1.
Chevrolet Express
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The Chevrolet Express and its mechanically identical twin GMC Savana are Full-size vans from General Motors. They replaced the Chevrolet Van and GMC Vandura in 1995, the Express and Savana currently hold 44. 8% of the full-size van market in the United States, just behind rival Ford E-Series. The Express outsells the Savana by more than 3 to 1 in the USA, after 2003, the Express and Savana had updated front-end sheetmetal similar to the GMT800 light trucks and SUVs, and at the same time, fitted with the LS engines. The remainder of the body was not modified, in 2004, Stability Control was added to all passenger vans. In 2008, the interior was updated and side impact airbags were standard on all passenger models. They also offer the E85 Flexfuel Vortec 5. 3L V8 engine in both the 2008 Express 1500 Work Van and Passenger Van, the 6. 6L Duramax V8 engine Diesel was added as an option for 2006. The cargo variety of the Express/Savana is popular as a vehicle, often used by electricians, plumbers. In this way, it is the North American equivalent of the ubiquitous white vans in the United Kingdom. In the Netherlands, the Express is in use as an ambulance, although its popularity is declining because of the high fuel consumption. The Express/Savana is also available as a van, seating 8 to 15 passengers. Both the cargo and passenger models, as well as the versions, often serve as the basis for conversion vans, motorhomes. As of mid-2014, half-ton Chevy Express vans and its cousin the GMC Savana have been discontinued and it was replaced by a Nissan-GM partnership badged Chevy City Express in the U. S. Only the 3/4-ton and 1-ton full size vans will be available as previous, Chevrolet Express was also the name of a concept car first shown in 1987. It was a powered, drive-by-wire car made to show the possibilities of future limited-access highways. There are 9,389 vans recalled in the United States and 926 in Canada, the affected vans have 60/40 swing-out driver side doors. General Motors discontinued production of the 1/2-ton 1500 series vans in June 2014, sources cite low production numbers and CAFE requirements for the halt. With the end of the 1500 model, unique features such as the all wheel drive, the Chevrolet City Express compact cargo van, a badge-engineered Nissan NV200, has taken the place of the 1500 van. At the same time, the Vortec 4300 engine was phased out of production, the full-sized van is still offered as the Chevrolet Express Cargo and the GMC Savana Cargo with a larger payload
2.
Chevrolet
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Chevrolet, colloquially referred to as Chevy and formally the Chevrolet Division of General Motors Company, is an American automobile division of the American manufacturer General Motors. Louis Chevrolet and ousted General Motors founder William C. Durant started the company on November 3,1911 as the Chevrolet Motor Car Company. Durant used the Chevrolet Motor Car Company to acquire a stake in General Motors with a reverse merger occurring on May 2,1918. Chevrolet-branded vehicles are sold in most automotive markets worldwide, with the exception of Oceania. However, GM reversed this move in late 2013, announcing that the brand would be withdrawn from Europe, with the exception of the Camaro, Chevrolet vehicles will continue to be marketed in the CIS states, including Russia. After General Motors fully acquired GM Daewoo in 2011 to create GM Korea, in North America, Chevrolet produces and sells a wide range of vehicles, from subcompact automobiles to medium-duty commercial trucks. Durant was cast out from the management of General Motors in 1910 for five years and he took over the Flint Wagon Works, incorporating the Mason and Little companies. As head of Buick Motor Company prior to founding GM, Durant had hired Louis Chevrolet to drive Buicks in promotional races, Durant planned to use Chevrolets reputation as a racer as the foundation for his new automobile company. Actual design work for the first Chevy, the costly Series C Classic Six, was drawn up by Etienne Planche, the first C prototype was ready months before Chevrolet was actually incorporated. However the first actual production wasnt until the 1913 model, so in essence there were no 1911 or 1912 production models, only the 1 pre-production model was made and fine tuned throughout the early part of 1912. Then in the fall of that year the new 1913 model was introduced at the New York auto show, Chevrolet first used the bowtie emblem logo in 1914 on the H series models and The L Series Model. It may have been designed from wallpaper Durant once saw in a French hotel room, more recent research by historian Ken Kaufmann presents a case that the logo is based on a logo of the Coalettes coal company. An example of this logo as it appeared in an advertisement for Coalettes appeared in the Atlanta Constitution on November 12,1911, others claim that the design was a stylized Swiss cross, in tribute to the homeland of Chevrolets parents. Chevrolet eventually unified all vehicle models with the gold bowtie in 2004, Louis Chevrolet had differences with Durant over design and in 1914 sold Durant his share in the company. By 1916, Chevrolet was profitable enough with successful sales of the cheaper Series 490 to allow Durant to repurchase a controlling interest in General Motors. After the deal was completed in 1917, Durant became president of General Motors, in 1919, Chevrolets factories were located at Flint, Michigan, branch assembly locations were located in Tarrytown, N. Y. Norwood, Ohio, St. Louis, Missouri, Oakland, California, Ft. Worth, Texas, mcLaughlins were given GM Corporation stock for the proprietorship of their Company article Sept.23,1933 Financial Post page 9. In the 1918 model year, Chevrolet introduced the Series D, Sales were poor and it was dropped in 1919
3.
GMC (automobile)
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GMC, formally the GMC Division of General Motors LLC, is a division of the American automobile manufacturer General Motors that primarily focuses on trucks and utility vehicles. GMC sells pickup and commercial trucks, buses, vans, military vehicles, General Motors was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908, as a holding company for Buick. In 1909, GM purchased the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, forming the basis of the General Motors Truck Company, the Reliance Motor Car Company was also purchased that same year by GM. Rapid and Reliance were merged in 1911, and in 1912 the marque GMC Truck first appeared on vehicles exhibited at the New York International Auto Show, some 22,000 trucks were produced that year, though GMCs contribution to that total was a mere 372 units. GMC had some currency within GM referring to the parent in general. Later GMC would become distinct as a brand within the corporation, branding trucks and coaches, in contrast. GMC maintained three manufacturing locations in Pontiac, Michigan, Oakland, California, and Saint Louis, Missouri. In 1916, a GMC Truck crossed the country from Seattle to New York City in thirty days, and in 1926, during the Second World War, GMC Truck produced 600,000 trucks for use by the United States Armed Forces. In 1925, GM purchased a controlling interest in Yellow Coach, after purchasing the remaining portion in 1943, GM renamed it GM Truck and Coach Division. The Division manufactured interurban coaches until 1980, transit bus production ended in May 1987. The Canadian plant produced buses from 1962 until July 1987, GM withdrew from the bus and coach market because of increased competition in the late 1970s and 1980s. Rights to the RTS model were sold to Transportation Manufacturing Corporation, in 1998, GMCs official branding on vehicles was shortened from GMC Truck to simply GMC. In 2002, GMC released a book entitled, GMC, The First 100 Years, GMC currently manufactures SUVs, pickup trucks, vans, light-duty trucks, and medium duty trucks. In the past, GMC also produced trucks, ambulances, heavy-duty trucks, military vehicles, motorhomes. Starting in 1920, GMC and Chevrolet trucks are identical except for the grilles and nameplates. From 1955 through 1959 small GMC trucks with gasoline V8s were equipped with Pontiac, Buick, GMC had its own line of inline 6 cylinder engines, known as Jimmys from 1939-1959, and their own V6 from 1960-1974. Chevrolet trucks were marketed towards private ownership, while GMC was focused towards commercial uses and this crossover allowed GM dealers that did not sell Chevrolets to offer full lineups of both cars and trucks by offering GMCs trucks alongside non-truck divisions. Between 1962 and 1972, most GMC vehicles were equipped with quad-headlights, in 1971, GMC marketed their version of the Chevrolet El Camino, which was based on the Chevrolet Chevelle
4.
General Motors
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With global headquarters at the Renaissance Center in Detroit, Michigan, United States, GM manufactures cars and trucks in 35 countries. In 2008,8.35 million GM cars and trucks were sold globally under various brands, current auto brands are Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, and Wuling. Former GM automotive brands include McLaughlin, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Pontiac, Hummer, Saab, Saturn, Vauxhall, the company was founded by William C. Durant on September 16,1908 as a holding company. The company was the largest automobile manufacturer from 1931 through 2007, in addition to brands selling assembled vehicles, GM also has had various automotive-component and non-automotive brands, many of which it divested in the 1980s through 2000s. General Motors produces vehicles in 37 countries under twelve brands, Chevrolet, Buick, GMC, Cadillac, Holden, HSV, Opel, Vauxhall, Wuling, Baojun, Jie Fang, and Ravon. The current company, General Motors Company LLC, was formed in 2009 following the bankruptcy of General Motors Corporation, the new company purchased the majority of the assets of the old GM, including the brand General Motors. In addition to its twelve brands, General Motors also holds a 20% stake in IMM, General Motors employs 212,000 people and does business in more than 140 countries. General Motors is divided into five segments, GM North America, Opel Group, GM International Operations, GM South America. General Motors led global vehicle sales for 77 consecutive years from 1931 through 2007, longer any other automaker. General Motors acts in most countries outside the U. S. via wholly owned subsidiaries, GMs OnStar subsidiary provides vehicle safety, security and information services. In 2009, General Motors shed several brands, closing Saturn, Pontiac, and Hummer, in 2010, the reorganized GM made an initial public offering that was one of the worlds top five largest IPOs to date, and returned to profitability later that year. General Motors Corporation was formed on September 16,1908, in Flint, Michigan, GMs co-founder was Charles Stewart Mott, whose carriage company was merged into Buick prior to GMs creation. Over the years, Mott became the largest single stockholder in GM, and spent his life with his Mott Foundation, GM acquired Oldsmobile later that year. In 1909, Durant brought in Cadillac, Elmore, Oakland, also in 1909, GM acquired the Reliance Motor Truck Company of Owosso, Michigan, and the Rapid Motor Vehicle Company of Pontiac, Michigan, the predecessors of GMC Truck. Durant, along with R. S. McLaughlin, lost control of GM in 1910 to a bankers trust, because of the amount of debt taken on in its acquisitions. The next year, Durant started the Chevrolet Motor Car Company in the U. S. and in Canada in 1915, Durant took back control of the company after one of the most dramatic proxy wars in American business history. Durant then reorganized General Motors Company into General Motors Corporation in 1916, merging Chevrolet with GM, shortly thereafter, he again lost control, this time for good, after the new vehicle market collapsed. These facilities were added to the factories that were exclusive to Cadillac, Buick, Oldsmobile, Oakland
5.
