 1910, the event was held under a canvas big top at Fiesta Park. As the auto industry grew, the show changed venues four times throughout the 1920s to accommodate the growing needs of vendors. In 1926, it place at the corner of Hill. During the 1929 show, a circuit in one of the airplane exhibits caught fire causing the entire show to go up in flames ending in more than $1 Million in damage. With the help of the community, the show re-opened one day later at the Shrine Auditorium, the show continued to prove successful throughout the 1930s, but took a down turn during the Second World War and went on hiatus from 1940 through 1951. In 1952, the show re-opened at the Pan Pacific Auditorium with 152 vehicles on display, in 2006, the show moved its dates from early January to late November/early December, thus resulting in two shows during the year 2006, the second marking the 100 year anniversary show. For 2016, AutoMobility LA will also include the events, AutoMobility LA, four days of networking. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 16 and 17, the 2015 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 20 through November 29,2015. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 18 and 29, the 2014 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 21 through November 30,2014. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 19 and 20, the 2013 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 22 through December 1,2013. Press days and vehicle debuts took place on November 20 and 21, the 2013 Connected Car Expo was held on November 19–21. 56 total vehicles debuted at the 2013 show, with 22 of them being world debuts, the following below are production models that debuted. The 2012 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 30 through December 9,2012, Honda also announced the 2014 Accord Plug-In Hybrid will be available starting January 15,2013 in California and New York. The 2011 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 18 through November 27,2011, the Sneak Preview Night was held on November 17,2011. The 2010 Los Angeles Auto Show was held from November 19 through November 28,2010, the Sneak Preview Night was held on November 18,2010
36.
Opel
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Adam Opel AG is a German automobile manufacturer headquartered in Rüsselsheim, Hesse, Germany. It is a subsidiary of General Motors but is soon to be part of the French automotive company Groupe PSA, Opel traces its roots to a sewing machine manufacturer founded by Adam Opel in 1862. The company began manufacturing bicycles in 1886 and produced its first automobile in 1899, Opel became a share-limited company in 1929, General Motors took a majority stake in Opel that same year. General Motors assumed full control in 1931, and today Adam Opel AG is an owned subsidiary of General Motors Company. Although Adam Opel AG continues to be a company, shares of the company are not publicly listed. Adam Opel AG is the parent company of General Motors UK Limited, better known as Vauxhall, during the 1970s and 1980s, Opel and Vauxhall ranges were rationalised into one consistent range across Europe. Opel withdrew from China, where it had a network of 22 dealers, furthermore, GM is responsible to pay about US$400 million annually for 15 years to fund the existing German and U. K. pension plans. The company was founded in Rüsselsheim, Hessen, Germany, on January 21,1862, at the beginning, Opel just produced sewing machines in a cowshed in Rüsselsheim. Above all, his success was based on his perfectly customized sewing machines, because of the quick growth of his business, in 1888, the production was relocated from the cowshed to a more spacious building in Rüsselsheim. Encouraged by success, Adam Opel launched a new product in 1886, He began to sell high-wheel bicycles, besides, Opels two sons participated in high-wheel bicycle races, thus promoting this means of transportation. Therefore, the production of high-wheel bicycles soon exceeded the production of sewing machines, at the time of Opels death in 1895, he was the leader in both markets. These cars were made up of Opel bodies mounted on Darracq chassis, the company first showed cars of its own design at the 1902 Hamburg Motor Show, and started manufacturing them in 1906, with Opel Darracq production being discontinued in 1907. In 1909, the Opel 4/8 PS model, known as the Doktorwagen was produced and its reliability and robustness were greatly appreciated by physicians, who drove a lot to see their patients, back when hard-surfaced roads were still rare. The Doktorwagen sold for only 3,950 marks, about half as much as the models of its day. In 1911, the factory was virtually destroyed by fire. In the early 1920s, Opel became the first German car manufacturer to incorporate a mass-production assembly line in the building of their automobiles, in 1924, they used their assembly line to produce a new open two-seater called the Laubfrosch. The Laubfrosch was finished exclusively in green lacquer. The car sold for an expensive 4,500 marks, but by the 1930s, this type of vehicle would cost a mere 1,990 marks – due in part to the assembly line, but also due to the skyrocketing demand for cars
37.
