1.
Chiang Rai (city)
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Mueang Chiang Rai is a city in Mueang Chiang Rai District, Chiang Rai Province. Chiang Rai is the northernmost large city in Thailand and it was established as a capital city in the reign of King Mangrai, in 1262 CE. The city was founded by King Mangrai in 1262 and became the capital of the Mangrai Dynasty, subsequently, Chiang Rai was conquered by Burma and remained under Burmese rule for several hundred years. It was not until 1786 that Chiang Rai became a Chiang Mai vassal, siam annexed Chiang Mai in 1899, and Chiang Rai was proclaimed a province of Thailand in 1933. The beautiful jade figure was then seen concealed within, another telling of the story has the Emerald Buddha hastily covered in mud just before marauders entered to pillage. In 1992, the city pillar was moved from Wat Klang Wiang to Wat Phra That Doi Chom Thong, where it is known as Sadue Mueang, the navel or omphalos of the city. Chiang Rai lies on the alluvial plain of the Mae Kok River. The Mae Kok River runs along Chiang Rais north side, flowing out of Burma at Tha Ton town, bending north-eastwards. The Lao River, a tributary of the Kok, flows south of Chiang Rai, there are four bridges spanning the Mae Kok river within the towns boundaries, each running south–north. Most of the terrain surrounding Chiang Rai town is flat or has moderate hills. The exception is outward in the west and north-west directions, where hills are evident. That is also the direction where most of the regions Hill Tribe people have their villages, the Golden Triangle, the tripoint of the Thailand, Laos and Myanmar borders, is 55 kilometres north-east of the city. Chiang Rai has a wet and dry climate. Winters are fairly dry and warm, temperatures rise until April, which is hot with the average daily maximum at 34.9 °C. The monsoon season runs from late April through October, with rain and somewhat cooler temperatures during the day. According to the Thailand National Statistical Office, as of September 2010, with the spread of the city extending into neighboring districts, the metropolitan area is considered somewhat larger by local residents. Chiang Rai city is the city and business center of the Chiang Rai Province. 12. 5% of the population belong to hill tribes, a term for the minority ethnic groups in north Thailand such as the Karen, Akha, Lisu, Meo
2.
Chengmai County
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Chéngmài County is an administrative district in Hainan, China. It is one of four counties of Hainan, in 2002, its population was 490,800. The first record of Chengmai County is in 110 BC, when it referred to as Guo County in one of Emperor Wu of Hans records, the county acquired its current name under the Sui Dynasty reorganisation of 607. It was also recorded during the Ming Dynasty, located in northwest Hainan, it is 56 km wide and 70 km long. It has a land area of 2067.6 km². Climate-wise, it is tropical with ample sunshine and moderate all year round, on average. The average annual temperature is 23.7 °C, with a total land area of 206,700 hectares, melons and other tropical crops are grown around the county. More than 20 rivers flow through the county, providing 17.4 billion m³ of water per year, the main settlement in the county is Jinjiang. It is located directly on the side of the Nandu River. The old section is located by the river with newer buildings further up, the backside of the hill is currently under development with mostly high-rise apartments being built. Many government buildings are situated on the top of the hill, near the centre of the hill, there is a large park. Over 5 billion tonnes of quartz are still unmined in the county, there are also nearly 11 million tonnes of limestone remaining in addition to crystal deposits 5.5 km long and 3 km wide and around 80,000,000 tonnes of kaolin. Fishing also makes up a part, with the county possessing 89.8 km of coastline. Apart from farm fishing, marine catches include mackerel, redfish, croaker fish, grouper, pomfret, tuna, squid, cuttlefish, lobster, the diverse and populous fish are a result of a nutrient-rich sediment at the bottom of the harbour. The Han people account for 99. 5% of the population of the county, the people of Chengmai County live to an average of 77.79 years. Among the population are 215 centenarians, the proportion of centenarians compared to the rest of the countys population, and the overall number, ranks highest of all cities and counties in China. Of the total 565,000 people living in the county,18,500 are more than 80 years old,896 of which are couples, list of administrative divisions of Hainan http, //www. people. fas. harvard. edu/~chgis/work/downloads/faqs/1999_pop_faq. html Official website
3.
Thesaban
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Thesaban are the municipalities of Thailand. There are three levels of municipalities, city, town, and sub-district, both Bangkok and Pattaya are special municipal entities not included in the thesaban system. The municipalities assume some of the responsibilities which are assigned to the districts or communes for non-municipal areas, historically, this devolution of central government powers grew out of the Sukhaphiban sanitary districts first created in Bangkok by a royal decree of King Chulalongkorn in 1897. The 1953 act was most recently amended by the Thesaban Act of 2003, Thesaban nakhon is usually translated as city municipality. To qualify for city status a municipality needs to have a population of at least 50,000, when first organized in 1934, the minimum qualifications for city status were a population of 30,000 with a density of 1,000 per km². In 1939 the required population density was increased to 2,000 per km², in 1953 the population density requirement was again raised, to 3,000 per km², before being removed entirely in 2000. Until 1972 there were three city municipalities, Chiang Mai, Phra Nakhon, and Thonburi, in 1994, Nakhon Si Thammarat town municipality became the second city municipality of Thailand, and the third in the south. Thesaban mueang is usually translated as town municipality, for a municipality to qualify as a town, it either needs to be a provincial capital, or have a population of at least 10,000 and sufficient income to cover the tasks of a town. When first organized in 1934, minimum qualification for town status was a population of 3,000 with a density of 1,000 per km². In 1939 requirements were increased to a population of 5,000 with a density of 2,000 per km², plus a financial criterion. In 1953, the population requirements was raised to the present value. Thesaban tambon, the lowest level unit, is usually translated as sub-district municipality. Despite the name, it may not necessarily cover the area as a sub-district, i. e. it may not cover a tambon completely, or conversely. Many of todays thesaban municipalities were originally sukhaphiban tambon, sanitation districts, the number of which had grown to 35 in 1935, new sanitary districts were again established starting in 1952. With the Act to Upgrade Sanitary Districts to Thesaban of May 1999 all were converted in May 1999, mueang, Thailand Section List of cities in Thailand by population List of cities in Thailand Subdivisions of Thailand History of administrative reforms http, //www. tessaban. com
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Stupa
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A stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics that is used as a place of meditation. Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in a position called chaitya. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE in India. Buddhist scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a century earlier, however, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE and these are stupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes and they replicate in stone older stupas made of baked bricks and timber. Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are examples of stupas that were shaped in stone imitating previously existing wooden parts, the stupa was elaborated as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries, becoming, for example, the chörten of Tibet and the pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles, in the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism, the first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas, the tallest is the Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand, at a height of 127 metres. The Swat Valley hosts a well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near Ghalegay, another stupa is located near Barikot, in Sri Lanka, the ancient city of Anuradhapura includes some of the tallest, most ancient and best preserved stupas in the world, such as Ruwanwelisaya. The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in Java, the upper rounded terrace with rows of bell-shaped stupas contained Buddha images symbolizing Arūpajhāna, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment, borobudurs unique and significant architecture has been acknowledged by UNESCO as the largest buddhist monument in the world. It is also the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a bowl or robe. Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples, symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobudur is considered to be the symbol of the Three Worlds and the spiritual stages in a Mahayana bodhisattvas character. Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, the shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire, his head is the square at the base, his body is the vase shape, his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace
5.
Wat Phra That Doi Suthep
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Wat Phra That Doi Suthep is a Theravada wat in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The temple is referred to as Doi Suthep although this is actually the name of the mountain where its located. It is a site to many Thai people. The temple is 15 kilometres from the city of Chiang Mai, from the temple, impressive views of Chiang Mai can be seen. The original founding of the remains a legend and there are a few varied versions. The temple is said to have founded in 1383 when the first stupa was built. Over time, the temple has expanded, and been made to look more extravagant with many more holy shrines added, a road to the temple was first built in 1935. According to legend, a monk named Sumanathera from the Sukhothai Kingdom had a dream, in this vision he was told to go to Pang Cha and look for a relic. Sumanathera ventured to Pang Cha and found a bone, many claim it was Gautama Buddhas shoulder bone. The relic displayed magical powers, it glowed, it was able to vanish, it could move, Sumanathera took the relic to King Dhammaraja, who ruled Sukhothai. The eager Dhammaraja made offerings and hosted a ceremony when Sumanathera arrived, however, the relic displayed no abnormal characteristics, and the king, doubtful of the relics authenticity, told Sumanathera to keep it. King Nu Naone of Lan Na heard of the relic and bade the monk to bring it to him, in 1368, with Dharmmarajas permission, Sumanathera took the relic to what is now Lamphun, in northern Thailand. Once there, the broke into two pieces. The smaller piece was enshrined at a temple in Suandok, the other piece was placed by the king on the back of a white elephant which was released into the jungle. The elephant is said to have climbed up Doi Suthep, at that time called Doi Aoy Chang and this was interpreted as an omen. King Nu Naone immediately ordered the construction of a temple at the site, the wat can be reached by road from Chiang Mai. From the car park at the temples base visitors can climb 309 steps to reach the pagodas or take a tram, once inside the temple grounds visitors must be appropriately dressed and must remove footwear. The original copper plated chedi is the most holy area of the temple grounds, within the site are pagodas, statues, bells, a museum, and shrines
6.