Car classification
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Governments and private organizations have developed car classification schemes that are used for innumerable purposes including regulation, description and categorization, among others. This article details commonly used classification schemes in use worldwide, vehicles can be categorized in numerous ways. Regulatory agencies may also establish a vehicle classification system for determining a tax amount, in the United Kingdom, a vehicle is taxed according to the vehicles construction, engine, weight, type of fuel and emissions, as well as the purpose for which it is used. Other jurisdictions may determine vehicle tax based upon environmental principles, such as the user pays principle, another standard for road vehicles of all types that is used internationally, is ISO 3833-1977. In the United States, since 2010 the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety uses a scheme it has developed that takes into account a combination of both shadow and weight. The United States Federal Highway Administration has developed a scheme used for automatically calculating road use tolls. There are two categories depending on whether the vehicle carries passengers or commodities. Vehicles that carry commodities are further subdivided by number of axles and number of units, the United States Environmental Protection Agency has developed a classification scheme used to compare fuel economy among similar vehicles. Passenger vehicles are classified based on a total interior passenger. Trucks are classified based upon their gross vehicle weight rating, heavy duty vehicles are not included within the EPA scheme. A similar set of classes is used by the Canadian EPA, in Australia, the Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries publishes its own classifications. This is a table listing several different methods of vehicle classification. Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically only two passengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three-wheelers, while the majority have four wheels, microcars were popular in post-war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called Bubble cars. More recent microcars are often electric powered, the size of ultracompact cars will be less than minicars, but have engine greater than 50cc displacement and able to transport 1 or 2 persons. Ultracompact cars cannot use standard, because of strict safety standards for minicars. The regulation about running capacity and safety performance of cars will be published in early autumn. Today, there are smaller than ultracompact cars, called category-1 motorized vehicles which it has 50cc displacement or less
6.
Van
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A van is a type of road vehicle used for transporting goods or people. Depending on the type of van it can be bigger or smaller than a truck and SUV, there is some varying in the scope of the word across the different English-speaking countries. The smallest vans, microvans, are used for transporting goods or people in tiny quantities. Mini MPVs, Compact MPVs, and MPVs are all small vans usually used for transporting people in small quantities, larger vans with passenger seats are used for institutional purposes, such as transporting students. Larger vans with only front seats are used for business purposes, to carry goods. Specially-equipped vans are used by television stations as mobile studios, Postal services and courier companies use large step vans to deliver packages. Van meaning a type of vehicle arose as a contraction of the word caravan, the early records of van as a vehicle in English are in the mid 19th century meaning a covered wagon for transporting goods. Caravan with the meaning has records since the 1670s. A caravan, meaning one wagon, had arisen as an extension or corruption of caravan meaning a convoy of multiple wagons, the word van has slightly different, but overlapping, meanings in different forms of English. While the word now applies to boxy cargo vans, other applications are found to a greater or lesser extent in the different English-speaking countries. In Australian English, the van is commonly used to describe a minivan. A full-size van used for commercial purposes is known as a van, however. Finally, the van can sometimes be used interchangeably with caravan. The British term people mover is used in Australian English to describe a passenger van. The American usage of van to mean a cargo box trailer or semi-trailer is used rarely, if ever, early Japanese vans include the Kurogane Baby, Mazda Bongo and the Toyota LiteAce van. Microvans, vans that fulfill kei car regulations, are popular for small business. The term is used to describe full-fledged station wagons and even hatchbacks with a basic trim package intended for commercial use. These are sometimes referred to as Light Vans, in British English, the word van refers to vehicles that carry goods only, on both roads and rails
7.
Chevrolet Greenbrier
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The name Chevrolet Greenbrier was used by Chevrolet for two vehicles. The first vehicles were a van and pickup based on the Corvair. The Greenbrier name was used a time from 1969 until 1972. Chevrolet introduced the Corvair lineup for the 1960 model year as the first of a series of generations of passenger compact cars, Chevrolet introduced a more utilitarian style of vehicle the following year under the model designation Corvair 95. The Corvair air-cooled horizontally opposed 6-cylinder engine was located in the rear of the vehicle under a raised cargo floor. It was similar in principle to the 4-cylinder engine of the Volkswagen, the 145 cu in engine developed 80 hp at 4,400 rpm. Engine size was increased to 164 cu in for the 1964 model year, unlike the Corvair cars, the Corvair Greenbrier had a 95 in wheelbase and were thus known as 95s. They came standard with a manual transmission but could be ordered with a two-speed Corvair Powerglide automatic transmission. There were essentially two different bodies available in the 95 series, the van and the truck, the base version was the panel van with no side or rear windows. The Greenbrier normally had windows all around and six doors, although an option was to have eight doors where there were opening double doors on both sides, the Greenbrier seated up to nine people with the available third-row seat. The 95s and cars had an optional heater running off of gasoline from the vehicles tank, the Greenbrier also had a camper option. A Corvair truck could be ordered as a Loadside or Rampside, the Loadside was essentially a pickup truck with a standard tail gate. The Loadside was only produced two years and is the rarest of the Corvairs, production totaled 2,844 in 1961 and 369 in 1962, the Rampside had a side ramp to be used for loading and unloading cargo. These were used by the Bell Telephone Company, because loading and unloading of cable drums was eased by the side ramp, ford and Chrysler introduced compact vans of their own, using a more conventional water-cooled engine mounted between the front seats. As these became successful, General Motors responded with its own design which placed the Chevy II sourced engine in a doghouse between and behind the front seats, the forward engine design allowed a flat rear floor with low deck heights in the rear of the van for loading/unloading cargo. General Motors stopped producing the truck versions of the Corvair in 1964, eventually, Chevrolet and Volkswagen would abandon rear-engined vans in favor of conventional or front-wheel-drive water-cooled engines. Although the Greenbriers were a success, passenger vans would continue to evolve through full-sized vans. The similarly sized 7–8 passenger would become a successful vehicle segment by the 1980s as alternatives to station wagons, the top-of-the-line model, the Chevelle Malibu 135/136, became the Concours and Concours Estate Wagon, the latter being distinguished by exterior woodgrain paneling
8.
Chevrolet Corvair
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The Chevrolet Corvair is a compact automobile manufactured and marketed by Chevrolet for model years 1960–1969 over two generations. The Corvair competed with imported cars such as the original Volkswagen Beetle as well as the Ford Falcon, Plymouth Valiant, Studebaker Lark, the name Corvair is a portmanteau of Corvette and Bel Air. The name was first applied in 1954 to a Corvette-based concept with a hardtop fastback-styled roof, in 1952, Ed Cole was promoted to chief engineer of the Chevrolet Motor Division. Four years later, in July 1956, he was named manager of Chevrolet — GMs largest automotive division —. At Chevrolet, Cole pushed for many of the engineering and design advancements introduced in the Chevrolet car. He was the force behind the development and production of the rear-engined, air-cooled Corvair. Despite its infamous history, the Corvair was a small car in its day. As chief engineer, he was involved in the development of the Corvette sports car. He is also known as the father of the small block Chevy V8, until 1960, the Big Three domestic auto manufacturers produced only one basic size of passenger cars, large. However, a modern compact car market segment was established in the U. S. by the 1950 Nash Rambler. Moreover, imports from Europe, such as Volkswagen, Renault, American Motors also reincarnated its predecessor companys smallest Nash model as the new 1958 Rambler American for a second model run, an almost unheard of phenomenon in automobile history. During 1959 and 1960, the Big Three automakers planned to introduce their own compact cars, Ford and Chryslers designs were scaled-down versions of the conventional American car, using four- or six-cylinder engines instead of V8s, and with bodies about 20% smaller than their standard cars. An exception to this strategy was the Chevrolet Corvair, led by General Manager Cole, Chevrolet designed a revolutionary new car. It was powered by an air-cooled horizontal six-cylinder engine made many major aluminum components. The engine was mounted in the rear of the car, driving the wheels through a compact transaxle. Suspension was independent at all four wheels, there was no conventional frame, it was the first Unibody built by Fisher Body. The tires were a new wide low-profile design. The styling was unconventional for Detroit, subtle and elegant, with no tailfins or chrome grille and its engineering earned numerous patents, while Time magazine put Ed Cole and the Corvair on the cover, and Motor Trend named the Corvair as the 1960 Car of the Year
9.
Pontiac, Michigan
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Pontiac /ˈpɒntiæk, ˈpɒni-/ is a city in the U. S. state of Michigan, located in Metro Detroit. As of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 59,515. It is the county seat of Oakland County, and about 12 miles north and slightly west of the Detroit city limits. Pontiac is notably the first organized settlement of a town in 1818 within the interior of Michigan and they were named after the city. The city of Pontiac also was home to Oakland Motor Car Company, also of note is the Pontiac Silverdome, the stadium that hosted the Detroit Lions of the National Football League from 1975 until 2002, when the team returned to downtown Detroit. Super Bowl XVI was played at the Silverdome in 1982, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 20.28 square miles, of which 19.97 square miles is land and 0.31 square miles is water. Pontiac is bounded by the city of Auburn Hills to the east and north, the city of Lake Angelus to the north, Waterford Township to the west, the former Pontiac Township included what are now the cities of Pontiac, Lake Angelus, and Auburn Hills. The township incorporated as the city of Auburn Hills in 1983, although the township no longer exists as a civil entity, it is still used as a survey township for land use purposes. As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $31,207, males had a median income of $31,961 versus $24,765 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,842, about 18. 0% of families and 22. 1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29. 3% of those under age 18 and 15. 7% of those age 65 or over. As of the census of 2010, there were 59,515 people,22,220 households, the population density was 2,980.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 27,084 housing units at a density of 1,356.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 34. 4% White,52. 1% African American,0. 6% Native American,2. 3% Asian,6. 2% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 16. 5% of the population. 33. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 8. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.56 and the average family size was 3.28. The median age in the city was 33.4 years. 27. 2% of residents were under the age of 18,11. 2% were between the ages of 18 and 24,28. 2% were from 25 to 44,24. 2% were from 45 to 64, and 9. 3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 49. 1% male and 50. 9% female, residents are zoned to the School District of the City of Pontiac. The district runs one main school, Pontiac High School
10.