Opel Zafira
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The Opel Zafira, also as the Zafira Tourer since 2011, is a multi-purpose vehicle produced by the German manufacturer Opel since the beginning of 1999. The first and second generation are classified compact MPVs, whereas the third generation and it has also been marketed under the Vauxhall marque in the United Kingdom, the Holden marque in Australia, as well as under a number of other market-specific brands and names. The first generation of the Zafira is usually referred to as Zafira A, developed with the aid of Porsche, the Zafira was first shown in concept form at the 1997 Frankfurt Auto Show, and entered series production in January 1999, with sales beginning in April. The car was based on the platform as the 1998 Astra G. The Zafira A body was used in GM/Opels concept hydrogen-powered fuel cell vehicle the HydroGen3, offered with a series of petrol engines and initially a single diesel offering, the X engines were replaced by the newer Z engine generation in 2000. These featured variable intake manifolds and were able to meet Euro 3 emissions standards, the system was named Flex 7. In TüVs ranking of the quality of cars, the Zafira was by far the best Opel. Introduced at Geneva in February 2001, the turbocharged Zafira OPC went on sale in October 2001, with 192 PS, this was the fastest minivan on sale in Europe. Only available with a manual transmission, 0–100 km/h can be reached in 8.2 seconds. The popular 2-litre turbodiesels were complemented by a 125 PS2. 2-litre option in January 2002. The Opel Zafira A was replaced by Zafira B in Europe, but was sold in most other markets until 2012, except for Australia and New Zealand. The Zafira was sold in the Philippines from 2001 to 2005, according to Subaru, the name was a combination of the words travel and quick, however, the word more closely resembles the English word traffic. Due to the exterior dimensions exceeding Japanese government regulations for vehicles defined as compact, the Traviq was originally only available with the bigger 2. 2-litre engine, although a 1.8 L, lower-priced alternative was added in July 2003. The sale of the Zafira as a Subaru created a conflict with previously established Yanase Co. Ltd. retail dealerships, in that Yanase was already selling Opel products, when production of the Traviq ended, Yanase continued to import Opel products into Japan until 2006. The second generation of the Zafira, called the Zafira B, debuted in Europe in 2004 and it shares the platform and mechanical parts with the Opel Astra H. In February 2006, the Zafira B was launched in Singapore, by March 2006, the model had only been introduced in Europe and Singapore. It went on sale in Mexico in April 2006 and Chile in September 2006, in both countries it was branded as a Chevrolet Zafira. Although this generation was replaced in 2011 by the Zafira C, Opel Performance Center developed a turbocharged 240 hp 2.0 L performance version of the Zafira B as well
38.
Compact MPV
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A compact MPV is a car classification used in Europe to describe multi-purpose vehicle versions of small family cars, fitting between the mini MPV and large MPV sub-segments. In Japan, the term space wagon is used to refer to this type of vehicle. Concept cars that many aspects of the compact MPV approach to space effiency in a small footprint include American Motors 1977 Concept 80 AM Van,1978 Lancia Megagamma. The first production vehicle to be described by that term was the Renault Scénic, in Japan, the 1982 Nissan Prairie was introduced featuring many features now associated with the MPV format, along with the Mitsubishi Space Runner in 1991. Examples from Japanese manufacturers were the Toyota Gaia, Nissan Lafesta, some models have an extended version, for example the Citroën Grand C4 Picasso, Ford Grand C-Max, BMW 2-Series Gran Tourer, and Renault Grand Scénic. Most compact MPVs have better flexibility than other styles, for example. Due to the architecture, the bonnet may be shorter. Compact MPVs remain predominantly a European phenomenon, although they are also built, as of 2016, the only MPVs sold widely in the United States are the Kia Rondo and the Ford C-Max. Larger MPVs are referred to as minivan in the U. S. examples are the Hyundai Trajet, Kia Carnival, Mitsubishi Grandis, Ford Galaxy, Volkswagen Sharan and Renault Espace. Generally, compact MPVs are five and seven-seaters — the first, the two rear seats are sometimes smaller than the others, enough for children or for short distances. In some cars, these seats can only carry a limited weight, some compact MPVs referred to as six-seaters have three seats both in the front and rear row — examples are the Fiat Multipla and the Honda FR-V. Many automakers are releasing modified compact MPVs with off-road accessories, either as a level or under a new nameplate. Examples of the first are the Renault Scénic Conquest and Seat Altea Freetrack, in some cases, a compact SUV is released with shared platform and structural and mechanical elements with a compact MPV. The Peugeot 3008 combines the roominess of a MPV to a high ground-clearance or all-wheel-drive Hybrid4 capability
39.