Songthaew
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A songthaew is a passenger vehicle in Thailand and Laos adapted from a pick-up or a larger truck and used as a share taxi or bus. The songthaew takes its name from the two bench seats fixed along either side of the back of the truck, in vehicles a third bench is put down the middle of the seating area. Additionally a roof is fitted over the rear of the vehicle, to which curtains, some vehicles have roofs high enough to accommodate standing passengers within the vehicle. More typically, standing passengers occupy a platform attached to the rear, in Chiang Mai and its surroundings, locals may call them rot si daeng, rot daeng, or sometimes si rot. The Isuzu Faster and Toyota Hilux are example models of songthaew found in Thailand, songthaews are used both within towns and cities and for longer routes between towns and villages. Vehicles on longer routes may be converted from larger trucks for about forty passengers, transport in Thailand Truck bus Pickup truck Tuk tuk Jeepney Public Transit in Pattaya Thailand
7.
Wat Chiang Man
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Wat Chiang Man is a Buddhist temple inside the old city of Chiang Mai, in northern Thailand. Chedi Chang Lom - the Elephant Chedi is the oldest construction within the temple complex, the square base supports a second level which has the front half of 15 life-sized brick-and-stucco elephants emerging from it. The elephants seem to carry the upper levels of the building on their backs, the gilded upper part of the chedi contains a bell shaped relic chamber directly underneath the pinnacle. Main Wihan - the larger of the two wihans was renovated in the 1920s by the famous monk Khru Ba Srivichai, the building houses a large mondop structure for an altar surrounded by Buddha statues. One of the standing Buddhas has the year 1465 CE engraved on its base and it is also the oldest statue of Thailand which shows the Buddha with an alms bowl. The façade of the wihan features gilded carvings of Kirtimukha in between flower and plant motives and this 10 cm tall statue is carved out of a clear quartz crystal. According to Oliver Hargreave, the statue was crafted around 200 CE for King Ramraj of Lopburi and it was only transferred to Chiang Mai by King Mangrai in 1296 after he had conquered Lamphun. As it survived the pillaging of that city, the statue is thought to protect against disasters, however, Carol Stratton dates the statue as having been created in the 15th century based on its style characteristics. The gold covered wooden base and golden canopy are later donated by King Inthawichayanon of Chiang Mai in 1874. Together they contain more than 6 kg of gold, the Phra Sila statue is a stone stele depicting a standing Buddha whilst taming the elephant Nalagiri in bas-relief. The temple states that the statue originated from India before being transferred to its present location, however, others believe the statue originated from Ceylon and might date from either the 8th or 10th century CE depending on the source. Due the religious belief that the statue has rain-giving powers, this statue features prominently during the Songkran festival at the end of the dry season, ubosot - in front of the ubosot one can find a stone stele from the year 1581 CE. This stele contains the oldest mentioning of the date of Chiang Mai. It also mentions that the ubosot was commissioned by King Mangrai, the present building was built in the 19th century. Ho Trai - the Temple Library of Wat Chiang Man is of a plain design when compared to the Ho Trai belonging to Wat Phra Singh. It is a building set on top of a high plastered brick base. Most temples in Chiang Mai do not feature a Ho Trai, lotus Pond - as with Ho Trai, temple ponds do not feature at most Chiang Mai temples. Both Wat Phra Singh and Wat Chiang Man have one, thai temple art and architecture Carol Stratton, Buddhist Sculpture of Northern Thailand
8.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
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Thailand
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Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand, formerly known as Siam, is a country at the centre of the Indochinese peninsula in Southeast Asia. With a total area of approximately 513,000 km2, Thailand is the worlds 51st-largest country and it is the 20th-most-populous country in the world, with around 66 million people. The capital and largest city is Bangkok, Thailand is a constitutional monarchy and has switched between parliamentary democracy and military junta for decades, the latest coup being in May 2014 by the National Council for Peace and Order. Its capital and most populous city is Bangkok and its maritime boundaries include Vietnam in the Gulf of Thailand to the southeast, and Indonesia and India on the Andaman Sea to the southwest. The Thai economy is the worlds 20th largest by GDP at PPP and it became a newly industrialised country and a major exporter in the 1990s. Manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism are leading sectors of the economy and it is considered a middle power in the region and around the world. The country has always been called Mueang Thai by its citizens, by outsiders prior to 1949, it was usually known by the exonym Siam. The word Siam has been identified with the Sanskrit Śyāma, the names Shan and A-hom seem to be variants of the same word. The word Śyâma is possibly not its origin, but a learned, another theory is the name derives from Chinese, Ayutthaya emerged as a dominant centre in the late fourteenth century. The Chinese called this region Xian, which the Portuguese converted into Siam, the signature of King Mongkut reads SPPM Mongkut King of the Siamese, giving the name Siam official status until 24 June 1939 when it was changed to Thailand. Thailand was renamed Siam from 1945 to 11 May 1949, after which it reverted to Thailand. According to George Cœdès, the word Thai means free man in the Thai language, ratcha Anachak Thai means kingdom of Thailand or kingdom of Thai. Etymologically, its components are, ratcha, -ana- -chak, the Thai National Anthem, written by Luang Saranupraphan during the extremely patriotic 1930s, refers to the Thai nation as, prathet Thai. The first line of the anthem is, prathet thai ruam lueat nuea chat chuea thai, Thailand is the unity of Thai flesh. There is evidence of habitation in Thailand that has been dated at 40,000 years before the present. Similar to other regions in Southeast Asia, Thailand was heavily influenced by the culture and religions of India, Thailand in its earliest days was under the rule of the Khmer Empire, which had strong Hindu roots, and the influence among Thais remains even today. Voretzsch believes that Buddhism must have been flowing into Siam from India in the time of the Indian Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Empire, later Thailand was influenced by the south Indian Pallava dynasty and north Indian Gupta Empire. The Menam Basin was originally populated by the Mons, and the location of Dvaravati in the 7th century, the History of the Yuan mentions an embassy from the kingdom of Sukhothai in 1282
10.
Provinces of Thailand
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Thailand is a unitary state that is subdivided into 76 provinces and one special administrative area representing the capital Bangkok. The provinces are part of the government, while Bangkok is part of the local government. Total land area of Thailand is 513,114 km², total population of Thailand is 65,118,726. Thailands national government organisation is divided into three types, central government, provincial government and local government, a province, as part of the provincial government, is administered by a governor who is appointed by the Minister of Interior. Bangkok, as part of the government, is administered by a corporation called Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. The corporation is led by the Governor of Bangkok who is elected by the citizens of Bangkok. The provinces are named by their main city, which is not necessarily still the most populous city within the province today. Also, in several provinces the administration was moved into a new building outside the city, many provinces date back to semi-independent local chiefdoms or kingdoms, which made up the Ayutthaya kingdom. As today, the provinces were created around a capital city, the governor was not paid by the king, but instead financed himself and his administration by imposing taxes by himself, thus effectively a kleptocracy. Every province was required to send a tribute to Bangkok. The provinces were divided into four different classes, the first class were the border provinces. The second class were those that once had their own princely house, third class were provinces that were created recently by splitting them from other provinces. Fourth class were provinces near the capital, in this Mandala system the semi-independent countries sometimes were tributary to more than one country. Reforms of the administration started in the 1870s under increased pressure from the colonial states of the United Kingdom. Especially to the areas near the borders commissionaries were sent to have a control on the provinces or tributary states. At the end of the 19th century King Chulalongkorn reformed the government drastically. In 1892 the ministry, which previously had many overlapping responsibilities, was reorganized with clear areas as in western administrations, Prince Damrong Rajanubhab became minister of the Ministry of the North, originally responsible for the northern administration. When the Ministry of the South was dissolved in 1894, Prince Damrong became Minister of the Interior, starting in 1893 the already existing commissionarships in some parts of the country were renamed to superintendent commissioner, and their area of responsibility was called monthon
11.