Compact van
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For compact minivans, see Compact MPV. Popular in the United States during the early 1960s, they were replaced by full-size vans at the end of the decade and these large vans used body-on-frame construction and featured front engines under a short hood. The flat-front configuration is used for Japanese vans, and the format remains popular in Japan. Those that comply with Kei car regulations are known as microvans and they were also later supplemented by minivans. In these markets the compact vans often survive as combined commercial passenger, due to their resemblance to a loaf of bread they are colloquially known as bread vans. The main characters of the Scooby-Doo cartoon series drove a van called the Mystery Machine. Dodge A100 First generation Ford E-Series General Motors van, the original Chevy van and Greenbrier Toyota HiAce Nissan Caravan Daihatsu Hijet
11.
Automobile layout
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In automotive design, the automobile layout describes where on the vehicle the engine and drive wheels are found. Many different combinations of engine location and driven wheels are found in practice, factors influencing the design choice include cost, complexity, reliability, packaging, weight distribution, and the vehicles intended handling characteristics. Layouts can roughly be divided into two categories, front- or rear-wheel drive, four-wheel-drive vehicles may take on the characteristics of either, depending on how power is distributed to the wheels. Front-wheel-drive layouts are those in which the front wheels of the vehicle are driven, the most popular layout used in cars today is the front-engine, front-wheel drive, with the engine in front of the front axle, driving the front wheels. As the steered wheels are also the wheels, FF cars are generally considered superior to FR cars in conditions such as snow, mud. The weight of the engine over the wheels also improves grip in such conditions. Electronic traction control can avoid wheelspin but largely negates the benefit of extra torque/power, a transverse engine is commonly used in FF designs, in contrast to FR which uses a longitudinal engine. This is another reason luxury/sports cars avoid the FF layout, exceptions do exist, such as the Volvo S80 which uses transversely mounted inline 6 and V8 engines, and the Ford Taurus SHO, available with a 60° V8 and front-wheel drive. There are some exceptions to this as rear engine designs do not take away interior space and it also has fewer components overall and thus lower weight. However, this may apply for cars with moderate power-to-weight ratio. According to road test with two Dodge Daytonas, one FWD and one RWD, the layout is also important for what configuration is the fastest. Weight shifting limits the acceleration of a front-wheel-drive vehicle, however, since front-wheel-drive cars have the weight of the engine over the driving wheels, the problem only applies in extreme conditions in which case the car understeers. On snow, ice, and sand, rear-wheel drive loses its traction advantage to front or all-wheel-drive vehicles which have greater weight over the driven wheels. Rear-wheel-drive cars with engine or mid engine configuration retain traction over the driven wheels. A rear-wheel-drive cars centre of gravity is shifted rearward when heavily loaded with passengers or cargo, on front-wheel-drive cars, the short driveshaft may reduce drivetrain elasticity, improving responsiveness. Instead, the tunnel may be used to route the exhaust system pipes. Weight, Fewer components usually means lower weight, improved fuel efficiency due to less weight. Cost, Fewer material components and less installation complexity overall, however, the considerable MSRP differential between a FF and FR car cannot be attributed to layout alone. Few modern family cars have rear-wheel drive as of 2009, so a direct cost comparison is not necessarily possible, assembly efficiency, the powertrain can often be assembled and installed as a unit, which allows more efficient production
12.
Front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout
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In automotive design, an FR, or front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout is one where the engine is located at the front of the vehicle and driven wheels are located at the rear. This was the automobile layout for most of the 20th century. Modern designs commonly use the front-engine, front-wheel-drive layout, the first FR car was an 1895 Panhard model, so this layout was known as the Système Panhard in the early years. The layout has the advantage of minimizing mechanical complexity, as it allows the transmission to be placed in-line with the output shaft. In comparison, a vehicle with the engine over the driven wheels eliminates the need for the drive shaft, in order to reduce the relative weight of the drive shaft, the transmission was normally split into two parts, the gearbox and the final drive. The gearbox was produced with its highest gear being 1,1. The final drive, in the axle, would then reduce this to the most appropriate speed for the wheels. As power is the product of torque and angular velocity, spinning the shaft faster for any given power reduces the torque, in an era when gasoline was cheap and cars were heavy, the mechanical advantages of the FR drivetrain layout made up for any disadvantage in weight terms. It remained almost universal among car designs until the 1970s, after the Arab oil embargo of 1973 and the 1979 fuel crises, a majority of American FR vehicles were phased out for the FF layout – this trend would spawn the SUV-van conversion market. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, most American companies set as a priority the eventual removal of rear-wheel drive from their mainstream, chrysler went 100% FF by 1990 and GMs American production went entirely FF by 1997 except the Corvette, Firebird and Camaro. This configuration is referred to as a transaxle since the transmission. In Europe, front-wheel drive was popularized by small cars like the Mini, Renault 5 and Volkswagen Golf, upscale marques like Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Jaguar remained mostly independent of this trend, and retained a lineup mostly or entirely made up of FR cars. Japanese mainstream marques such as Toyota were almost exclusively FR until the late 1970s, toyotas first FF vehicle was the Toyota Tercel, with the Corolla and Celica later becoming FF while the Camry was designed as an FF from the beginning. The Supra, Cressida, Crown, and Century remained FR, luxury division Lexus has a mostly FR lineup. Subarus BRZ is an FR car, currently most cars are FF, including all front-engined economy cars, though FR cars are making a return as an alternative to large sport-utility vehicles. In North America, GM returned to production of FR-based luxury vehicles with the 2003 Cadillac CTS, as of 2012, all but the SRX and XTS are FR-based vehicles. Chevrolet reintroduced the FR-based Camaro in 2009, and the Caprice PPV in 2011, Pontiac also had a short run with the FR-based G8 and Pontiac Solstice. A Chevrolet replacement for the G8 called the Chevrolet SS was released in 2013, chrysler and Dodge reintroduced the 300 and Charger on a FR platform
13.
Engine
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An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one form of energy into mechanical energy. Heat engines burn a fuel to heat, which is then used to create a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy into motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air. In biological systems, molecular motors, like myosins in muscles, use energy to create forces. The word engine derives from Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium–the root of the word ingenious. Pre-industrial weapons of war, such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams, were called siege engines, the word gin, as in cotton gin, is short for engine. Most mechanical devices invented during the revolution were described as engines—the steam engine being a notable example. However, the steam engines, such as those by Thomas Savery, were not mechanical engines. In this manner, an engine in its original form was merely a water pump. Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines, examples of engines which exert a torque include the familiar automobile gasoline and diesel engines, as well as turboshafts. Examples of engines which produce thrust include turbofans and rockets, the term motor derives from the Latin verb moto which means to set in motion, or maintain motion. Thus a motor is a device that imparts motion, motor and engine later came to be used largely interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different meanings, however, rocketry uses the term rocket motor, even though they consume fuel. A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy. An automobile powered by a combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power from an external source, simple machines, such as the club and oar, are prehistoric. More complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and these were used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, by the 1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered by humans in earlier times
14.
Inline-four engine
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The inline-four engine or straight-four engine is a type of inline internal combustion four-cylinder engine with all four cylinders mounted in a straight line, or plane along the crankcase. The single bank of cylinders may be oriented in either a vertical or a plane with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. Where it is inclined, it is called a slant-four. In a specification chart or when an abbreviation is used, an engine is listed either as I4 or L4. The inline-four layout is in primary balance and confers a degree of mechanical simplicity which makes it popular for economy cars. However, despite its simplicity, it suffers from an imbalance which causes minor vibrations in smaller engines. These vibrations become more powerful as engine size and power increase, the inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. This inline engine configuration is the most common in cars with a displacement up to 3.0 L, in practice, the displacement of inline-four petrol engines in cars rarely exceeds this figure. For example, the largest engine of this form on the U. S. market in model year 2015 is the Toyota 2TR-FE, however, there are some notable exceptions. Early vehicles also tended to have engines with larger displacements to develop horsepower, the Model A Ford was built with a 3.3 L inline-four engine. Inline-four diesel engines, which are lower revving than gasoline engines, Mitsubishi still employs a 3.0 L inline-four diesel. Generally, European and Asian manufacturers of trucks with a vehicle weight rating between 7.5 and 18 tonnes use inline four-cylinder diesel engines with displacements around 5 L. The MAN D0834 engine is a 4.6 L inline-4 with 220 hp and 627 lb·ft, the Isuzu Forward is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.2 L inline-four engine that delivers 210 hp and 470 lb·ft. The Hino Ranger is a medium-duty truck which is available with a 5.1 L inline-four engine that delivers 175 hp and 465 lb·ft, the earlier Hino Ranger even had a 5.3 L inline-four engine. The Kubota M135X is a tractor with a 6.1 L inline-four and this turbo-diesel engine has a bore of 118 mm and a relatively long stroke of 140 mm. One of the strongest Powerboat-4-cylinders is the Volvo Penta D4-300 turbodiesel and this is a 3.7 L-inline-4 with 300 hp and 516 lb·ft. Brunswick Marine built a 127 kW3.7 L 4-cylinder gasoline engine for their Mercruiser Inboard/outboard line, the block was formed from one half of a Ford 460 cubic inch V8 engine. This engine was produced in the 1970s and 1980s, One of the largest inline-four engines is the MAN B&W 4K90 marine engine
15.