Chevrolet Suburban
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The Chevrolet Suburban is a full-size, extended-length sport utility vehicle from Chevrolet. It is the longest continuous use automobile nameplate in production, starting in 1935 for the 1935 U. S. model year, the Suburban has been produced under the Chevrolet, Holden, and GMC marques until the GMC version was rebranded as the GMC Yukon XL. For most of its recent history, the Suburban has been a station wagon-bodied version of the Chevrolet pickup truck, including the Chevrolet C/K, cadillac offers a version called the Escalade ESV. The Suburban name was in fact a trademark of U. S, body and Forging Co. of Tell City, Indiana, which built wooden station wagon bodies for all of these automobile and light truck chassis and more. Chevrolet began production of its all-steel carryall-suburban in 1935, GMC brought out its version in 1937. These vehicles were known as the Suburban Carryall until GM cut the name to simply Suburban. GMCs equivalent to the Chevrolet model was originally named Suburban as well, the Chevrolet Suburban is one of the largest SUVs on the market today. It has outlasted competitive vehicles such as the International Harvester Travelall, Jeep Wagoneer, the latest competitor is the extended Ford Expedition EL, which replaced the Excursion. The Suburban of today is a full-size SUV with three rows of seating, a pickup truck frame, and V8 engine. It is one of the few station wagons available with all bench rows, the Suburban is the same height and width as the Chevrolet Tahoe, although the Suburban is 20 inches longer. The extra length provides a cargo area behind the 9 passenger seating area. In recent years, the Suburban has been used as a car, fire chiefs vehicle. Suburbans are also used as limousines, gothic black Suburban vehicles are commonly used by federal intelligence services, such as Secret Service for example. Secret Service operates fully armored versions of the Suburban for the President of the United States when he attends less formal engagements, in the late 1990s, GM also introduced a RHD version of the Suburban, badged as a Holden, for the Australian market. Sales were low and GM withdrew the model in 2000 from Holdens lineup, there have been twelve generations of Chevrolet Suburbans since its 1935 debut, the most recent entering showrooms in February 2014. This marked the time in the Suburbans history that it has achieved this honor. Prior to this first generation Suburban, Chevrolet offered a wagon body. This model was built for National Guard units and Civilian Conservation Corps units
40.
Chevrolet Advance Design
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Chevrolets first major redesign post-World War II, the Advance-Design series was billed as a bigger, stronger, and sleeker design in comparison to the earlier AK Series. The same basic design family was used for all of its trucks including the Suburban, panel trucks, canopy express, the cab overs used the same basic cab configuration and similar grille but used a shorter and taller hood and different fenders. From 1947 until 1955, Chevrolet trucks were number one in sales in the United States,1947 - Gasoline tank filler neck on passenger side of bed. Hood side emblems read Chevrolet with Thriftmaster or Loadmaster underneath, serial numbers, EP ½ ton, ER ¾ ton, & ES1 ton. Radios were first available in Chevrolet trucks as an in dash option on the Advance-Design body style,1948 - Manual transmission shifter now mounted on column instead of floor. Serial numbers codes, FP ½ ton, FR ¾ ton, early 1949 - Gasoline tank now mounted upright behind seat in cab, filler neck aft of passenger door handle. New serial number codes, GP ½ ton, GR ¾ ton, late 1949 - Hood side emblems no longer read Thriftmaster or Loadmaster, but are now numbers that designate cargo capacity,3100 on ½ ton,3600 on ¾ ton,3800 on 1 ton. Serial number codes remain the same as on early 1949,1950 - Telescopic shock absorbers replace lever-action type. Last year for drivers side cowl vent, its handle is now flat steel, new serial number codes, HP ½ ton, HR ¾ ton, & HS1 ton. 1951 - Doors now have vent windows, mid-year change from 9-board bed to 8 boards per bed. Last year for 80 MPH speedometer, chrome window handle knobs, new serial number codes, JP ½ ton, JR ¾ ton, & JS1 ton. 1952 - Outer door handles are now push button type as opposed to the turn down style. Speedometer now reads to 90 mph and dashboard trim is painted instead of chrome, mid-year, Chevrolet stops using the 3100-6400 designation on the hood and changes to maroon window and wiper knobs. New serial number codes, KP ½ ton, KR ¾ ton,1953 - Last year for the 216 in³ inline-six. Hood side emblems now only read 3100,3600,3800,4400, door post ID plate now blue with silver letters. Last year to use wooden blocks as bed supports, new serial number codes, H ½ ton, J ¾ ton, & L1 ton. 1954 - Only year for significant design changes, windshield now curved one-piece glass without center vertical dividing strip. Cargo bed rails, previously angled, now horizontal, tail lights round instead of rectangular
41.