Chiang Mai Province
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Chiang Mai is the second-largest province of Thailand. It is in the countrys north and it is bordered by Chiang Rai to the northeast, Lampang and Lamphun to the south, Tak to the southwest, Mae Hong Son to the west, and Shan State of Burma to the north. The capital, Chiang Mai, is 685 km north of Bangkok, Chiang Mai Province is about 685 km from Bangkok in the Mae Ping River basin and is on average at 300 m elevation. Surrounded by the ranges of the Thai highlands, it covers an area of approximately 20,107 km2. The Mae Ping, one of the tributaries of the Chao Phraya River. The highest mountain in Thailand, Doi Inthanon at 2,565 metres, is in Chiang Mai Province, several other national parks are also in the province, Doi Suthep-Pui, Ob Luang, Sri Lanna, Huai Nam Dang, Mae Wang, and Pha Daeng. The city of Chiang Mai was capital of the Lanna Kingdom after its founding in 1296, during the same period of time as the establishment of the Sukhothai Kingdom. From then, Chiang Mai not only became the capital and cultural core of the Lanna Kingdom, it was also the centre of Buddhism in northern Thailand, in 1599, the kingdom lost its independence and became part of the Ayutthaya Kingdom. This ended the dynasty founded by King Meng Rai, an era that last 300 years, the Burmese occupiers, had a powerful Burmese influence on the architecture which can still be seen today. It was only in the late 18th century that Burma was finally defeated with the leadership of King Taksin. In 1932 the province Chiang Mai moved up to the second subdivision of Thailand when the administrative unit of Monthon Phayap. 13. 4% of the population in the province are members of tribes, among them the Hmong, Yao, Lahu, Lisu, Akha. The seal of the shows a white elephant in a glass pavilion. The white elephant is a symbol in Thailand, and it is depicted to remember the offering of a white elephant by Thammalangka. The pavilion symbolizes that Buddhism prospered in Chiang Mai, especially when in 1477 the teachings of Buddha, the provincial flower and tree is the flame of the forest. The provincial slogan is In the shadow of Mount Doi Suthep, blessed with rice customs and traditions, beautiful wild flowers, Chiang Mai is subdivided into 25 districts. The districts are subdivided into 204 subdistricts and 2,066 villages. The maximum temperature recorded is 42.4 °C in May 2005
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Mueang Chiang Mai District
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Mueang Chiang Mai is the capital district of Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand. The district contains the city of Chiang Mai, the area of Mueang Chiang Mai district was the central part of the Lanna Kingdom, named Nopphaburi Si Nakhon Phing Chiang Mai. King Mengrai the Great was the first king of the Mengrai dynasty, the government created Mueang Chiang Mai district in 1899. The first district office was opened in 1929, on the west side of the old city hall of Chiang Mai, a new district office was opened in August 1989. Neighboring districts are Mae Rim, San Sai, San Kamphaeng, Saraphi, the main river through the district is the Ping River. The district Mueang Chiang Mai is subdivided into 16 subdistricts, which are subdivided into 78 administrative villages. There is one town-municipality in the district, Mae Hia consisting of the complete subdistrict Mae Hia, there are 8 subdistrict-municipalities in the district, Chang Phueak consisting of parts of the subdistrict Chang Phueak. Nong Pa Khrang consisting of parts of the subdistrict Nong Pa Khrang, Suthep consisting of parts of the subdistrict Suthep. Pa Daet consisting of parts of the subdistrict Pa Daet, Tha Sala consisting of parts of the subdistrict Tha Sala. Nong Hoi consisting of parts of the subdistrict Nong Hoi, Fa Ham consisting of parts of the subdistrict Fa Ham. San Phi Suea consisting of the complete subdistrict San Phi Suea, there is one subdistrict administrative organization in the district, Chang Phueak consisting of parts of the subdistrict Chang Phueak. Amphoe. com on Mueang Chiang Mai District
13.
Metropolitan area
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As social, economic and political institutions have changed, metropolitan areas have become key economic and political regions. The Greater São Paulo is a term for one of the multiple definitions the large metropolitan area located in the São Paulo state in Brazil. A metropolitan area combines an urban agglomeration with zones not necessarily urban in character and these outlying zones are sometimes known as a commuter belt, and may extend well beyond the urban zone, to other political entities. For example, El Monte, California is considered part of the Los Angeles metro area in the United States, in practice, the parameters of metropolitan areas, in both official and unofficial usage, are not consistent. Population figures given for one area can vary by millions. A polycentric metropolitan area is one not connected by continuous development or conurbation, in defining a metropolitan area, it is sufficient that a city or cities form a nucleus that other areas have a high degree of integration with. The Australian Bureau of Statistics defines statistical divisions as areas under the influence of one or more major towns or a major city. However, this definition has become obsolete with the conurbation of several statistical divisions into a larger metropolitan areas. In Brazil, metropolitan areas are called metropolitan regions, each State defines its own legislation for the creation, definition and organization of a metropolitan region. The creation of a region is not intended for any statistical purpose, although the Brazilian Institute of Geography. Their main purpose is to allow for a management of public policies of common interest to all cities involved. They dont have political, electoral or jurisdictional power whatsoever, so living in a metropolitan region do not elect representatives for them. Statistics Canada defines a metropolitan area as an area consisting of one or more adjacent municipalities situated around a major urban core. To form a CMA, the area must have a population of at least 100,000. To be included in the CMA, adjacent municipalities must have a degree of integration with the core. As of the Canada 2011 Census, there were 33 CMAs in Canada, including six with a population over one million—Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary and Edmonton. In Denmark the only area is Greater Copenhagen, consisting of the Capital Region of Denmark along with the neighboring regions Region Zealand. Greater Copenhagen has an population of 1.25 million people
14.
Chiang Mai International Airport
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Chiang Mai International Airport is an international airport serving Chiang Mai, the capital city of Chiang Mai Province in Thailand. It is a gateway to Northern Thailand, and currently the fourth busiest airport in the country. The airport was established in 1921 as Suthep Airport, on 24 January 2011, the airport became a secondary hub for Thai AirAsia. In 2013,19 airlines operated at CNX, serving more than 5.3 million passengers,43,000 flights and 18,000 tonnes of cargo. Upgrades in 2014 included expanding the apron for larger planes, extending operating hours to 24/7, the airport resides at an elevation of 316 metres above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 18/36 with a surface measuring 3,100 by 45 metres. There are two terminals, one for passengers and the other for international flights
15.
Thai language
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Thai, also known as Siamese or Central Thai, is the national and official language of Thailand and the native language of the Thai people and the vast majority of Thai Chinese. Thai is a member of the Tai group of the Tai–Kadai language family, over half of the words in Thai are borrowed from Pali, Sanskrit and Old Khmer. It is a tonal and analytic language, Thai also has a complex orthography and relational markers. Spoken Thai is mutually intelligible with Laotian, Thai is the official language of Thailand, natively spoken by over 20 million people. Standard Thai is based on the register of the classes of Bangkok. In addition to Central Thai, Thailand is home to other related Tai languages, Isan, the language of the Isan region of Thailand, a collective term for the various Lao dialects spoken in Thailand that show some Siamese Thai influences, which is written with the Thai script. It is spoken by about 20 million people, Thais from both inside and outside the Isan region often simply call this variant Lao when speaking informally. Northern Thai, spoken by about 6 million in the independent kingdom of Lanna. Shares strong similarities with Lao to the point that in the past the Siamese Thais referred to it as Lao. Southern Thai, spoken by about 4.5 million Phu Thai, spoken by half a million around Nakhon Phanom Province. Phuan, spoken by 200,000 in central Thailand and Isan, Shan, spoken by about 100,000 in north-west Thailand along the border with the Shan States of Burma, and by 3.2 million in Burma. Lü, spoken by about 1,000,000 in northern Thailand, and 600,000 more in Sipsong Panna, Burma, nyaw language, spoken by 50,000 in Nakhon Phanom Province, Sakhon Nakhon Province, Udon Thani Province of Northeast Thailand. Song, spoken by about 30,000 in central and northern Thailand, Elegant or Formal Thai, official and written version, includes respectful terms of address, used in simplified form in newspapers. Rhetorical Thai, used for public speaking, religious Thai, used when discussing Buddhism or addressing monks. Royal Thai, influenced by Khmer, this is used when addressing members of the family or describing their activities. Most Thais can speak and understand all of these contexts, street and Elegant Thai are the basis of all conversations. Rhetorical, religious, and royal Thai are taught in schools as the national curriculum, many scholars believe that the Thai script is derived from the Khmer script, which is modeled after the Brahmic script from the Indic family. However, in appearance, Thai is closer to Thai Dam script, the language and its script are closely related to the Lao language and script