Chevrolet straight-6 engine
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The Chevrolet inline 6 otto engine was Chevrolets sole engine from 1929, through 1954, and was the base engine starting in 1955 when they added the small block V8 to the lineup. It had finally been completely phased out by 1990 in North America and it was replaced by more recently developed V6 and four-cylinder engines. Many popular cars and trucks, including the Chevrolet Camaro, Chevrolet Impala, Chevrolet did not offer another inline 6 until the 2002 General Motors Atlas engines debut in the Chevrolet TrailBlazer. The first mass-produced GM inline 6 was introduced in 1929 on Chevrolet cars and trucks, richard Grant insisted that the new design boast overhead valves. Chevrolet had long known for its valve-in-head four-cylinder engines. William S. Knudsens cast-iron wonder was produced through 1936 and it was 193.9 cubic inches in size and produced 50 hp. This engine used a steel crankshaft with three bearings and cast-iron pistons. Bore and stroke was 3.3125 in by 3.75 in, the 194 was shared with Chevrolet and GMC trucks for 1935 and 1936. A balanced crankshaft was introduced for 1932, while a higher compression ratio upped output to 60 hp, applications,1929 Chevrolet Series AC International 1930 Chevrolet Series AD Universal This engine was used in all Chevrolet passenger cars 1929-1933, and the 1934 Standard models. A 181-cubic-inch version was used by Chevrolet and GMC trucks in 1935 and 1936,206. 8-cubic-inch variant was used by Chevrolet and GMC trucks in 1934,1935, and 1936. The 1934 Chevrolet Master Deluxe series used this engine, as did all 1935-1935 Chevrolet passenger cars and this newly revised engine put out 80 hp. In 1935 and 1936, GMC and Chevrolet used an Oldsmobile 213 L-head engine, for 1937 and 1938, they used Oldsmobiles 230 L-head engine. The next-generation Chevrolet inline 6 was introduced in 1937 and phased out in 1963 in the US and it is often known as the Blue Flame engine, although that name was only officially applied beginning in 1953, and then only for one certain model of the engine. This engine had a 216. 48-cubic-inch displacement with a 3. 500” bore, a four-bearing crankshaft was added, along with 6.5,1 compression pistons, for 85 hp. A new cylinder head in 1941 increased output to 90 hp and this generation did not use a fully pressurized oiling system. The connecting rods were oiled using an oil trough built into the oil pan that had spray nozzles that squirted a stream of oil at the connecting rods, rod bearings were made of babbitt cast integral with the rod. The bearing was adjustable for wear by removing copper shims placed between the rod cap and connecting rod, in this way specified oil clearance could be maintained. If the crankshaft were to be turned undersized, or if the bearing was damaged or worn out, rod and bearing were replaced as a unit and this engine was also used in GMs British Bedford truck
16.
Straight-six engine
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The straight-six engine or inline-six engine is an internal combustion engine with the cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase with all the pistons driving a common crankshaft. The bank of cylinders may be oriented at any angle, and where the bank is inclined to the vertical, the straight-six layout is the simplest engine layout that possesses both primary and secondary mechanical engine balance, resulting in much less vibration than engines with fewer cylinders. In automobiles, the design is used for engine displacements ranging from approximately 2 to 5 litres. It is also used for smaller engines but these, although very smooth running. Since the length of an engine is proportional to the number of cylinders in one bank. Pre-World War II engines could be large by modern standards — such as the Rolls Royce Silver Ghosts 7.4 L engine and the 824 cu in of the 1910s Peerless, Pierce. They were used in a variety of including the de Havilland Dragon Rapide. The largest are used to ships, and use fuel oil. The straight-six can also be viewed as a modular component of larger motors which stack several straight-sixes together, e. g. flat- or V-12s, W-18s. Straight-six engines were introduced earlier than V6 engines. While the first straight-six was manufactured in 1903 by Spyker, it was not until 1950 that a production V6 was introduced, V6s had intrinsic vibration problems not present in the straight-six. The poor secondary harmonic balance of four-cylinder engines is largely addressed with the use of balance shafts although it can never match the in-line six, TVR used a straight-six configuration exclusively in their final cars before their demise. In a reversal of trends, Mercedes-Benz announced a return to inline-6 engines in October 2016. This was a part of a trend toward higher efficiency engines with fewer cylinders, manufacturers began to replace V8 engines with straight-6 engines and V6 engines with straight-4 engines, while V8 engines became smaller. Straight-sixes continue to be used in medium to large trucks, Ford is one notable exception using a V8 in medium duty trucks. GM pickup trucks abandoned the straight-six in 1984 for the 4.3 V6, in 2002, General Motors introduced the Vortec 4200 as part of the modular straight-four, straight-five and straight-six GM Atlas engine line. It was used in their sport utility vehicles. Jeep abandoned the straight-six in 2006 with the 2006 Jeep Wrangler being the last vehicle, Ram Trucks continues to offer straight-six engines in its heavy duty pickup truck and chassis cab models, although only V6 and V8 engines are available in the smaller versions
17.
Wheelbase
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In both road and rail vehicles, the wheelbase is the distance between the centers of the front and rear wheels. For road vehicles with more than two axles, the wheelbase is defined as the distance between the axle and the centerpoint of the driving axle group. In the case of a truck, the wheelbase would be the distance between the steering axle and a point midway between the two rear axles. The wheelbase of a vehicle equals the distance between its front and rear wheels, at equilibrium, the total torque of the forces acting on a vehicle is zero. So, for example, when a truck is loaded, its center of gravity shifts rearward, the amount the vehicle sinks will depend on counter acting forces like the size of the tires, tire pressure, and the stiffness of the suspension. If the vehicle is accelerating or decelerating, extra torque is placed on the rear or front tire respectively, so, as is common experience, when the vehicle accelerates, the rear usually sinks and the front rises depending on the suspension. Likewise, when braking the front noses down and the rear rises, because of the effect the wheelbase has on the weight distribution of the vehicle, wheelbase dimensions are crucial to the balance and steering. For example, a car with a greater weight load on the rear tends to understeer due to the lack of the load on the front tires. This is why it is crucial, when towing a single-axle caravan, likewise, a car may oversteer or even spin out if there is too much force on the front tires and not enough on the rear tires. Also, when turning there is lateral torque placed upon the tires which imparts a turning force that depends upon the length of the distances from the CM. Wheelbases provide the basis for one of the most common vehicle size class systems, some luxury vehicles are offered with long-wheelbase variants to increase the spaciousness and therefore the luxury of the vehicle. Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Tony Blair was given a version of the Rover 75 for official use. In contrast, coupé varieties of vehicles such as the Honda Accord are usually built on shorter wheelbases than the sedans they are derived from. The wheelbase on many commercially available bicycles and motorcycles is so short, relative to the height of their centers of mass, in skateboarding the word wheelbase is used for the distance between the two inner pairs of mounting holes on the deck. This is different from the distance between the centers of the two wheel pairs. A reason for this use is that decks are sold with prefabricated holes. It is therefore easier to use the holes for measuring and describing this characteristic of the deck. A common misconception is that the choice of wheelbase is influenced by the height of the skateboarder, however, the length of the deck would then be a better candidate, because the wheelbase affects characteristics useful in different speeds or terrains regardless of the height of the skateboarder
18.
Flat-six engine
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A flat-6 or horizontally opposed-6 is a flat engine with six cylinders arranged horizontally in two banks of three cylinders on each side of a central crankcase. This should not be confused with the Opposed-piston engine, the configuration results in inherently good balance of the reciprocating parts, a low center of gravity, and a very short engine length. The layout also lends itself to air cooling. Only a few auto makers, including Porsche and Subaru, currently use horizontally opposed engines, in the past a number of other manufacturers have used them, notably Preston Tucker in the 1948 Tucker Sedan and Chevrolet in the 1960s Corvair with flat-6 air-cooled engines. The Citroën DS was originally intended to be fitted with an air-cooled flat-6, unlike the V6 but like the inline-6, the flat-6 is a fully balanced configuration which is in perfect primary and secondary balance. The flat-6 is also smoother than the flat-4 or inline-4 because the strokes of the cylinders overlap in a four-stroke cycle engine. In the flat-6, each power stroke begins 120 degrees after the previous one starts, Lycoming is a major US manufacturer of civilian aircraft engines that power over one half of General aviation aircraft. They have developed and currently produce a series of flat-4 and flat-6 aircraft engines, the configuration is expressed in the engines model numbers as the letter O, standing for opposed in reference to the cylinder arrangement. Franklin produced horizontally opposed aircraft engines beginning in the 1930s. The Franklin O-335 was used in Bell 47, Continental Motors produces flat-4 and flat-6 aircraft engines which began in 1931 with the Continental A-40. Flat engines largely replaced the more popular radial engines in small aircraft after World War II because they were less expensive to manufacture. Radial engines have inherently good cooling, but their large frontal area increases drag and it is not difficult to design flat-6 and flat-8 engines from flat-4 designs by adding more cylinder pairs with a new crankshaft. In an air-cooled engine there can be cooling problems with the middle cylinder pairs, the flat-6 is smoother running than a flat-4 design. Possibly the earliest flat-six engined car was the Wilson-Pilcher car in 1900, the engine was conventionally placed with the crankshaft in-line with the chassis and the cylinders between the chassis rails. Reports on this car quote it as being silent and smooth running. The car was produced by Wilson-Pilcher in London until 1904, then by Armstrong Whitworth & Co in Newcastle until c1907. The engine had equal bore and stroke of 95mm, and the cylinders were offset so that each cylinder had its own crank-pin. The engine was mounted to a 4-speed epicyclic gearbox employing helical gears in an oil bath
19.
