1.
Peru
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Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean. Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization in Caral, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, ideas of political autonomy later spread throughout Spanish America and Peru gained its independence, which was formally proclaimed in 1821. After the battle of Ayacucho, three years after proclamation, Peru ensured its independence, subsequently, the country has undergone changes in government from oligarchic to democratic systems. Peru has gone through periods of political unrest and internal conflict as well as periods of stability, Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. It is a country with a high Human Development Index score. Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing, the Peruvian population, estimated at 31.2 million in 2015, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages and this mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music. The name of the country may be derived from Birú, the name of a ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans, thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Perú. An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess, the Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, the earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using such as irrigation and terracing, camelid husbandry. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money, the oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal, the Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC along what is now Perus Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, on the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo, in the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America with their capital in Cusco
Peru
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Sculpted
Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of
Chavín de Huantar
Peru
Peru
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A
Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head
Peru
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The citadel of
Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru
2.
Administrative divisions of Peru
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The administrative divisions of Peru have changed from time to time, since the nation gained independence from Spain in the early 19th century. The old territorial subdivisions have split or merged due to several reasons, the most common ones being the need for decentralization, Peru was divided into 24 departments until the creation of the regions in 2002. These regions are governed by Regional Governments, many people still use the old departamentos term when referring to the current regions of Peru, although it is now obsolete. The departments were identical to todays regions, with the exception of two new regions, before the 2002 changeover, the province of Lima was part of the Lima department, and the city of Callao had the special status of Provincia Constitucional. A failed attempt to divide the country into autonomous regions had previously been made during the 1980s under the government of Alan García. In the dry Andean area, many districts have fewer than 3,500 inhabitants, in some cases, their populations have decreased in comparison to the days when they were founded. Districts that are located at high altitudes tend to be scarcely populated. These districts usually are large in area, but they have little available land for use. Many basic government services do not reach all residents of these due to their difficult geography. Many such districts lack financial means to govern their whole jurisdictions, a similar pattern can be observed in many districts located in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest. Once important settlements created during the era of colonization, they now do not offer much space for agriculture, deeper into the jungle, the districts of the selva alta have higher populations living in geographically large districts. Districts located outside the colonized area have very low populations. All over the country, many districts have higher populations than the minimum required by law and these districts are old centers of civilization, they tend to be smaller in area with high population densities since pre-Hispanic times. Districts in the Chala tend to be mid-sized, except in low-density areas such as the Sechura desert and part of the Southern coast. All have gained large populations due to emigration from other regions of the country, districts with a population of more than 10000 inhabitants should ideally be subdivided, particularly if they are also large in area, as is the case in part of the Amazon rainforest. Settlement can happen quickly and boundaries of districts are not modified. This is less of a problem in the coast where communication is easier, however, reaching to large populations remain a problem in this area. Perus territory, according to the Regionalization Law which was passed on November 18,2002, is divided into 26 units,25 regions, the regions are subdivided into provinces, which are composed of districts
Administrative divisions of Peru
3.
Lambayeque Region
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Lambayeque is a region in northwestern Peru known for its rich Moche and Chimú historical past. The regions name originates from the ancient pre-Inca civilization of the Lambayeque, the name Lambayeque is a Spanish derivation of the god Yampellec, said to have been worshipped by the first Lambayeque king, Naymlap. The Spanish gave the name to the early people, the territory of the Lambayeque Region is made up of wide plains irrigated by rivers from the Andes, in most of the arid area, irrigation is needed to support any farming. The fertile river valleys produce half of the sugar cane crop of Peru, in addition, Lambayeque and the Piura Region provide most of the rice crops consumed in Peru. Increased agricultural harvest is expected with completion of the Olmos Transandino Project, the water supply project will transfer up to 2 billion m3 annually of water from the Huancabamba River in the Cajamarca Region east of Lambayeque. In the smaller scale farming of earlier centuries, the Olmos Carob Tree Forest supported goat herds that fed on carobs. The fine goatskins were tanned to create the fine, pale, leather known as cordoban or cordovan, from the Spanish town of Córdoba, goat fat was used to make soap. There are two islands off the Pacific coast of the Lambayeque Region, Lobos de Afuera, and Lobos de Tierra. The region is bordered by the Piura Region on the north, the Cajamarca Region on the southeast, the La Libertad Region on the south, the region is divided into 3 provinces, which are composed of 38 districts. Formed by a brilliant cortege of nine foreign warriors, this float was led by a man of talent and courage, named Naymlap. Among the descendants of Naylmlap were the Moche and the Chimú, the Chimú grew to acquire a notable state parallel to the Inca. The Chimú moved their capital to the area, establishing great urban centers there. They were great farmers, textile experts and, wonderful goldsmiths, the Inca conquest of what today is Lambayeque, lasted almost four decades. Pachacuti, Tupac Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Cápac, successively, ruled during the process, in the 16th century, the Spaniard leader Francisco Pizarro took his conquistadors across the region on the way to Cajamarca to conclude the defeat of the Inca empire. He was amazed by the gold exposed in vases and utensils, during Colonial times, a rivalry started between the people of the towns of Lambayeque and Santiago de Miraflores de Saña. The reason of the conflict was the opulence in which the latter lived, a flood in 1720, however, destroyed Saña and marked the end of a flourishing city. The people of Lambayeque followed Juan Manuel Iturregui as their leader in the struggles for emancipation and he spread the libertarian ideas and helped get arms for the cause. Pómac Forest Historical Sanctuary Tucume Pyramids The most famous composer from Lambayeque was Luis Abelardo Nuñez and his songs are among the most popular ones in Peruvian music
Lambayeque Region
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Sipán Museum, in
Lambayeque
Lambayeque Region
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Location of the Lambayeque Region in Peru
Lambayeque Region
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Presentation of a dish of Arroz con pato.