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Northern Thai language
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Northern Thai, Lanna, or Kam Mueang is the language of the Northern Thai people of Lanna, Thailand. It is a Tai language closely related to Lao, Northern Thai has approximately six million speakers, most of whom live in Thailand, with a few thousand in northwestern Laos. Speakers of this language generally consider the name Tai Yuan to be pejorative and they generally call themselves khon mueang, Lanna, or Northern Thai. The language is known by one of these terms or as Phayap. The term Yuan is still used for Northern Thais distinctive Tai Tham alphabet, which is closely related to the old Tai Lue alphabet. The use of the tua mueang, as the alphabet is known, is now largely limited to Buddhist temples. There is no production of literature in the traditional alphabet. The modern spoken form is called Kam Muang, There is a resurgence of interest in writing it in the traditional way, but the modern pronunciation differs from that prescribed in spelling rules. The Northern Thai language has various names in Northern Thai, Thai, in Northern Thai, it is commonly called kam mueang, or phasa lanna. In Lao, it is known as phasa nyuan or phasa nyon, in Tai Lü, it is known as kam yon. In Shan it is known as kwam yon, currently, different scripts are used to write Northern Thai. Northern Thai is traditionally written with the Tai Tham script, which in Northern Thai is called tua mueang or tua tham, however, native speakers are presently illiterate in the traditional script, therefore, they instead use the Thai script to write the language. In Laos, the Lao script is used to write Northern Thai. Some problems arise when the Thai script is used to write Northern Thai, in particular, Standard Thai script cannot transcribe all Northern Thai tones. The two falling tones in Northern Thai correspond to a falling tone in Thai. Specifically, Northern Thai has two types of falling tones, high-falling tone and falling tone, however, Thai lacks the distinction between the two falling tones, not having a high-falling tone. When using Thai script to write Northern Thai tones, the distinction of the two falling tones is lost because Thai script can only indicate a low falling tone. As an example, the distinction between /ka᷇ː/ and /kâː/ is lost when written in Thai since as only /kâː/ is permitted
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Northern Thailand
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Northern Thailand is geographically characterised by several mountain ranges, which continue from the Shan Hills in bordering Myanmar to Laos, and the river valleys which cut through them. Historically it is related to the Lanna Kingdom and its culture, North Thailand is bound by the Salween River in the west and the Mekong in the east. The basins of rivers Ping, Wang, Yom, and Nan, all tributaries of the Chao Phraya River, the basins cut across the mountains of two great ranges, the Thanon Range in the western part and the Phi Pan Nam in the eastern. Their elevations are generally moderate, a little above 2,000 metres for the highest summits, although formerly forested, many of these mountains are now denuded. These high mountains are incised by steep valleys and upland areas that border the central plain. A series of rivers, including the Nan, Ping, Wang, Yom, sirikit Dam is on the Nan River in Uttaradit Province. The northeastern part is drained by rivers flowing into the Mekong basin, like the Kok, the four-region system includes the northern parts of the central plain as well as some mountainous areas bordering the western and the northeastern limits. The northern region, as defined by the National Geographical Committee in 1978, geographically the division, in conformance with the six-region system, includes most of the mountainous natural region of the Thai highlands. Regional classification of Northern Thailand North travel guide from Wikivoyage
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Lan Na
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The Lan Na or Lanna Kingdom, also known as Lannathai, was an Indianized state centered in present-day Northern Thailand from the 13th to 18th centuries. The Pali chronicles refers to the kingdom as Yonarattha or Yonkarattha or of Bingarattha, in the Chinese History of the Yuan it is called Pa-pai-si-fu, mentioned first in 1292. The cultural development of the people of the Northern Thai people had long before as successive kingdoms preceded Lan Na. As a continuation of the kingdom of Ngoenyang, Lan Na emerged strong enough in the 15th century to rival the Ayutthaya Kingdom, however, the Lanna Kingdom was weakened and became a tributary state of the Taungoo Dynasty in 1558. Lan Na was ruled by successive kings, though some enjoyed autonomy. The Burmese rule gradually withdrew but then resumed as the new Konbaung Dynasty expanded its influence, taksin of the Thonburi Kingdom finally conquered Lan Na in 1775 and broke it down into a number of tributary kingdoms. In 1262, Mangrai moved the capital from Ngoenyang to the newly founded Chiang Rai – naming the city after himself, Mangrai then expanded to the south and subjugated the Mon kingdom of Hariphunchai in 1281. Mangrai moved the capital several times, leaving Lamphun due to heavy flooding, he drifted until settling at and building Wiang Kum Kam in 1286/7, staying there until 1292 at which time he relocated to what would become Chiang Mai. He founded Chiang Mai in 1296, expanding it to become the capital of Lan Na, claimed territories of Mangrais Lan Na include modern northern Thailand provinces, Kengtung, Mong Nai, and Chiang Hung. Around 1311, Mangrai died and was succeeded by his second son Grama and he soon retired to Chiangrai and appointed his son Saen Phu as the Uparaja of Chiangmai. Mangrais youngest son, ruler of Mong Nai returned to claim the throne, Saen Phu and his brother Nam Thuem fled to their father in Chiangrai. Nam Tuam succeeded in driving out their uncle, restoring Saen Phu onto the throne in 1322 or 1324, Saen Phu founded the city of Chiang Saen in 1325 or 1328, before he died in 1334. His son Kham Fu replaced him but reigned only few years, before he was succeeded by his son Pha Yu, there he fortified the city and built Wat Phra Singh. Theravada Buddhism prospered in Lan Na during the reign of religious Kue Na who established the dhatu of Doi Suthep in 1386, Kue Na promoted the Lankawongse sect and invited monks from Sukhothai to replace the existing Mon Theravada that Lan Na inherited from Haripunchai. Lan Na enjoyed peace under Saenmuengma, the only disturbing event was the failed rebellion by his uncle Prince Maha Prommatat. Maha Prommatat requested aid from Ayutthaya, borommaracha I of Ayutthaya sent his troops to invade Lan Na but was repelled. This was the first armed conflict between the two kingdoms, Lan Na faced invasions from the newly established Ming Dynasty in the reign of Sam Fang Kaen. The Lan Na kingdom was strongest under Tilokkarat, Tilokkarat seized the throne from his father Sam Fang Kaen in 1441
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Kingdom of Chiang Mai
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The kingdom was a successor of the medieval Lanna kingdom, which had been under Burmese rule for two centuries until it was captured by Siamese forces under Taksin of Thonburi in 1774. It was ruled by the Tipchak dynasty and came under Thonburi and was later a Bangkokian tributary, Taksin sent Phraya Chakri and Phraya Surasi to capture Chiang Mai. The joint forces took Chiangmai and Lampang, Phraya Chaban was installed as Phraya Luang Vachiraprakarn the Lord of Chiang Mai, King Chaikaew died the same year, to be succeeded by his son Kawila as the King of Lampang. Kawila’s sister, Sri Anocha, was married to Phraya Surasi, the Burmese tried their best to recover their lost territories. The attacks were so immense that Vachiraprakarn decided to evacuate the city, in 1782, Phraya Chakri, now Somdet Chao Phraya Maha Kasatseuk, suppressed a rebellion at Thonburi and crowned himself Phutthayotfa Chulalok the King of Siam at Rattanakosin Island. As his brother-in-law, Phutthayotfa Chulalok made Kawila the Lord Min Vachiraprakarn of Chiang Mai in 1782 as a Siamese tributary, Lord Min Vachiraprakarn evacuated the people of Lampang to stay at Vieng Paxang until sufficient resources had been gathered to move to Chiang Mai in 1796. In 1799, the court of Chiang Mai renamed the city Rattana-ingsa, Min Vachiraprakarn constructed auspicious animal monuments around the cities. In 1802, Phutthayotfa Chulalok elevated Min Vachiraprakarn as King of Chiang Mai presiding over Lanna states, in 1804, King Kawila retook Chiang Saen from the Konbaung dynasty. Also, Kawila went on campaigns against Burma and sent the captives to Bangkok. The Chiang Mai succession was regulated by Bangkok. After the death of a king, the Uparaja retained the status as a prince until he visited the King of Bangkok that he would be elevated to the king. As the result, the reign of Chiang Mai kings were not continuous as the Uparaja usually spent at least a year going to Bangkok, Chiang Mai sent tributes to Bangkok triennially. The tributes included valuable forest products like teak, Chiang Mai also provided troops and manpower to Bangkok on military campaigns, including the Rebellion of Anouvong in 1824. Also, Chiang Mai was the base for the Siamese efforts to expand into Shan states. The degree of Chiang Mais control over its subordinate states varied on the course of history, under Kawila, his fresh installment by Rama I enforced Chiang Mai control over the principalities. However, the principalities then gained autonomy as strong symbolic justification from Bangkok was not granted, in the mid-19th century, control of Chiang Mai resumed under Mahotrapratet due to the encouragement of Rama III. Siamese interference in Chiang Mais internal affairs remained sporadic, after the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885, the British Empire had Control of Burma and its influence was penetrating into the Shan states. For the first time, the woodlands of Lanna were revealed to the West, the first missionaries arrived in 1868 and established schools that educated the children of Chiang Mai in English and Lanna script
20.