Opposed-piston engine
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An opposed-piston engine is a reciprocating internal combustion engine in which each cylinder has a piston at both ends, and no cylinder head. In 1882 James Atkinson developed the Atkinson cycle, a variant of the four stroke Otto cycle, the first implementation of this was arranged as an opposed piston engine, the Atkinson differential engine. Opposed piston engines using the two stroke cycle are known to have made by Oechelhäuser as early as 1898, when a 600 hp 2-stroke gas engine was installed at the Hoerde ironworks. These engines were made by Deutsche Kraftgas Gesellschaft from 1899, smaller versions of opposed piston engines suitable for motor vehicles probably begin with the French company Gobron-Brillié around 1900. The first diesel engine with opposed pistons, was a prototype built at the Kolomna plant in Russia, the designer, Raymond A. Koreyvo, patented the engine in France, on November 6,1907, then displayed the engine at international exhibitions. After these demonstrations similar engines were produced by other companies, Koreyvo filed a claim against these companies which was rejected by the Kolomna plant as the managing director did not want any quarrels with influential foreigners. In the USSR, the piston engine was used only after meetings with German aircraft makers, Junkers. In the USSR locomotive diesel engines adapted American Fairbanks-Morse designs and these engines were also used in military boats, set out under the world war two Lend-Lease contracts. Opposed piston engines should not be confused with flat engines, which are horizontally opposed with one piston per cylinder, some variations of the opposed piston or OP designs use a single crankshaft. The Gobron-Brillié, and Doxford ship engines used a crankshaft at one end of the cylinders, the crank throws for each end were often unequal giving a shorter motion for the end having the higher reciprocating weight in order to help balance. The Commer TS3 3-cylinder truck engines have a crankshaft beneath the centre of the cylinders with both pistons connected by levers. The levers operating the pistons allowed for a large piston travel with smaller crank throw, a more common layout uses two crankshafts, with the crankshafts geared together, or even three geared crankshafts in the Napier Deltic diesel engines. The Deltic uses three crankshafts, one at each corner, to form the three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in an equilateral triangle and these were used in railway locomotives and to power fast patrol boats. Both types are now obsolete, although the Royal Navy still maintains some Deltic-powered Hunt-class mine countermeasure vessels. The first opposed-piston diesel engines were developed in the beginning of the 20th century, in 1907, Russian Raymond Koreyvo, the engineer of Kolomna Works, built an opposed-piston two-stroke diesel with two crankshafts connected by gearing. Although Koreyvo patented his engine in France in November 1907, the management would not go on to manufacture opposed-piston engines, the first Junkers engines had one crankshaft, the upper pistons having long connecting rods outside the cylinder. These engines were the forerunner of the Doxford marine engine, later engines, such as the Junkers Jumo 205 diesel aircraft engine and todays Achates Power engine, use two crankshafts, one at either end of a single bank of cylinders. There are efforts to reintroduce the opposed-piston diesel aircraft engine with twin geared crankshafts for general aviation applications, Fairbanks-Morse also used it in diesel locomotives starting in 1944
20.
Rear-engine design
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In automobile design, a rear-engine design layout places the engine at the rear of the vehicle. The center of gravity of the engine itself is past the rear axle and this is not to be confused with the center of gravity of the whole vehicle, as an imbalance of such proportions would make it impossible to keep the front wheels on the ground. Rear-engined cars are almost always rear wheel drive, a known as RR. The exception is certain high performance four wheel drive models from the German automaker Porsche. This layout is chosen for three reasons - packaging, traction, and ease of manufacture, Since the engine is located at an extremity, having the engine located over the driven wheels increases downward pressure, which is helpful for grip on loose surfaces. The drivetrain can be assembled as a unit and installed easily at the factory - easier than a front wheel drive layout where the wheels also steer the car. For this reason rear engine has been abandoned as an option for regular passenger cars. Although this layout was popular, it was mainly found in small, inexpensive cars. The most popular current application of this layout is in low-floor buses where its space-saving attributes are best applied. On the DeLorean DMC-12, to compensate for the weight distribution caused by the rear-mounted engine
21.
Air-cooled engine
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Air-cooled engines rely on the circulation of air directly over hot parts of the engine to cool them. Thus, while they are not ultimately cooled by the liquid, in contrast, heat generated by an air-cooled engine is released directly into the air. Typically this is facilitated with metal covering the outside of the Cylinder Head. Air may be fed with the use of a fan. In all combustion engines, a percentage of the heat generated escapes through the exhaust. About 8% of the heat energy finds its way into the oil, many motorcycles use air cooling for the sake of reducing weight and complexity. Few current production automobiles have air-cooled engines, but historically it was common for many high-volume vehicles, volkswagen Type 4 Chevrolet Corvair Citroën 2CV. Citroën GS and GSA Honda 1300 NSU Prinz Royal Enfield Motorcycles, while water cooled engines were widely used from the early days of flight, air cooled engines were the dominant choice in aircraft. Following the Second World War, turbojets and jet powered aircraft have come to dominate flight regimes where water cooled piston engines offered a drag advantage. Thus today, piston engines are used in slower general aviation aircraft where low weight is an advantage. Therefore, most aero engines produced today are of the air cooled variety, today, most of the engines currently manufactured by Lycoming and Continental and used by major manufacturers of light aircraft Cirrus, Cessna and so on. Notable exceptions have included the Allison V-1710 and Rolls-Royce series of liquid-cooled V12 engines which powered P-51 Mustangs, Avro Lancasters, other engine manufactures using air-cooled engine technology are ULPower and Jabiru, more active in the Light-Sport Aircraft and ultralight aircraft market. Rotax uses a combination of air-cooled cylinders and liquid-cooled cylinder heads, some small diesel engines, e. g. those made by Deutz AG and Lister Petter are air-cooled. Probably the only big Euro 5 truck air-cooled engine is being produced by Tatra, stationary or portable engines were commercially introduced early in the 1900s. The first commercial production was by the New Way Motor Company of Lansing, Michigan, the company produced air-cooled engines in single and twin cylinders in both horizontal and vertical cylinder format. Subsequent to their production which was exported worldwide, other companies took up the advantages of this cooling method. Applications include mowers, generators, outboard motors, pump sets, saw benches, sloan, Alfred P. McDonald, John, ed. My Years with General Motors, Garden City, NY, USA, Doubleday, LCCN64011306, republished in 1990 with a new introduction by Peter Drucker
22.
Volkswagen Type 2
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Following – and initially deriving from Volkswagens first model, the Type 1 – it was given the factory designation Type 2. European competition included the 1947-1981 Citroën H Van, the 1959-1980 Renault Estafette, japanese manufacturers also introduced similar vehicles, such as the Nissan Caravan, Toyota LiteAce and Subaru Sambar. Brazil contained the last factory in the world that produced the T2, production in Brazil ceased on December 31,2013, due to the introduction of more stringent safety regulations in the country. This marks the end of an era with the rear-engine Volkswagens manufactured, the concept for the Type 2 is credited to Dutch Volkswagen importer Ben Pon. He first sketched the van in a doodle dated April 23,1947, proposing a payload of 690 kg, production would have to wait, however, as the factory was at capacity producing the Type 1. When capacity freed up, a prototype known internally as the Type 29 was produced in a three months. The stock Type 1 pan proved to be too weak so the prototype used a chassis with unit body construction. Coincidentally the wheelbase was the same as the Type 1s, engineers reused the reduction gear from the Type 81, enabling the 1.5 ton van to use a 25 hp flat four engine. Although the aerodynamics of the first prototypes were poor, engineers used the tunnel at the Technical University of Braunschweig to optimize the design. Simple changes such as splitting the windshield and roofline into a vee helped the production Type 2 achieve Cd=0.44, only two models were offered, the Kombi, and the Commercial. The Microbus was added in May 1950, joined by the Deluxe Microbus in June 1951, in all 9,541 Type 2s were produced in their first year of production. An ambulance model was added in December 1951 which repositioned the fuel tank in front of the transaxle, put the spare tire behind the front seat and these features became standard on the Type 2 from 1955 to 1967. 11,805 Type 2s were built in the 1951 model year and these were joined by a single-cab pickup in August 1952, and it changed the least of the Type 2s until all were heavily modified in 1968. However, only generations T1 to T3 can be seen as related to the Beetle. The Type 2, along with the 1947 Citroën H Van, are among the first forward control vans in which the driver was placed above the front roadwheels. They started a trend in Europe, where the 1952 GM Bedford CA,1958 RAF-977,1959 Renault Estafette,1960 BMC Morris J4, except for the Greenbrier and various 1950s–70s Fiat minivans, the Type 2 remained unique in being rear-engined. The Type 2 was available as a, Panel van, a van without side windows or rear seats. Double-door Panel Van, a van without side windows or rear seats
23.
Dodge A100
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The A100 is a range of American compact vans and trucks manufactured and marketed from 1964 to 1970 by Chrysler Corporation under the Dodge marque in the United States and the Fargo marque in Canada. The A100 competed with the Ford Econoline and Chevrolet Van, as well as the Volkswagen Type 2, the range included a pickup truck and van, both with a forward control design. The implementation of situating the driver on top of the front axle with the engine near the front wheels is called internationally a cab over vehicle, the nose was flat, with the engine placed between the driver and passenger, who sat above the front axle. The unibody vehicles used a short,90 in wheelbase, an A108 was also available from 1967 to 1970, with a longer 108 in wheelbase. The A108 was popular with camper conversion companies, the Dodge A100 was featured in the American television series That 70s Show episode Reds Last Day, as Michael Kelsos new van. It also appeared in the movie Cars as the character Dusty Rust-eze, in the remake of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, an A100 appeared in many different colors in the 1960s Batman TV series. Dodge L600 and L700 Dodge A-100 History
24.