Chrysler
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FCA US is one of the Big Three American automobile manufacturers. FCA US has its headquarters in Auburn Hills, Michigan and sells vehicles worldwide under its flagship Chrysler brand, as well as the Dodge, Jeep, other major divisions include Mopar, its automotive parts and accessories division, and SRT, its performance automobile division. The Chrysler Corporation was founded by Walter Chrysler in 1925, out of what remained of the Maxwell Motor Company, Chrysler greatly expanded in 1928, when Mr. The brand diversification efforts were inspired by Mr. Chryslers time working for General Motors, in the 1960s the company expanded into Europe, by taking control of French, British and Spanish auto companies, Chrysler Europe was sold in 1978 to PSA Peugeot Citroën for $1. Chrysler struggled through the 1970s to adapt to changing markets, increased US import competition, the company began an engineering partnership with Mitsubishi Motors, and began selling Mitsubishi vehicles branded as Dodge and Plymouth in North America. By the late 1970s, Chrysler was on the verge of bankruptcy, New CEO Lee Iacocca was credited with returning the company to profitability in the 1980s. In 1985, Diamond-Star Motors was created, further expanding the Chrysler-Mitsubishi relationship, in 1987, Chrysler acquired American Motors Corporation, which brought the profitable Jeep brand under the Chrysler umbrella. Like the other Big Three automobile manufacturers, Chrysler was hit hard by the industry crisis of 2008–2010. On June 10,2009, Chrysler emerged from the proceedings with the United Auto Workers pension fund, Fiat S. p. A. The bankruptcy resulted in Chrysler defaulting on over $4 billion in debts, by May 24,2011, Chrysler finished repaying its obligations to the U. S. government five years early, although the cost to the American taxpayer was $1.3 billion. Over the next few years Fiat gradually acquired the other parties shares while removing much of the weight of the loans in a short period. On January 1,2014, Fiat S. p. A announced a deal to purchase the rest of Chrysler from the United Auto Workers retiree health trust. The deal was completed on January 21,2014, making Chrysler Group a subsidiary of Fiat S. p. A, in May 2014, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles, NV was established by merging Fiat S. p. A. into the company. This was completed in August 2014, Chrysler Group LLC remained a subsidiary until December 15,2014, when it was renamed FCA US LLC, to reflect the Fiat-Chrysler merger. The Chrysler company was founded by Walter Chrysler on June 6,1925, Walter Chrysler arrived at the ailing Maxwell-Chalmers company in the early 1920s. He was hired to overhaul the companys troubled operations, in late 1923 production of the Chalmers automobile was ended. In January 1924, Walter Chrysler launched the well-received Chrysler automobile, the Chrysler was a 6-cylinder automobile, designed to provide customers with an advanced, well-engineered car, but at a more affordable price than they might expect. The original 1924 Chrysler included an air filter, high compression engine, full pressure lubrication
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Chrysler PT Cruiser
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The Chrysler PT Cruiser is a front-engine, front wheel drive, small family car/Compact MPV manufactured and marketed internationally by Chrysler in 5-door hatchback and 2-door convertible body styles. Originally conceived as a Plymouth model, the PT Cruiser was ultimately marketed as a Chrysler model, by the end of production in July,2010. Worldwide production had reached 1.35 million, in the name PT Cruiser, PT stands for Personal Transport. The PT Cruiser is a front-wheel drive 5-passenger vehicle, classified as a truck in the US by the NHTSA for CAFE fuel economy calculations, a turbocharged GT model was introduced for the 2003 model year. A convertible was introduced for the 2005 model year, the PT Cruiser was manufactured at Toluca Car Assembly in Toluca, Mexico. On March 8,2006, DaimlerChrysler announced that it had built 1,000,000 PT Cruisers at the Toluca plant, the final PT Cruiser built rolled off the assembly line there on July 9,2010. A Chrysler spokesperson said the last model was Stone White and was destined for a U. S. dealership, in all, a grand total of 1,050,281 PT Cruisers were sold in the United States. The PT Cruiser was also assembled at the EUROSTAR Automobilwerk in Graz, Austria, for markets in 2002. European PT Cruisers built in 2001 or from 2003 onwards were built