Tributary state
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The term tributary state refers to one of the two main ways in which a pre-modern state might be subordinate to a more powerful state. The heart of the relationship was that the tributary would send a token of submission to the superior power. This token often took the form of a transfer of wealth, such as the delivery of gold, produce, or slaves. John used to send annually to the Viceroy of Sicily in order to rule Malta and it might also involve attendance by the subordinate ruler at the court of the hegemon in order to make a public show of submission. Tributary relations involve no element of control or interference by the hegemon. At most, the hegemonic power might intervene in succession issues, for this reason, the extrapolation from pre-modern inter-state relations to the modern international system is problematic. For instance, Tributaries of Imperial China implies Chinese sovereign claim over territories not now regarded as Chinese, historically, the Emperor of China saw himself as the emperor of the entire civilized world. It was not possible for such an emperor to have diplomatic relations with any other power. Diplomatic missions and trading parties from non-Chinese regions were interpreted in Chinese records as being tributary, in Al Andalus, the last remaining Moorish Nasrid Dynasty in the Emirate of Granada paid tribute to the Christian Kingdom of Castile. Tributary states, usually on the periphery of the Ottoman Empire, were under vassalage in different forms, some were allowed to select their own leaders, while others paid tribute for their lands. In the Western colonial system, non-Western states were incorporated into a European empire as protectorates. In the Philippines, the Datus of the Barangays became vassals of the Spanish Empire and their right to rule was recognized by King Philip II of Spain, on 11 June 1594, under the condition of paying tributes due to the Spanish Crown. For modern forms of subordination, see puppet state, satellite state. Tribute Bunga mas Mandala Suzerainty Vassal state Puppet state Satellite state Client state
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Bangkok
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Bangkok is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. It is known in Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon or simply Krung Thep. The city occupies 1,568.7 square kilometres in the Chao Phraya River delta in Central Thailand, over 14 million people live within the surrounding Bangkok Metropolitan Region, making Bangkok an extreme primate city, significantly dwarfing Thailands other urban centres in terms of importance. Bangkok was at the heart of the modernization of Siam—later renamed Thailand—during the late 19th century, the city grew rapidly during the 1960s through the 1980s and now exerts a significant impact on Thailands politics, economy, education, media and modern society. The Asian investment boom in the 1980s and 1990s led many multinational corporations to locate their headquarters in Bangkok. The city is now a regional force in finance and business. It is a hub for transport and health care, and has emerged as a regional centre for the arts, fashion. The city is known for its vibrant street life and cultural landmarks. The historic Grand Palace and Buddhist temples including Wat Arun and Wat Pho stand in contrast with other tourist attractions such as the scenes of Khaosan Road. Bangkok is among the top tourist destinations. It is named the most visited city in MasterCards Global Destination Cities Index, Bangkoks rapid growth amidst little urban planning and regulation has resulted in a haphazard cityscape and inadequate infrastructure systems. The city has turned to public transport in an attempt to solve this major problem. Five rapid transit lines are now in operation, with more systems under construction or planned by the national government and the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration. The history of Bangkok dates at least back to the early 15th century, because of its strategic location near the mouth of the river, the town gradually increased in importance. Bangkok initially served as a customs outpost with forts on both sides of the river, and became the site of a siege in 1688 in which the French were expelled from Siam. After the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese Empire in 1767, the newly declared King Taksin established his capital at the town, in 1782, King Phutthayotfa Chulalok succeeded Taksin, moved the capital to the eastern banks Rattanakosin Island, thus founding the Rattanakosin Kingdom. The City Pillar was erected on 21 April, which is regarded as the date of foundation of the present city, Bangkoks economy gradually expanded through busy international trade, first with China, then with Western merchants returning in the early-to-mid 19th century. As the capital, Bangkok was the centre of Siams modernization as it faced pressure from Western powers in the late 19th century, Bangkok became the centre stage for power struggles between the military and political elite as the country abolished absolute monarchy in 1932
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Ping River
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The Ping River, along with the Nan River, is one of the two main tributaries of the Chao Phraya River. It originates at Doi Thuai in the Daen Lao Range, in Chiang Dao district, after passing Chiang Mai, it flows though the provinces of Lamphun, Tak, and Kamphaeng Phet. At the confluence with the Nan River at Nakhon Sawan, it forms the Chao Phraya River, the greater Ping Basin, i. e. the basin of the entire Ping river system including its tributary the Wang River, drains a total of 44,688 square kilometres. The main dams in the basin are the Bhumibol Dam and the Doi Tao Dam, the Ping itself originates in Huai Nam Dang National Park and flows through Mae Ping National Park
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Chao Phraya River
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The Chao Phraya is the major river in Thailand, with its low alluvial plain forming the centre of the country. It flows through Bangkok and then into the Gulf of Thailand, on many old European maps, the river is named Menam or Mae Nam, Thai for river. H. Warington Smyth, who served as Director of the Department of Mines in Siam from 1891 to 1896, in the English-language media in Thailand, the name Chao Phraya River is often translated as river of kings. The Chao Phraya begins at the confluence of the Ping and Nan rivers at Nakhon Sawan in Nakhon Sawan Province, after this it flows south for 372 kilometres from the central plains to Bangkok and the Gulf of Thailand. In the low alluvial plain which begins below the Chainat Dam, the khlongs are used for the irrigation of the regions rice paddies. The rough coordinates of the river are 13 N,100 E and this area has a wet monsoon climate, with over 1,400 millimetres of rainfall per year. Temperatures range from 24 to 33 °C in Bangkok, the lower Chao Phraya underwent several man-made modifications during the Ayutthaya period. Several shortcut canals were constructed to bypass large loops in the river, the course of the river has since changed to follow many of these canals. In 1538, Thailands first river engineering of a 3 km long canal was dug at the order of King Chairachathirat and it was called khlong lat, today known as Khlong Bangkok Noi. It shortened the route by 13–14 km for ships from the Gulf of Siam to the then-capital city, in 1542, a two kilometre-long canal, khlong lat Bangkok, was completed. Today its called Khlong Bangkok Yai and it is said to have shortened the river route by 14 km. In 1608, a seven kilometre-long Khlong Bang Phrao canal was completed and has shortened the Chao Phrayas original route by 18 km, in 1636, the khlong lat mueang Nonthaburi was completed. In 1722, the two kilometre long khlong lat Kret Noi shortened the Chao Phraya by 7 km and this route was from the island of Ko Kret. Cities along the Chao Phraya include, from north to south, Nakhon Sawan, Uthai Thani, Chai Nat, Sing Buri, Ang Thong, Ayutthaya, Pathum Thani, Nonthaburi, Bangkok, and Samut Prakan. These cities are among the most historically significant and densely populated settlements of Thailand due to their access to the waterway, in Bangkok, the Chao Phraya is a major transportation artery for a network of river buses, cross-river ferries, and water taxis. More than 15 boat lines operate on the rivers and canals of the city, the principal tributaries of the Chao Phraya River are the Pa Sak River, the Sakae Krang River, the Nan River, the Ping River, and the Tha Chin River. Each of these tributaries is augmented by minor tributaries referred to as khwae, all of the tributaries, including the lesser khwae, form an extensive tree-like pattern, with branches flowing through nearly every province in central and northern Thailand. None of the tributaries of the Chao Phraya extend beyond the nations borders, the Nan and the Yom River flow nearly parallel from Phitsanulok to Chumsaeng in the north of Nakhon Sawan Province
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Chiang Mai Initiative
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The Chiang Mai Initiative is a multilateral currency swap arrangement among the ten members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the Peoples Republic of China, Japan, and South Korea. It draws from a foreign exchange reserves pool worth US$120 billion and was launched on 24 March 2010 and that pool has been expanded to $240 billion in 2012. The initiative began as a series of bilateral swap arrangements after the ASEAN Plus Three countries met on 6 May 2000 in Chiang Mai, Thailand, at an annual meeting of the Asian Development Bank. At the height of the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, Japanese authorities proposed an Asian Monetary Fund, however, this idea was shelved after encountering strong resistance from the United States. The proposal was dubbed the Chiang Mai Initiative and intended to avoid a recurrence of the Asian Financial Crisis. It also implied the possibility of establishing a pool of foreign exchange reserves accessible by participating banks to fight currency speculation. The proposal would also supplement the financial resources of international institutions such as the IMF, joint Ministerial Statement was issued after the ASEAN+3 Finance Minister’s Meetings have mentioned the development of the CMI. Early critics questioned the reasoning behind the initiative, as of 16 October 2009, the network consisted of 16 bilateral arrangements among the ASEAN Plus Three countries worth approximately US$90 billion. Additionally, the ASEAN Swap Arrangement had a pool of approximately US$2 billion. In May 2007, at the 10th meeting of ASEAN+3 Finance Ministers the CMI further progress was agreed upon, Foundation of CMI was meant to expand bilateral swaps of ASEAN. In addition, it was to aid the existing facilities of IMF. Nonetheless, the Global Financial Crisis proved that the CMI was not working up to its expectation and was in need of further development. Instead of seeking for CMI liquidity provision, Korea and Singapore used the US Federal Reserve as their way of securing liquidity, consequently, policy-makers realised that the CMI needed a reserve pooling arrangement and took action to multilateralise the initiative. In February 2009, ASEAN+3 agreed to expand the fund to $120 billion up from the level of $78 billion proposed in 2008. During the April 2009 meeting of ASEAN finance ministers in Pattaya, Thailand, when leaders of the thirteen countries finally met in Bali in May, they finalised the individual contributions of China, Japan, and South Korea. This summit also added Hong Kong as a new participant, whose contribution was added to that of China though Hong Kong remained a monetary administration on its own. Its participation raised Chinas total contribution to US$38.4 billion, equal to that of Japan, and South Korea, China and Japan remains as the biggest contributors by each contributing 32 percent of total financial contributions. Including Korea, these three account for 80% of all the contributions made to CMIM while the remaining 20 percent is from ASEAN countries
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Association of Southeast Asian Nations