Cab over
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This contrasts with a conventional truck where the engine is mounted in front of the driver. It is, however, still popular in the light-. In Australia both American and European/Japanese/Chinese types, as well as the type are common. Cab over engine types dominate urban and light duty use, with conventional trucks predominating in remote, both types are common for highway use. The first truck in the United States was built by Autocar in 1899 using a then called engine-under-the-seat and was available with optional 5 or 8 horsepower motors. Although early Autocar trucks were not exactly cab-over, since the truck did not have a cab, per se, the Sternberg company of Wisconsin produced cab-over trucks as early as 1907, though by 1914 only their seven-ton model was a cab-over. They reintroduced the cab-over layout in 1933 with their Camel Back model, schreckengost was later joined by other designers such as Raymond Loewy who designed the Metro series of vans and trucks for International Harvester. The bodies for these vehicles were produced by the Metropolitan Body Company. MBC was instrumental in the development of COE route delivery bodies in the 1930s, the laws of the time limited overall truck length to 42 feet on highways. Schreckengost patented the design in 1934, Autocar reintroduced the engine-under-the-seat format with their Model U in 1933, which became a staple of U. S. roads and the U. S. military through World War II and well into the 1950s. White-Freightliner introduced its first tilting cab-over design in 1958, which allowed the cab to tilt forward for access to the engine. Its shorter wheelbase allows cab-over semi trucks to have an overall length. In both class 8 tractors and light- and medium-duty vocational trucks, the design gives the COE model an advantage in maneuverability over a conventional model. And since COEs are generally lighter than conventionals, they can often haul heavier loads, given equal gross vehicle weight rating, despite the COE designs being smaller in general, over-the-road tractors can still be fully equipped with single or bunk beds. Also, lack of a hood gives better visibility to the driver and a turning radius. Because of their flat front design, early COE semi-trucks had significantly worse aerodynamics than conventional tractors and this works against fuel economy, and offsets some of the improvement in fuel consumption garnered from the lighter weight of the cab-over truck when running less than fully loaded. Although the tilting cab gives comparatively unobstructed access to the engine, its deployment causes unsecured items in the cab, vehicles without a tilting cab will usually be equipped with removable floor panels through which mechanics can access and service the engine. Unfortunately, some components might require servicing or replacement that either will not fit through the hatch or remain inaccessible and this necessitates removal of the engine by lowering it out from under the vehicle, a time-consuming and expensive procedure
25.
Chevrolet Chevy II / Nova
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The Chevrolet Chevy II/Nova was a small automobile manufactured by Chevrolet, and produced in five generations for the 1962 through 1979, and 1985 through 1988 model years. Nova was the top model in the Chevy II lineup through 1968, the Chevy II nameplate was dropped, Nova becoming the nameplate for the 1969 through 1979 models. Built on the X-body platform, the Nova was replaced by the 1980 Chevrolet Citation introduced in the spring of 1979, the Nova nameplate returned in 1985, produced through 1988 as a NUMMI manufactured, subcompact based on the front wheel drive, Japan home-based Toyota Sprinter. The 1962 Chevy II rode a 110-inch wheelbase, compared to 109.5 for the Ford Falcon, I think that was the quickest program we ever did at any time, he continued. We worked night and day on that car, and it didnt take long to run it through our shop because we had a deadline. Unlike the Corvair, the 1962 Chevy II was deliberately never intended to be revolutionary in concept or execution, its mission was to give Chevrolet buyers a simple, back-to-the-basics compact car. When he announced the Chevy II to the press, Chevrolet General Manager Ed Cole described the car as offering maximum functionalism with thrift. There was a lot of debate within the Chevrolet organization over just what to call this new car, and it lost out because it didnt start with a C, but was selected as the name for the top-of-the-line series. Ultimately the Nova badge would replace Chevy II, but that wouldnt happen until 1969, in almost every way, the creators of the Chevy II used Falcon as a benchmark. The 1962 model range included sedans and wagons, as well as a two-door hardtop, the only body styles it didnt offer which the Falcon did were a sedan delivery and coupe utility, most likely to avoid competing with Chevrolets own El Camino. After the rear-engine Chevrolet Corvair was outsold by the conventional Ford Falcon in 1960, the 1962 Chevy II came in three series and five body styles—the 100 Series,300 Series and Nova 400 Series. A200 series was introduced, but was discontinued almost immediately. The sportiest-looking of the lot was the $2,475 Nova 400 convertible—23,741 were produced that year, available engines for the Chevy II in 1962 and 1963 included Chevrolets inline-four engine of 153 cu in and a new third generation 194 cu in Chevrolet straight-6 engine. All Chevy II engines featured overhead valves, a V8 engine was not available in 1962 and 1963. Absent documentation, dealer installed options of a V8 in a 1962 or 1963 is a myth, refer to the GM Heritage Center 1963 Chevrolet Nova information available on the GM Heritage site. In addition, that documentation does not list a V8 engine as a dealer installed option. Like all Chevy two-door hardtops, the style was marketed as the Sport Coupe. For 1963, the Chevy II Nova Super Sport was released and it featured special emblems, instrument package, wheel covers, side moldings, bucket seats, and floor shifter, and was available only on the 400 series sport coupe and convertible
26.
Compact car
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The dimension standards are absolute, meaning special consideration is not made for SUVs, CUVs, minivans, station wagons or hatchbacks. Compact car is a largely North American term denoting an automobile smaller than a mid-size car, Compact cars usually have wheelbases between 100 inches and 109 inches. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a car as measuring between 100 cubic feet and 109 cubic feet of combined passenger and cargo volume capacity. Vehicle class size is defined in the U. S. by environmental laws in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40—Protection of Environment, Section 600. 315-82 Classes of comparable automobiles. Passenger car classes are defined based on interior volume index or seating capacity, in the United States, the compact car segment currently holds a 16% share of the market. This segment is dominated by import models, one of the first truly small cars on the U. S. market, in the sense that it was considerably smaller than the standard- size cars of its day, was the Austin Bantam that appeared in 1930. Production of the British-based city car lasted only four years with a total of 20,000 units, although other little cars such as the Crosley focused on low price and economy, Americans did not take easily to small cars. The U. S. market after World-War II experienced growth in sales in standard-sized cars, by 1947, Chevrolet had prototypes of the Cadet, an economy car developed by Earle S. MacPherson. Ford also experimented with a car and, unlike Chevrolets Cadet, production ensued for the European market as a large car. In 1950, Nash introduced a convertible Rambler model and it was built on a 100-inch wheelbase to which a station wagon, hardtop, and sedan versions were added. Compared to European standards, they were large, conceived by George W. Mason, the term compact was coined by George W. Romney as a euphemism for small cars with a wheelbase of 110 inches or less. The Nash Rambler established a new segment, it became known as Americas first small car. Several competitors to the Nash Rambler arose from the ranks of Americas other independent automakers, other early compact cars included the Henry J from Kaiser-Frazer, as well as the Willys Aero and the Hudson Jet. In 1952, Ford Division assistant general manager Robert S. McNamara started the Market Research Unit, in 1954,64,500 of over 5 million cars sold in the United States were imports or small American cars. Ford alone sold over 1.4 million big cars, yet 5 percent of those surveyed said they would consider a small car. These models also gave rise to compact vans that were sized similarly to the Volkswagen Type 2 microbus and were based from the Falcon, Corvair, and Valiant automobile platforms. Ford Division marketing research manager George Brown said smaller cars appealed to people with a college education, the cars had to offer not only high gas mileage but also headroom, legroom, and plenty of trunk space. Within a few years after that, the compacts had given rise to a new class called the car, named after the Ford Mustang
27.
Manual transmission
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A manual transmission, also known as a manual gearbox, stick shift, n-speed manual, standard, MT, or in colloquial U. S. English, a stick, is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. The number of gear ratios is often expressed for automatic transmissions as well. Manual transmissions often feature a clutch and a movable gear stick. This type of transmission is called a sequential manual transmission. In a manual transmission, the flywheel is attached to the engines crankshaft, the clutch disk is in between the pressure plate and the flywheel, and is held against the flywheel under pressure from the pressure plate. When the engine is running and the clutch is engaged, the flywheel spins the clutch plate, as the clutch pedal is depressed, the throw out bearing is activated, which causes the pressure plate to stop applying pressure to the clutch disk. This makes the clutch plate stop receiving power from the engine, when the clutch pedal is released, the throw out bearing is deactivated, and the clutch disk is again held against the flywheel, allowing it to start receiving power from the engine. Manual transmissions are characterized by gear ratios that are selectable by locking selected gear pairs to the shaft inside the transmission. Conversely, most automatic transmissions feature epicyclic gearing controlled by brake bands and/or clutch packs to select gear ratio, automatic transmissions that allow the driver to manually select the current gear are called manumatics. A manual-style transmission operated by computer is called an automated transmission rather than an automatic. Operating aforementioned transmissions often use the pattern of shifter movement with a single or multiple switches to engage the next sequence of gear selection. The earliest form of a transmission is thought to have been invented by Louis-René Panhard. This type of transmission offered multiple gear ratios and, in most cases and these transmissions are called sliding mesh transmissions or sometimes crash boxes, because of the difficulty in changing gears and the loud grinding sound that often accompanied. Newer manual transmissions on cars have all gears mesh at all times and are referred to as constant-mesh transmissions, in both types, a particular gear combination can only be engaged when the two parts to engage are at the same speed. To shift to a gear, the transmission is put in neutral. The vehicle also slows while in neutral and that slows other transmission parts, so the time in neutral depends on the grade, wind, for both upshifts and downshifts, the clutch is released while in neutral. Some drivers use the only for starting from a stop. Even though automobile and light truck transmissions are now almost universally synchronized, transmissions for trucks and machinery, motorcycles
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Automatic transmission