in Mexico under the PT production code, the US version came standard with a 2.4 L four-cylinder gasoline engine. In addition to standard model, a 2.2 L four-cylinder diesel engine built by Mercedes Benz was also available in Europe, Asia. A2.0 L engine was available outside the US. It produced 140 hp SAE at 6500 rpm with 130 lb·ft of torque at 4800 rpm, in July 2000, the PT Cruiser replaced the Neon in Japan as their small car offering. Chrysler sold over 10,000 PT Cruisers in Japan, both the four door sedan and the two door convertible, and the GT turbo engine package were sold in Japan in right hand drive configurations. Japanese versions were manufactured at the Austrian factory and were equipped very similar to European specifications, the PT Cruiser taxis augmented the Maihama Resort Line service to Tokyo Disneyland. Unfortunately, the PT Cruiser wasnt built for the rigors of taxi service, the PT Cruiser was offered in Japan until April 2010, when it was replaced by the Dodge Caliber. In 2001 Car and Driver acknowledged the PT Cruiser on its Ten Best list, in 2013, Top Gear named the PT Cruiser Convertible as the worst car of the last twenty years. The PT Cruiser was originally conceived as a Plymouth model, before Chryslers merger with Daimler-Benz, at the time, Chrysler had planned a new look for Plymouth, previewed by the Plymouth Prowler hot rod. Styling cues from the Prowler, particularly the grille, were used to create the Plymouth Pronto concept car in 1997, the look was refined, and in 1998, another Plymouth concept called the Pronto Cruizer directly previewed the styling of the PT Cruiser
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North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
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Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
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Mitsui
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Mitsui Group is one of the largest keiretsu in Japan and one of the largest corporate groups in the world. The major companies of the group include Mitsui & Co, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation, Sapporo Breweries, Toray Industries, Mitsui Chemicals, Isetan Mitsukoshi Holdings, Sumitomo Mitsui Trust Holdings, Mitsui Engineering & Shipbuilding, Mitsui O. S. K. Founded by Mitsui Takatoshi, who was the son of a shopkeeper in Matsusaka. From his shop, called Echigoya, Mitsui Takatoshis father originally sold miso, later, the family would open a second shop in Edo. Takatoshi moved to Edo when he was 14 years old, sent back to Matsutaka by his brother, Takatoshi waited for 24 years until his older brother died before he could take over the family shop, Echigoya. He opened a new branch in 1673, a large gofukuya in Nihonbashi and this genesis of Mitsuis business history began in the Enpō era, which was a nengō meaning Prolonged Wealth. In time, the division separated from Mitsui, and is now called Mitsukoshi. Traditionally, gofukuyas provided products made to order, a visit was made to the customers house, the system of accountancy was called margin transaction. Mitsui changed this by producing products first, then selling them directly at his shop for cash, at the time, this was an unfamiliar mode of operation in Japan. Even as the shop began providing dry goods to the government of the city of Edo, at about this time, Edos government had struck a business deal with Osaka. Osaka would sell crops and other material to pay its land tax, the money was then sent to Edo—but moving money was dangerous in middle feudal Japan. In 1683 the shogunate granted permission for money exchanges to be established in Edo, the Mitsui exchange shops facilitated transfers and mitigated that known risk. After the Meiji Restoration, Mitsui was among the enterprises that could expand to become not simply because they were already big. Mitsuis main business in the period were drapery, finance and trade. The diversification was made mainly into related fields to take advantage of accumulated capabilities, for instance, on July 1,1876, Mitsui Bank, Japans first private bank, was founded with Takashi Masuda serving as president. Mitsui Bank, which following a merger with Taiyō-Kobe Bank in the mid 1980s became part of Sakura Bank, during the early 20th century, Mitsui was one of the largest zaibatsu, operating in numerous fields. Mitsui Bank became the company of the Mitsui zaibatsu from 1876. It was joined as a parent company by Mitsui & Co. and Mitsui Mining in 1900, with various industrial concerns owned by various combinations of these companies