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ASEAN covers a land area of 4.4 million square kilometres, 3% of the total land area of Earth. ASEAN territorial waters cover an area three times larger than its land counterpart. Member countries have a population of approximately 625 million people,8. 8% of the worlds population. In 2015, the organisations combined nominal GDP had grown to more than US$2.8 trillion, if ASEAN were a single entity, it would rank as the sixth largest economy in the world, behind the USA, China, Japan, India and Germany. ASEAN shares land borders with India, China, Bangladesh, East Timor, and Papua New Guinea, and maritime borders with India, China, Palau, both East Timor and Papua New Guinea are backed by certain ASEAN members for their membership in the organisation. As set out in the ASEAN Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are, To accelerate economic growth, social progress, to promote regional peace and stability. To promote collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest, to provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities. To collaborate for the better utilisation of agriculture and industry to raise the standards of the people. To maintain close, beneficial co-operation with existing international organisations with similar aims, ASEAN was preceded by an organization formed in 1961 called the Association of Southeast Asia, a group consisting of the Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand. The creation of ASEAN was motivated by a fear of communism. ASEAN grew when Brunei Darussalam became its sixth member on 7 January 1984, ASEAN achieved greater cohesion in the mid-1970s following the changed balance of power in Southeast Asia after the end of the Vietnam War. The regions dynamic economic growth during the 1970s strengthened the organization, on 28 July 1995, Vietnam became ASEANs seventh member. Laos and Myanmar joined two years later on 23 July 1997, Cambodia was to have joined at the same time as Laos and Burma, but its entry was delayed due to the countrys internal political struggle. It later joined on 30 April 1999, following the stabilization of its government, however, the proposal failed because of heavy opposition from the US and Japan. Member states continued to work for integration, and ASEAN Plus Three was created in 1997. This law would act as the framework for the ASEAN Free Trade Area, AFTA is an agreement by member nations concerning local manufacturing in ASEAN countries. The AFTA agreement was signed on 28 January 1992 in Singapore, after the East Asian Financial Crisis of 1997, a revival of the Malaysian proposal, known as the Chiang Mai Initiative, was put forward in Chiang Mai, Thailand. It called for integration of the economies of ASEAN as well as the ASEAN Plus Three countries, China, Japan
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China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
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Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
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South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
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Tourism in Thailand
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Tourism is a major economic factor in the Kingdom of Thailand. Estimates of tourism receipts directly contributing to the Thai GDP of 12 trillion baht range from nine percent to 17.7 percent in 2016, when including indirect travel and tourism receipts, the 2014 total is estimated to have accounted for 19.3 percent of Thailands GDP. The global average for tourism revenue is nine percent of GDP, the Tourism Authority of Thailand uses the slogan Amazing Thailand to promote Thailand internationally. In 2015, this was supplemented by a Discover Thainess campaign, among the reasons for the increase in tourism in the 1960s were the stable political atmosphere and the development of Bangkok as a crossroads of international air transport. The hotel industry and retail industry both expanded rapidly due to tourist demand and it was boosted by the presence of US GIs who started to arrive in the 1960s for rest and recuperation during the Vietnam War. Thailand was one of the first players in Asia to capitalise on this then-new trend, Tourist numbers have grown from 336,000 foreign visitors and 54,000 GIs on R&R in 1967 to 32.59 million foreign guests visiting Thailand in 2016. The Tourism Authority of Thailand claims that the tourist industry earned 2.52 trillion baht in 2016, TAT officials said their revenue estimates, for foreign and domestic tourists combined, show that tourism revenue for all of 2017 may surpass earlier forecasts of 2.77 trillion baht. In 2015,6.7 million persons arrived from ASEAN countries, the largest numbers of Western tourists came from Russia, the UK, Australia, and the US. Around 55 percent of Thailands tourists are return visitors, the peak period is during the Christmas and New Year holidays when Western tourists flee cold conditions at home. In 2014,4.6 million Chinese visitors travelled to Thailand, in 2015, Chinese tourists numbered 7.9 million or 27 percent of all international tourist arrivals,29.8 million,8.75 million Chinese tourists visited Thailand in 2016. Thailand relies heavily on Chinese tourists to meet its tourism revenue target of 2.2 trillion baht in 2015 and 2.3 trillion in 2016, Chinese visitors now account for 27 percent of all foreign travellers to Thailand. It is estimated that the average Chinese tourist remains in the country for one week and spends 30, 000–40,000 baht per person, the average Chinese tourist spends 6,400 baht per day—more than the average visitors 5,690 baht. Chinese media outlets have claimed that Thailand superseded Hong Kong as the top destination for Chinese travellers during the 2013 May Day holiday, the huge influx of Chinese tourists has not been without its downside. Locals have complained that many Chinese visitors are culturally insensitive and boorish and this has led the Thai government to publish a Mandarin language etiquette manual for distribution to Chinese tourists. In 2015, Thailand hosted 1.43 million Japanese travellers, up 4.1 percent from 2015, generating 61.4 billion baht, in 2016, Thailand expects 1.7 million Japanese tourists, generating 66.2 billion baht in revenue. To accommodate foreign visitors, the Thai government established a separate police force with offices in the major tourist areas. Thailands tourism has faced increased competition since Laos, Cambodia, Destinations like Angkor Wat, Luang Prabang, and Halong Bay now rival Thailands former monopoly in the Indochina region. To counter this, Thailand is targeting niche markets such as holidays, holidays combined with medical treatment
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TripAdvisor
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TripAdvisor, Inc. is an American travel website company providing reviews of travel-related content. It also includes interactive travel forums, TripAdvisor was an early adopter of user-generated content. The website services are free to users, who provide most of the content, and the website is supported by a business model. K. In February 2000, TripAdvisor was founded by Stephen Kaufer, Langley Steinert, Kaufer says the original idea wasnt a user generated social media site to swap reviews. Rather, We started as a site where we were focused more on those official words from guidebooks or newspapers or magazines and we also had a button in the very beginning that said, Visitors add your own review, and boy, did that just take off. Pretty soon the number of average consumer reviews far surpassed the number of professional reviews and that is when the site really turned into this collection of what the normal traveler was saying wherever they were going. Original financing was obtained from Flagship Ventures, the Bollard Group, in 2004, the company was purchased by IAC/InterActiveCorp. In August 2005, IAC spun off its travel group of businesses under the Expedia, in April 2009, TripAdvisor launched its official site in China, www. daodao. com. Since then it has indexed more than 20,000 hotels and restaurants information and customer reviews, in September 2010, SmarterTravel, part of TripAdvisor Media Group, launched SniqueAway, the first members-only site where each travel deal is endorsed by the people. In March 2011, TripAdvisor informed all registered TripAdvisor members that a third party had stolen some of TripAdvisors email list. No passwords or other information was stolen and this happened shortly before many other companies reported similar thefts of the addresses on their email lists. In April 2011, it was announced that Expedia would split into two publicly traded companies by spinning off the TripAdvisor brand of travel sites. According to Expedia CEO Dara Khosrowshahi, the allows the two businesses to be pure plays and to operate with the proper amount of focus to grow respectively. In December 2011, TripAdvisor was spun off from Expedia in a public offering, TripAdvisor states it is the world’s largest travel site, with nearly 280 million unique monthly visitors. In April 2012, the company launched a connection to Facebook that lets users select reviews from people in their social graph, in August 2014, a survey found that TripAdvisor was the most widely recognized, used, and trusted travel website. In October 2014, Trip Advisor released a new feature, Just for you, offering tailored hotel recommendations based on the users preferences and this feature mirrored the Tribes feature launched on competitor site Gogobot in 2013. In 2015, Tripadvisor started letting users not only places but tag them, saying, for example that a place offers brunch, is open on Sunday, or offers delivery, takeout. In May 2007 TripAdvisor acquired Smarter Travel Media operator of SmarterTravel. com and BookingBuddy. com, SeatGuru. com, TravelPod. com, and Travel-Library. com
31.
Daen Lao Range
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The Daen Lao Range is a mountain range of the Shan Hills in eastern Burma and northern Thailand. Most of the range is in Shan State, with its northern limit close to the border with China, geologically in the Daen Lao Range, as in the other southern subranges of the Shan Hills, layers of alluvium are superimposed on hard rock. The range extends east of the Salween until almost reaching the Golden Triangle area, some geographers include the Thanon Thong Chai Range subrange as part of the Daen Lao Range. The Khun Tan Range also extends southwards from the Daen Lao Range, parallel to the Thanon Thong Chai mountains, the name Lao in the range name is a Thai Yuan word possibly not related to the country of Laos. The western end of the range is not clearly defined, the highest point is 2,563 m Loi Pangnao in Burma, with a prominence of 1,596 m, one of the ultra prominent peaks of Southeast Asia. On the Thai side the highest point is 2,285 m Doi Pha Hom Pok, historically the area has been sparsely populated. Only some hill tribes such as the Wa, Akha, Yao, Lahu, in 1605 King Naresuan of Ayutthaya marched his armies across the Daen Lao Range to rescue the Shan King of Hsenwi, but he died during his journey across the mountains. Many Shan people believe King Naresuan was cremated in the Daen Lao Range, in the part of Shan State. Until the 1990s one of the crops at elevations above 1,000 m was opium. Owing to the unrest in Burma, the National Democratic Alliance Army and other groups sought refuge, fighting and the ensuing persecution by the Tatmadaw have caused part of the original population to flee. Some refugee camps have been established for cross-border refugees on the Thai side of the range, some Kayah and Karen communities, like the long-necked Karen, are regularly visited by organized tourist groups. The Ang Khang Royal Agricultural Station is in the mountains of the range and it was founded in 1969 by the King of Thailand and is notable for its temperate climate that allows the cultivation of flowers and fruits characteristic of cooler climates. In March 2011 there was a magnitude 5 earthquake in the Burmese side of the range with the north of Chiang Rai town. There were over 70 deaths and more than hundred wounded
32.
Chiang Dao District
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Chiang Dao is a district of Chiang Mai Province in northern Thailand. It is nicknamed little Tuscany and several wines are produced in the area, neighboring districts are Fang, Chai Prakan, Phrao, Mae Taeng of Chiang Mai Province, Pai of Mae Hong Son Province, and Wiang Haeng of Chiang Mai again. To the north is the Shan State of Myanmar, Chiang Dao is the only district in Thailand that has all twelve hill tribes in residence. The Chiang Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, with over 300 species of birds, surrounds the mountain of Doi Chiang Dao, Pha Daeng National Park is another nature reserve located within the district. The Ping River, one of the tributaries to the Chao Phraya River, originates at Doi Thuai. Chiang Dao was a city state in the northern Thai Lan Na kingdom. As part of the administrative reforms at the end of the 19th century it was made a district in Chiang Mai Province. Originally a minor district, it was upgraded to a district in 1908. The district is subdivided into seven subdistricts, which are subdivided into 83 villages. Both Chiang Dao and Mueang Ngai are subdistrict municipalities, which parts of the same-named tambon. The subdistrict municipality Phra That Pu Kam covers the parts of the subdistrict Mueang Ngai. Mueang Na, Ping Khong and Thung Khao Phuang are further subdistrict municipalities which cover the whole same-named subdistrict, there are further three Tambon administrative organizations - Mae Na and Mueang Khong covering the whole same-named subdistrict, and Chiang Dao the non-municipal parts of the subdistrict. Chiang Dao travel guide from Wikivoyage amphoe. com Pha Daeng National Park
33.