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The number of forward gear ratios is often expressed for manual transmissions as well. The most popular form found in automobiles is the automatic transmission. Similar but larger devices are used for heavy-duty commercial and industrial vehicles. This system uses a coupling in place of a friction clutch. These systems have a set of gear ranges, often with a parking pawl that locks the output shaft of the transmission to keep the vehicle from rolling either forward or backward. Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed engine speeds, such as forklifts and lawn mowers. Despite superficial similarity to other transmissions, traditional automatic transmissions differ significantly in internal operation and drivers feel from semi-automatics and CVTs. In contrast to conventional automatic transmissions, a CVT uses a belt or other torque transmission scheme to allow a number of gear ratios instead of a fixed number of gear ratios. A semi-automatic retains a clutch like a transmission, but controls the clutch through electrohydraulic means. The ability to shift gears manually, often via paddle shifters, can also be found on certain automated transmissions, semi-automatics, the obvious advantage of an automatic transmission to the driver is the lack of a clutch pedal and manual shift pattern in normal driving. This allows the driver to operate the car with as few as two limbs, allowing amputees and other disabled individuals to drive, the automatic transmission was invented in 1921 by Alfred Horner Munro of Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and patented under Canadian patent CA235757 in 1923. Being a steam engineer, Munro designed his device to use compressed air rather than hydraulic fluid and they were incorporated into GM-built tanks during World War II and, after the war, GM marketed them as being battle-tested. However, a Wall Street Journal article credits ZF Friedrichshafen with the invention, zFs origins were in manufacturing gears for airship engines beginning in 1915, the company was founded by Ferdinand von Zeppelin. Modern automatic transmissions can trace their origins to an early horseless carriage gearbox that was developed in 1904 by the Sturtevant brothers of Boston and this unit had two forward speeds, the ratio change being brought about by flyweights that were driven by the engine. At higher engine speeds, high gear was engaged, as the vehicle slowed down and engine RPM decreased, the gearbox would shift back to low. Unfortunately, the metallurgy of the time wasnt up to the task, and owing to the abruptness of the gear change, the next significant phase in the automatic transmissions development occurred in 1908 with the introduction of Henry Fords remarkable Model T. The pedals actuated the transmissions friction elements to select the desired gear, in 1934, both REO and General Motors developed semi-automatic transmissions that were less difficult to operate than a fully manual unit. These designs, however, continued to use a clutch to engage the engine with the transmission, parallel to the development in the 1930s of an automatically shifting gearbox was Chryslers work on adapting the fluid coupling to automotive use
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Chevrolet small-block engine
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The Chevrolet small-block engine is a series of automobile V8 engines built by the Chevrolet Division of General Motors using the same basic small engine block. The small blocks small physical size also set apart from their massive physical size cousins. Retroactively referred to as the Generation I small-block, it is distinct from subsequent Generation II LT and Generation III/IV LS, engineer Ed Cole, who would later become GM President, is credited with leading the design for this engine. Production of the original small-block began in the fall of 1954 for the 1955 model year with a displacement of 265 cu in, growing incrementally over time to 400 cu in by 1970. Several intermediate displacements appeared over the years, such as the 283 cu in that was available with fuel injection. Introduced as an engine in 1967, the 350 went on to be employed in both high- and low-output variants across the entire Chevrolet product line. Although all of Chevrolets siblings of the period designed their own V8s, over the years, every American General Motors division except Saturn used it and its descendants in their vehicles. In all, over 100,000,000 small-blocks have been built in carbureted, the small-block family line was honored as one of the 10 Best Engines of the 20th Century by automotive magazine Wards AutoWorld. The first generation of Chevrolet small-blocks began with the 1955 Chevrolet 265 cu in V8 offered in the Corvette, by 1957 it had grown to 283 cu in. Fitted with the optional Rochester mechanical fuel injection, it was one of the first production engines to make 1 hp per 1 cu in, the 283 would later be extended to other Chevrolet models, replacing the old style 265 V8s. A high-performance 327 cu in variant followed, turning out as much as 375 hp and it was, however, the 350 cu in series that came to be the best known Chevrolet small-block. Installed in everything from station wagons to sports cars, in commercial vehicles, from 1955 to 1974, the small-block engine was known as the Turbo-Fire V8. All Chevrolet V8s, from the big-blocks to todays LS7 and LS9, of the three engines in this family, two of them, the 265 and the 283, have gone down in automotive history. The first of this family was the 265, introduced in 1955, the 265 had a 3.75 in bore. The stroke of the 265 was 3.00 in, like the 283, the last of this family was the 307 cu in, which was a stroked 283 with a medium journal. The 265 cu in Turbo-Fire V8 was the first Chevrolet small-block, coles design borrowed the valve train design scheduled to be used at the time in the Pontiac V8. Internal GM rules at that time were that once an automotive division had introduced a technological innovation no other GM division could use it for a period of two years. The stud mounted independent ball rocker arm design patented by Pontiac engineer Clayton Leach was scheduled for introduction in the Pontiac 1955 V8
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V8 engine
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A V8 engine is an eight-cylinder V configuration engine with the cylinders mounted on the crankcase in two sets of four, with all eight pistons driving a common crankshaft. Most banks are set at an angle to each other, some at a narrower angle, with 45°, 60°. In its simplest form, the V8 is basically two parallel inline-four engines sharing a common crankshaft, since the 1920s, most V8s have used the somewhat more complex crossplane crankshaft with heavy counterweights to eliminate the vibrations. This results in an engine that is smoother than a V6, most racing V8s continue to use the single plane crankshaft because it allows faster acceleration and more efficient exhaust system designs. In 1902, Léon Levavasseur took out a patent on a light and he called it the Antoinette after the young daughter of his financial backer. From 1904 he installed this engine in a number of competition speedboats, the aviation pioneer Alberto Santos-Dumont saw one of these boats in Côte dAzur and decided to try it on his 14-bis aircraft. Its early 24 hp at 1400 rpm version with only 55 kg of weight was interesting, Santos-Dumont ordered a larger and more powerful version from Levavasseur. He changed its dimensions from the original 80 mm stroke and 80 mm bore to 105 mm stroke and 110 mm bore, obtaining 50 hp with 86 kg of weight and its power-to-weight ratio was not surpassed for 25 years. Levavasseur eventually produced its own line of V8 equipped aircraft, named Antoinette I to VIII, hubert Latham piloted the V8 powered Antoinette IV and Antoinette VII in July 1909 on two failed attempts to cross the English Channel. However, in 1910, Latham used the VII with the engine to become the first in the world to reach an altitude of 3600 feet. Voisin constructed pusher biplanes with Antoinette engines, also, notably the one first flown successfully by Henry Farman in 1908, the V8 engine configuration became popular in France from 1904 onward, and was used in a number of aircraft engines introduced by Renault, and Buchet among others. Some of these found their way into automobiles in small quantities. In 1905, Darracq built a car to beat the world speed record. They came up with two racing car built on a common crankcase and camshaft. The result was monstrous engine with a displacement of 1,551 cu in, victor Hemery fixed that record on 30 December 1905 with a speed of 109.65 mph. Rolls-Royce built a 3,535 cc V8 car from 1905 to 1906, in 1907 The Hewitt Motor Company built a large 5 passenger Touring Car. It was equipped with a hefty V8 engine that developed 50/60 horsepower and had a bore of 4 inches, the Hewitt was the first American Automobile to be equipped with a V8 engine. De Dion-Bouton introduced a 7,773 cc automobile V8 in 1910 and it was produced only in small quantities, but inspired a number of manufacturers to follow suit
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Master cylinder
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In automotive engineering, the master cylinder is a control device that converts non-hydraulic pressure into hydraulic pressure. This device controls slave cylinders located at the end of the hydraulic system. As piston move along the bore of the cylinder, this movement is transferred through the hydraulic fluid. The most common uses of master cylinders are in brake. A reservoir above each master cylinder supplies the cylinder with enough brake fluid to avoid air from entering the master cylinder. This is done in a diagonally split hydraulic system and this lets the primary piston build up only a small amount of pressure until the secondary piston bottoms in the cylinder bore. Then the primary piston will build enough hydraulic pressure to operate the brakes served by half of the system. In case of a failure in the brake system served by the primary piston. In this case very little force is transferred to the piston through the primary piston spring until the piston extension screw comes in contact with the secondary piston. Then, pushrod force is transmitted directly to the secondary piston, usually the 2 systems are split into left front and right rear comprising one system and right front and left rear comprising the other system. With only 1 system working there is longer stopping distances and repairs should be done before driving again, how Master Cylinders and Combination Valves Work, How Stuff Works
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Turbo-Hydramatic
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Turbo-Hydramatic or Turbo Hydra-Matic is the registered tradename for a family of automatic transmissions developed and produced by General Motors. These transmissions mate a three-element turbine torque converter to a Simpson planetary geartrain, the Turbo-Hydramatic or Turbo Hydra-Matic series was developed to replace both the original Hydra-Matic models and the Buick Dynaflow. In its original incarnation as the Turbo-Hydramatic 400, it was first used in the 1964 model year in Cadillacs, the Buick version, which followed shortly thereafter, was known as the Super-Turbine 400. By 1973, THM units had replaced all of GMs other automatic transmissions including Chevrolets Powerglide, Buicks Super Turbine 300, starting in the early 1980s, the Turbo-Hydramatic was gradually supplanted by four-speed automatics, some of which continue to use the Hydramatic trade name. Although the Turbo Hydra-Matic name alludes to the original Hydra-Matic developed by General Motors Cadillac division in the late 1930s, the THM400 can be visually identified by an oil pan number four shown at General Motors Transmission Pans. First introduced for the 1964 model year under the name Turbo Hydra-Matic in Cadillacs, the following year, application expanded to Oldsmobile and Pontiac and to some full-sized Chevrolets. These can be identified outside the vehicle by a narrow front pump spline, externally the switch pitch version has two electrical connections, where the non-switch pitch THM400 has only one. This transmission is identified by the Park R N D L2 L1 selector quadrant, a variant of the THM400 known as a THM375 is a THM400 with a long output shaft that mates to the smaller THM350 drive shaft yoke. It can be identified by 375-THM cast into the tailhousing, internally the clutch packs originally had fewer friction plates. THM375s were found in some 1971-76 Buicks, some Heavy Duty THM350s were also designated THM375-B. Another variant is the 3L80HD, often referred to as a Turbo 475, the 3L80HD has a straight-cut planetary gear set. There is no visible way to determine whether the transmission contains the straight-cut planetary gear set. The THM425 front wheel drive transmission shares almost all its parts with the THM400. Checker Motors Corporation Motor Company used the Chevrolet version of the THM400 for its A series taxi, by 1980, the relatively heavy THM400 was being phased out of usage in passenger cars in response to demand for improved fuel economy. The THM400 was utilized in the C- and K-series Chevrolet/GMC pickups, today, the United States Army HMMWV is the only vehicle using the THM400. The civilian Hummer H1 originally had the 3L80s, but the current model has had a 4L80E since the mid-1990s, through the end of the 70s substantially more CBOP bellhousing THM400s were produced than any other THM400. The THM400 was never produced with a bell housing. Other auto manufacturers have used the THM400 and its 4L80E successor, including Ferrari, Jaguar/Daimler and their Daimler stable mates, Rolls-Royce, the Nissan Prince Royal, AM General, and Jeep
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Chevrolet Nomad