Wat
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A wat is a Buddhist temple in Thailand, Cambodia or Laos. The term is borrowed from Pali vatta, which goes on or is customary, i. e. duty, service, custom, function. Strictly speaking a wat is a Buddhist sacred precinct with a vihara, a temple, an edifice housing an image of Buddha. A site without a minimum of three resident bhikkhus cannot correctly be described as a wat although the term is used more loosely. As a transitive or intransitive verb, wat means to measure, to take measurements, compare templum, from which temple derives, in everyday language in Thailand, a wat is any place of worship except a mosque or a synagogue. Thus a wat chin is a Chinese temple, wat khaek is a Hindu temple and wat khrit or wat farang is a Christian church, in Cambodia, a wat is used to refer to all kinds of places of worship. Technically, wat generally refers to a Buddhist place of worship, a Christian church can be referred as វិហារយេស៊ូ vihear Yesaou or Jesus vihear. Angkor Wat អង្គរវត្ត means city of temples and these temples are divided into, Royal temples, established or patronised by the king or his family members. Private temples, established by private citizens, despite the term private, private temples are opened to the public and are sites of public religious activities also. Samnak song are temples without state endorsement and wisungkhamasima, architecturally it is similar to the vihara, the main differences are the eight cornerstones placed around the bot to ward off evil. The bot is usually more decorated than the viharn, hall - library where Buddhist texts are kept drum tower bell tower multipurpose hall is a building in a wat. In the past this hall was only for monks to study in, the living quarters of the monks, including the กุฏิ are separated from the sacred buildings. The roofs of Thai temples are adorned with chofas
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Mangrai
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King Mangrai, also known as Mengrai, was the 25th King of Ngoenyang and the 1st King of Lanna. He established a new city, Chiang Mai, as the capital of the Lanna Kingdom, in 1259, Mangrai succeeded his father to become the first independent king of the unified Tai city states in northern Lanna and what is now northern Laos. Seeing the Tai states were disunited and in danger, Mangrai quickly expanded his kingdom by conquering Muang Lai, Chiang Kham, in 1262, he founded the city of Chiang Rai as his new capital in the Kok River basin. He also seems to have been operating around this time in the area of Fang in the Upper Kok Valley, in 1287, Mangrai first made peace between King Ngam Muang of Phayao and King Ram Khamhaeng of Sukhothai, who had seduced the formers queen. The three Kings then entered a Strong pact of friendship, while still living in the area of Fang he was visited by merchants from the Mon kingdom of Haripunchai. Hearing of the wealth of that kingdom, he determined to conquer it, as it was thought impossible to take the city by force, Mangrai sent a merchant named Ai Fa as a mole to gain the confidence of its King Yi Ba. In time, Ai Fa became the Chief Minister and managed to undermine the Kings authority, in 1291, with the people in a state of discontent, Mangrai defeated the Mon kingdom and added Haripunchai to his kingdom. Yi Ba, the last king of Hariphunchai, was forced to flee south to Lampang, after defeating the Hariphunchai kingdom, Mangrai decided to relocate his capital, and in 1294, Wiang Kum Kam was founded on the eastern bank of the Ping River. The site was plagued with floods, and a new site was several kilometres to the northwest at the foot of Doi Suthep. Construction of Chiang Mai began in 1296. and it has been the capital of the provinces more or less ever since. A few years later, Yi Bas son, King Boek of Lampang, King Mangrai and his second son, Prince Khram, led the defence against the Lampang army. Prince Khram defeated King Boek in personal combat on elephant-back at Khua Mung, King Boek fled by way of the Doi Khun Tan mountain range between Lamphun and Lampang, but he was caught and executed. King Mangrais troops occupied the city of Lampang, and King Yi Ba was made to further south. King Mangrais eldest son grew tired of waiting and tried to seize the throne and his attempt failed and he was executed, Mangrais second son, Khun Kham, was named to succeed his father. King Mangrai died in 1311 in Chiang Mai, according to tradition, Mangrais death was followed by period of confusion, with six kings ruling in the next eleven years. This could have been if the northern powers had not had their own troubles. Sukhothai to the south had also been weakened, not until the ascension of the Mangrais grandson, Kham Fu, in 1328 did the kingdom achieve the stability it had had during the lifetime of its founder. List of the Kings of Lanna
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Wa people
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Historically the Wa have inhabited the Wa States, a territory that they have claimed as their ancestral land since time immemorial. It is a mountainous area located between the Mekong and the Salween rivers, with the Nam Hka flowing across it. The Wa traditionally practiced subsistence agriculture by cultivating rice, peas, beans, poppies and they bred buffaloes which they used mainly for sacrificial purposes. Generally, the customs of the Wa, as well as their lifestyle, are very similar to those of the Naga people further to the Northwest. The lake is located in the northeastern Wa territory in the area between China and Myanmar. Very little is known about the history of the Wa. In the area of the former Kengtung State the Wa were displaced around 1229 and were defeated by King Mangrai. At the time of British rule in Burma the Tai Yai people were the majority of the population in Kengtung state with groups such as Akha and Lahu. The Wa now form a minority of only about 10% in Kengtung District despite having been the original inhabitants, the Wa originally had animist religious beliefs centered around ritual blood sacrifices. Villages had a spirit healer and the way of dealing with sickness or other problems was to sacrifice a chicken. According to local legend, the practice of cutting a head was intended as a ritual sacrifice in order to improve the fertility of the rice fields. Traditional villages had also shrines where a buffalo was sacrificed once every year at a special Y-shaped post named Khaox Si Gang with an offering of the blood, meat and skin performed at it. Animals were also sacrificed at such as marriages and funerary rituals among the traditional spirit-worshiping Wa. However, the Wa that were under Buddhist influence developed different traditions, in the traditional Wa society monogamous marriage was the norm and there was sexual freedom for both men and women before marriage. The chewing of betel with areca nut was formerly also an important custom, the Wa have different kinds of traditional dances. One important dance in their culture is accompanied by the beating of a hollow wooden drum. This way of dancing, among other Wa dances such as the hair dance, the Wa people also have a well-engrained drinking culture, with large amounts of local moonshine being produced and are widely believed to on average consume the largest amount of alcohol in China. The Wa language forms a group belonging to the Palaungic branch of the Austroasiatic language family
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British rule in Burma
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The annexed territories were designated the minor province, British Burma, of British India in 1862. After the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885, Upper Burma was annexed, and the following year and this arrangement lasted until 1937, when Burma began to be administered separately by the Burma Office under the Secretary of State for India and Burma. British rule was disrupted during the Japanese occupation of much of the country during the Second World War, Burma achieved independence from British rule on 4 January 1948. They were administered separately by the British with a Burma Frontier Service, the Frontier Areas were inhabited by ethnic minorities such as the Chin, the Shan, the Kachin and the Karenni. By 1931 Burma had 8 divisions, split into a number of districts, in Danuphyu, south of Ava, the Burmese general Maha Bandula was killed and his armies routed. The 1826 Treaty of Yandabo formally ended the First Anglo-Burmese War, the longest, fifteen thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of Burmese army and civilian casualties. The campaign cost the British five million sterling to 13 million pounds sterling that led to a severe economic crisis in British India in 1833. After 25 years of peace, the British and Burmese fighting started afresh, King Mindon tried to readjust to the thrust of imperialism. He enacted administrative reforms and made Burma more receptive to foreign interests, but the British effected the Third Anglo-Burmese War, which lasted less than two weeks during November 1885. British troops entered Mandalay on 28 November 1885 and Burma was attached to the British Empire on 1 January 1886, Burmese armed resistance continued sporadically for several years, and the British commander had to coerce the High Court of Justice to continue to function. The British decided to all of Upper Burma as a colony. The new colony of Upper Burma was attached to the Burma Province on 26 February 1886, Rangoon, having been the capital of British Lower Burma, became the capital of the province. It was also one of the first Southeast Asian countries to receive Buddhism, before the British conquest and colonisation, the ruling Konbaung Dynasty practised a tightly centralised form of government. The king was the executive, with the final say on all matters. The country had two codes of law, the Rajathat and Dammathat, and the Hluttaw, the centre of government, was divided into three branches—fiscal, executive, and judicial. In theory the king was in charge of all of the Hluttaw but none of his orders got put into place until the Hluttaw approved them, thus checking his power. Further dividing the country, provinces were ruled by governors who were all appointed by the Hluttaw, conflict began between Myanmar and the British when the Konbaung Dynasty decided to expand into Arakan in the state of Assam, close to the British possessions in India. This close contact led to the first Anglo-Burmese War, which the British won with the aid of the Siamese, Myanmar was forced to cede Assam and other northern provinces
37.