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The Chevrolet Nomad was a station wagon model made off and on from 1955 to 1972, and a Chevy Van trim package in the late 1970s and early 1980s, produced by Chevrolet. The Nomad is best remembered in its two-door 1955–57 form, and was considered a model during its three-year production as a two-door station wagon. The two-door Nomad differed from other station wagons of the era by having unique styling more reminiscent of a hardtop sedan than that of a station wagon. Chevrolet shared this body with its sister Pontiac, which marketed their version as the Pontiac Safari, the Nomads unique design had its roots in a General Motors Motorama show car of the same name that was based on the Corvette. The Concept was introduced at the GM Motorama in 1954 as one of Head Stylist Harley Earls dream cars and it followed the introduction in 1950 of the Ford Country Squire two door station wagon. In fact, following the debut in 1955, it was not uncommon for the car to be referred to as the Chevy Bel Air Nomad. Advertised as The Hot One, the boxy new Chevy was crisp, clean, Nomads, like Bel Airs, came loaded with interior carpet, chrome spears on front fenders, chrome window moldings, and full wheel covers. For 1955 Chevrolets gained a V8 engine option, the new 265 cu in V8 featured a modern, overhead valve, high compression, short stroke design that was so good that it remained in production in various forms for many decades. The base V8 had a carburetor and was rated at 162 horsepower. Later in the year, a Super Power Pack option added high-compression and it had room for six passengers. This gave Chevys a more conventional full-width grille, pleasing those customers who didnt like the Ferrari-inspired 55 front end, Nomads now carried the same interior and rear-wheel sheetmetal as other Bel Airs, lacking the originals unique trim. Shoulder harnesses, and a padded dashboard were now available, for 1956 Chevys hid the gas cap behind a left side, flip-down tail light. 1957 V-8 engine displacement grew to 283 cubic inches from 265 in 1957 and these so-called fuelie cars are quite rare, since most Bel Airs were fitted with carburation. It also shares many characteristics with the 1970 Range Rover Classic without the extended ground clearance. 1958 For the 1958 model year, Chevrolet moved the Nomad name to its top-line four-door Bel Air based station wagon and this was the only four-door Bel Air based Nomad station wagon. Like the rest of Chevrolets 1958 full size car line up, the rear was tied together by a channel-section cross member. Nomad, still at the top was a six-passenger car, with the Delray gone, the Biscayne-based Brookwood, was now priced lowest. The Brookwood two-door marked the short lived return of the wagon and was the basis for the new-for-1959 El Camino
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Lordstown, Ohio
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Lordstown is a village in Trumbull County, Ohio, United States. It is part of the Youngstown-Warren-Boardman, OH-PA Metropolitan Statistical Area, Lordstown Township, which nearly completely incorporated as the village of Lordstown in 1975, was one of the original survey townships of the Connecticut Western Reserve, Town 3, Range 4. The township, and subsequently the village, was named for Samuel P. Lord, the population was 3,417 at the 2010 census. The Chevrolet Cruze is currently manufactured at this facility although that is being phased out for 2017 to move into SUV models, Lordstown is located at 41°10′18″N 80°52′00″W.14 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2010, there were 3,417 people,1,391 households, the population density was 147.7 inhabitants per square mile. There were 1,496 housing units at a density of 64.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 95. 1% White,3. 2% African American,0. 1% Native American,0. 4% Asian,0. 1% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 9% of the population. 22. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 2.86. The median age in the village was 45 years. 21. 1% of residents were under the age of 18,6. 3% were between the ages of 18 and 24,22. 7% were from 25 to 44,32. 7% were from 45 to 64, and 17. 2% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 48. 6% male and 51. 4% female, as of the census of 2000, there were 3,633 people,1,412 households, and 1,077 families residing in the village. The population density was 157.0 people per square mile, there were 1,483 housing units at an average density of 64.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the village was 95. 84% White,2. 89% African American,0. 08% Native American,0. 36% Asian,0. 11% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 44% of the population. 21. 1% of all households were made up of individuals and 7. 6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.57 and the average family size was 2.97. In the village, the population was out with 24. 0% under the age of 18,7. 1% from 18 to 24,27. 9% from 25 to 44,30. 0% from 45 to 64. The median age was 40 years, for every 100 females there were 97.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.8 males, the median income for a household in the village was $51,144, and the median income for a family was $55,305. Males had an income of $45,082 versus $28,063 for females
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
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Flint, Michigan
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Flint is the largest city and county seat of Genesee County, Michigan. Located along the Flint River,66 miles northwest of Detroit, it is a city within the region known as Mid Michigan. According to the 2010 census, Flint has a population of 102,434, the Flint metropolitan area is located entirely within Genesee County. It is the fourth largest metropolitan area in Michigan with a population of 425,790 in 2010, the city was incorporated in 1855. Flint was founded as a village by fur trader Jacob Smith in 1819, from the late 19th century to the mid 20th century, the city was a leading manufacturer of carriages and later automobiles, earning it the nickname Vehicle City. General Motors was founded in Flint in 1908, and the city grew into a manufacturing powerhouse for GMs Buick. Flint was also the home of the Flint Sit-Down Strike of 1936–37 that played a role in the formation of the United Auto Workers. Since the late 1960s, Flint has faced several crises, the city sank into a deep economic depression after GM significantly downsized its workforce in the area from a 1978 high of 80,000 to under 8,000 by 2010. From 1960 to 2010, the population of the city nearly halved from 196,940 to 102,434, in the mid-2000s, Flint became known for its high crime rates and has repeatedly been ranked among the most dangerous cities in the United States. The city was under a state of emergency from 2002–2004. The Saginaw Valley, particularly the vicinity of Flint, is considered by some to be the oldest continually inhabited area of Michigan. The Flint River had several convenient fords which became points of contention among rival tribes, as attested by the presence of arrowheads and burial mounds near it. In 1819, Jacob Smith, a fur trader on cordial terms with both the local Ojibwas and the government founded a trading post at the Grand Traverse of the Flint River. On several occasions, Smith negotiated land exchanges with the Ojibwas on behalf of the U. S. government, Smith apportioned many of his holdings to his children. As the ideal stopover on the route between Detroit and Saginaw, Flint grew into a small but prosperous village, and incorporated in 1855. The 1860 U. S. census indicated that Genesee County had a population of 22,498 of Michigans 750,000, in the latter half of the 19th century, Flint became a center of the Michigan lumber industry. Revenue from lumber funded the establishment of a local carriage-making industry, as horse-drawn carriages gave way to the automobiles, Flint then naturally grew into a major player in the nascent auto industry. Buick Motor Company, after a start in Detroit, soon moved to Flint
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Scarborough, Toronto
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Scarborough is a suburban district in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Situated atop the Scarborough Bluffs, it occupies the part of the city. Scarborough is contained within the borders of Victoria Park Avenue on the west, Steeles Avenue to the north, Rouge River and the city of Pickering to the east and it was named after the English town of Scarborough, North Yorkshire. First settled by Europeans in the 1790s, Scarborough has grown from a collection of rural villages. Incorporated in 1850 as a township, Scarborough became part of Metropolitan Toronto in 1953 and was reconstituted as a borough in 1967, Scarborough rapidly developed as a suburb of Old Toronto over the next decade and became a city in 1983. In 1998, Scarborough and the rest of Metropolitan Toronto were amalgamated into the present city of Toronto, Scarborough is an administrative district in Toronto and has its own community council. The Scarborough Civic Centre, the city hall, is still used by the municipal government of Toronto. Scarborough is a destination for new immigrants in Canada to reside. As a result, it is one of the most diverse and multicultural areas in the Greater Toronto Area, being home to religious groups. It includes some of Torontos popular natural landmarks, such as Rouge Park, Scarborough has been declared to be greener than any other part of Toronto. The area was named after Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England by Elizabeth Simcoe, the wife of John Graves Simcoe, the bluffs along Scarboroughs Lake Ontario shores reminded her of the limestone cliffs in Scarborough, England. On August 4,1793, she wrote in her diary, The shore is extremely bold, and has the appearance of chalk cliffs and they appeared so well that we talked of building a summer residence there and calling it Scarborough. Before that, the area was named Glasgow, after the Scottish city, the most popular is Scarberia, a portmanteau of Scarborough and Siberia, a reference to its seemingly distant eastern location from downtown Toronto. The word originated sometime in the 1960s and has remained a source of contention ever since. In May 1988, Joyce Trimmer, who was campaigning to be mayor of the city of Scarborough, said, Scarborough has also acquired nicknames related to its diversity. Such nicknames typically use the prefix Scar and a derived from the name of a region, nation, or ethnicity, for instance, Scompton or Scarlem, alluding to Compton. The first known evidence of people in Scarborough comes from a site in Fenwood Heights. The site contains the remains of a camp of nomadic hunters and foragers, after the land was surveyed in 1793, it was opened to settlement by British subjects with the first issue of land patents in 1796, although squatters had already been present for a few years
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Ontario
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Ontario, one of the 13 provinces and territories of Canada, is located in east-central Canada. It is Canadas most populous province by a margin, accounting for nearly 40 percent of all Canadians. Ontario is fourth-largest in total area when the territories of the Northwest Territories and it is home to the nations capital city, Ottawa, and the nations most populous city, Toronto. There is only about 1 km of land made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. Ontario is sometimes divided into two regions, Northern Ontario and Southern Ontario. The great majority of Ontarios population and arable land is located in the south, in contrast, the larger, northern part of Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and is heavily forested. The province is named after Lake Ontario, a thought to be derived from Ontarí, io, a Huron word meaning great lake, or possibly skanadario. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes, the province consists of three main geographical regions, The thinly populated Canadian Shield in the northwestern and central portions, which comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals and in part covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, studded with lakes, Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions, Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the north and northeast, mainly swampy. Southern Ontario which is further sub-divided into four regions, Central Ontario, Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe, the highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres above sea level located in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands, the Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment, the Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario occupies roughly 87 percent of the area of the province. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario that is the southernmost extent of Canadas mainland, Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the border of California. The climate of Ontario varies by season and location, the effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontarios climate is classified as humid continental, Ontario has three main climatic regions
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