Wat Phra Singh
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Wat Phra Singh is a Buddhist temple in Chiang Mai, Northern Thailand. King Ananda Mahidol, the brother of the late King Bhumibol Adulyadej. Wat Phra Singh is located in the part of the old city centre of Chiang Mai. The main entrance is guarded by Singhs, Wat Pra Singh is situated at the end of the main street of Chiang Mai. The road runs east from the temple, via Tapae Gate, Phra Singh is an abbreviated form of Phra-Put-Tha-Shi-Hing and does not refer to the word Singh. The temple houses an important Buddha statue, the Phra Buddha Sihing which gives the temple its name. The origins of this statue are unknown but, according to legend, it was based on the lion of Shakya, a statue since lost which used to be housed in the Mahabodhi Temple of Bodh Gaya. The Phra Buddha Sihing statue is supposed to have brought, via Ceylon, to Ligor (present day Nakhon Si Thammarat and from there, via Ayutthaya. It is alleged that the head of the statue had been stolen in 1922, the possibility remains that the present statue is a copy. Construction on Wat Phra Singh began in 1345 when King Phayu, a wihan and several other buildings were added a few years later and the resulting complex was named Wat Lichiang Phra. When, in 1367, the statue of Phra Buddha Singh was brought to the temple, during restoration works in 1925, three funerary urns were discovered inside a small chedi. It was assumed that these contained royal ashes, the urns have since been lost. From 1578 to 1774 the Burmese ruled Lanna and in this period the temple was abandoned and it was only when King Kawila assumed the throne as King of Chiang Mai in 1782, that the temple was restored. King Kawila had the ubosot built and the chedi enlarged, later successors restored the Wihan Lai Kham and the elegant Ho Trai. The whole temple complex underwent extensive renovations under the famous monk Khru Ba Srivichai during the 1920s, many of the buildings were again restored in 2002. Wihan Luang - the original wihan was replaced by the present building in 1925, Wihan Lai Kham - this wihan is the main attraction of the complex. It was built in 1345 to house the Phra Buddha Singh statue, the murals of the wihan are also highly remarkable. The murals on the show the history of Songthong and on the right the history of Suwanna Hongse
38.
Moat
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A moat is a deep, broad ditch, either dry or filled with water, that is dug and surrounds a castle, fortification, building or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. In some places evolved into more extensive water defences, including natural or artificial lakes, dams. In older fortifications, such as hillforts, they are referred to simply as ditches. In later periods, moats or water defences may be largely ornamental and they could also act as sewerage. Some of the earliest evidence of moats has been uncovered around ancient Egyptian castles, one example is at Buhen, a castle excavated in Nubia. Other evidence of ancient moats is found in the ruins of Babylon, and in reliefs from ancient Egypt, Assyria, and other cultures in the region. Evidence of early moats around settlements has been discovered in archaeological sites throughout Southeast Asia, including Noen U-Loke, Ban Non Khrua Chut, Ban Makham Thae. The use of the moats could have been either for defensive or agriculture purposes, moats were excavated around castles and other fortifications as part of the defensive system as an obstacle immediately outside the walls. In suitable locations they might be filled with water, a moat made access to the walls difficult for siege weapons, such as siege towers and battering rams, which needed to be brought up against a wall to be effective. A water-filled moat made the practice of mining, digging tunnels under the castles in order to effect a collapse of the defences, segmented moats have one dry section and one section filled with water. Dry moats cut across the part of a spur or peninsula are called neck ditches. Moats separating different elements of a castle, such as the inner and outer wards are cross ditches, the shared derivation implies that the two features were closely related and possibly constructed at the same time. The term moat is also applied to natural formations reminiscent of the artificial structure, the walls were further protected from infantry attack by wet or dry moats, sometimes in elaborate systems. When this style of fortification was superseded by lines of forts in the mid-19th century. The Walls of Benin were a combination of ramparts and moats, called Iya and it was considered the largest man-made structure lengthwise, second only to the Great Wall of China and the largest earthwork in the world. With more recent work by Patrick Darling, it has established as the largest man-made structure in the world. It enclosed 6,500 km² of community lands and its length was over 16,000 km of earth boundaries. It was estimated that earliest construction began in 800 and continued into the mid-15th century, the walls are built of a ditch and dike structure, the ditch dug to form an inner moat with the excavated earth used to form the exterior rampart
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Defensive wall
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A defensive wall is a fortification used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. In ancient to modern times, they were used to enclose settlements, beyond their defensive utility, many walls also had important symbolic functions – representing the status and independence of the communities they embraced. Existing ancient walls are almost always masonry structures, although brick, depending on the topography of the area surrounding the city or the settlement the wall is intended to protect, elements of the terrain may be incorporated in order to make the wall more effective. Walls may only be crossed by entering the city gate and are often supplemented with towers. Simpler defensive walls of earth or stone, thrown up around hillforts, ringworks, early castles, from very early history to modern times, walls have been a near necessity for every city. Uruk in ancient Sumer is one of the worlds oldest known walled cities, before that, the city of Jericho in what is now the West Bank had a wall surrounding it as early as the 8th millennium BC. The Assyrians deployed large labour forces to build new palaces, temples, some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were also fortified. By about 3500 B. C. hundreds of small farming villages dotted the Indus floodplain, many of these settlements had fortifications and planned streets. Mundigak in present-day south-east Afghanistan has defensive walls and square bastions of sun dried bricks, babylon was one of the most famous cities of the ancient world, especially as a result of the building program of Nebuchadnezzar, who expanded the walls and built the Ishtar Gate. Exceptions were few — notably, ancient Sparta and ancient Rome did not have walls for a long time, initially, these fortifications were simple constructions of wood and earth, which were later replaced by mixed constructions of stones piled on top of each other without mortar. In Central Europe, the Celts built large fortified settlements which the Romans called oppida, the fortifications were continuously expanded and improved. In ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, in classical era Greece, the city of Athens built a long set of parallel stone walls called the Long Walls that reached their guarded seaport at Piraeus. Large tempered earth walls were built in ancient China since the Shang Dynasty, although stone walls were built in China during the Warring States, mass conversion to stone architecture did not begin in earnest until the Tang Dynasty. The large walls of Pingyao serve as one example, likewise, the famous walls of the Forbidden City in Beijing were established in the early 15th century by the Yongle Emperor. The Romans fortified their cities with massive, mortar-bound stone walls, the most famous of these are the largely extant Aurelian Walls of Rome and the Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, together with partial remains elsewhere. These are mostly city gates, like the Porta Nigra in Trier or Newport Arch in Lincoln, apart from these, the early Middle Ages also saw the creation of some towns built around castles. These cities were only protected by simple stone walls and more usually by a combination of both walls and ditches. From the 12th century AD hundreds of settlements of all sizes were founded all across Europe and these cities are easy to recognise due to their regular layout and large market spaces
40.
Toungoo dynasty
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The Toungoo Dynasty was the ruling dynasty of Burma from the mid-16th century to 1752. Its early kings Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung succeeded in reunifying the territories of the Pagan Kingdom for the first time since 1287, at its peak, the First Toungoo Empire also included Manipur, Chinese Shan States, Siam, and Lan Xang. But the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia collapsed in the 18 years following Bayinnaungs death in 1581, the Restored Toungoo kings, now based in Ava, created a legal and political system whose basic features would continue under the Konbaung Dynasty well into the 19th century. The crown completely replaced the hereditary chieftainships with appointed governorships in the entire Irrawaddy valley and its trade and secular administrative reforms built a prosperous economy for more than 80 years. The kingdom entered a decline due to the palace rule of its kings. Starting from the 1720s, the kingdom was beset with pesky raids by the Meitei people of the Chindwin River, raids by the Meitei intensified in the 1730s, reaching increasingly deeper parts of central Burma. In 1740, the Mon people in Lower Burma began a rebellion, the Hanthawaddy armies captured Inwa in 1752 and ended the 266-year-old Toungoo Dynasty. King Mingyi Nyo founded the First Taungoo Dynasty at Taungoo far up the Sittaung River south of Inwa towards the end of the Ava Kingdom in 1510, after the conquest of Inwa by the Shan people in 1527, many Bamars migrated to Taungoo, which became a new centre. Mingyi Nyos son, King Tabinshwehti, unified most of Burma, consolidating his power and pushing southward, over-running the Irrawaddy Delta, in 1544, Tabinshwehti was crowned as king of all Burma at the ancient capital of Bagan. By this time, the situation in Southeast Asia had changed dramatically. With the coming of European traders, Burma was once again an important trading centre and he then began assembling an army for an attack on coastal Rakhine State to the west. Tabinshwehtis forces were defeated at Arakan but he was able to control of Lower Burma up to Pyay. He led his army eastward to the Ayutthaya Kingdom, where he was again defeated in the Burmese–Siamese War. A period of unrest and rebellions among other conquered peoples followed, tabinshwehtis brother-in-law, Bayinnaung, succeeded to the throne in 1550 and reigned 30 years, launching a campaign of conquest invading several states, including Manipur and Ayutthaya. An energetic leader and effective commander, he made Toungoo the most powerful state in Southeast Asia. Bayinnaung was poised to deliver a final, decisive assault on the kingdom of Arakan when he died in 1581 and his son Nanda Bayin and his successors were forced to quell rebellions in other parts of the kingdom, and the victory over Arakan was never achieved. Bayinnaungs grandson, Anaukpetlun, once again reunited Burma in 1613, anaukpetluns successor Thalun rebuilt the war torn country. Based on Thaluns revenue inquest in 1635, the Irrawaddy valleys population was estimated to be around 2 million, the dynasty survived for another century and a half until the death of Mahadammayaza in 1752
listen), Lanna: ᨩ᩠ᨿᨦ ᩲᩉ᩠ᨾ᩵ [t͡ɕīəŋ.màj] (
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Uozu, Japan (8 August 1989)
Kunming, Yunnan, China (7 June 1999)
"Chieng Mai". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. p. 132.
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