4.
Provinces of Peru
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The provinces of Peru, known in Spanish as provincias, are the second-level administrative subdivisions of the country. There are 196 provinces in Peru, grouped into 25 regions except for the Lima Province which does not belong to any region and this makes an average of 7 provinces per region. The region with the fewest provinces is Callao and the region with the most is Ancash, while provinces in the sparsely populated Amazon rain forest of eastern Peru tend to be larger, there is a large concentration of them in the north-central area of the country. The province with the least number of districts is Purús Province, the province with the most districts is Lima Province, with 43 districts. The most common number of districts per province is 8, a total of 29 provinces share this number of districts, the table below shows all provinces with their capitals and the region in which they are located. The UBIGEO code uniquely identifies each province, capitals in bold are also a regional capital. Provinces in which the capital is located all have an UBIGEO code ending in 01. Administrative divisions of Peru Regions of Peru Districts of Peru Municipalities of Peru
Provinces of Peru
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Peru
5.
Chiclayo Province
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The Chiclayo Province is one of three provinces of the Lambayeque Region in Peru. North Lambayeque Province, Ferreñafe Province East Cajamarca Region South La Libertad Region West Pacific Ocean The province is divided into twenty districts, the capital of this province is the city of Chiclayo which is the fourth largest in Peru. The terrain of the province is flat, with smooth slopes which elevate from west to east. Here is distinguished slight undulations and uneven elevations formed by continuous alluvial actions, the cultive lands have been object of an intense work of leveling to facilitate the irrigation
Chiclayo Province
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Location of Chiclayo in the
Lambayeque Region
6.
UTC-5
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UTC−05,00 is a time offset that subtracts five hours from Coordinated Universal Time. In North America, it is observed in the Eastern Time Zone during standard time, the western Caribbean uses it year round. The southwestern and northwestern portions of Indiana Mexico – Central Zone Central, in most of Mexico, daylight time starts a few weeks after the United States. Communities on the U. S. border that observe Central Time follow the U. S. daylight time schedule
UTC-5
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Behind (−)
7.
ZIP code
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ZIP Codes are a system of postal codes used by the United States Postal Service since 1963. The term ZIP, an acronym for Zone Improvement Plan, was chosen to suggest that the travels more efficiently, and therefore more quickly. The basic format consists of five numerical digits, an extended ZIP+4 code, introduced in 1983, includes the five digits of the ZIP Code, a hyphen, and four additional digits that determine a more specific location within a given ZIP Code. The term ZIP Code was originally registered as a servicemark by the U. S. Postal Service, USPS style for ZIP is all caps and the c in code is also capitalized, although style sheets for some publications use sentence case or lowercase. The early history and context of postal codes began with postal district/zone numbers, the United States Post Office Department implemented postal zones for numerous large cities in 1943. For example, Mr. John Smith 3256 Epiphenomenal Avenue Minneapolis 16, by the early 1960s a more organized system was needed, and on July 1,1963, non-mandatory five-digit ZIP Codes were introduced nationwide. Three months later, on October 1,1963, the U. S, an earlier list in June had proposed capitalized abbreviations ranging from two to five letters. The abbreviations have remained unchanged, with one exception, according to the historian of the U. S. Robert Moon, an employee of the post office, is considered the father of the ZIP Code, he submitted his proposal in 1944 while working as a postal inspector. The post office gives credit to Moon only for the first three digits of the ZIP Code, which describe the sectional center facility or sec center, an SCF is a central mail processing facility with those three digits. The SCF sorts mail to all post offices with those first three digits in their ZIP Codes, the mail is sorted according to the final two digits of the ZIP Code and sent to the corresponding post offices in the early morning. Sectional centers do not deliver mail and are not open to the public, Mail picked up at post offices is sent to their own SCF in the afternoon, where the mail is sorted overnight. The United States Post Office used a character, which it called Mr. ZIP. He was often depicted with a such as USE ZIP CODE in the selvage of panes of stamps or on labels contained in, or the covers of. In 1983, the U. S. Postal Service introduced an expanded ZIP Code system that it called ZIP+4, often called plus-four codes, add-on codes, or add ons. But initial attempts to promote use of the new format met with public resistance. For Post Office Boxes, the rule is that each box has its own ZIP+4 code. However, there is no rule, so the ZIP+4 Code must be looked up individually for each box. It is common to use add-on code 9998 for mail addressed to the postmaster,9999 for general delivery, for a unique ZIP Code, the add-on code is typically 0001
ZIP code
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A 1963 U.S. Post Office sign encouraging the use of ZIP codes
ZIP code
ZIP code
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"Use Zip code" labels were also used to promote the use of a ZIP code.
ZIP code
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USA postage stamp, 1973: "It all depends on ZIP code".
8.
Lambayeque region
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Lambayeque is a region in northwestern Peru known for its rich Moche and Chimú historical past. The regions name originates from the ancient pre-Inca civilization of the Lambayeque, the name Lambayeque is a Spanish derivation of the god Yampellec, said to have been worshipped by the first Lambayeque king, Naymlap. The Spanish gave the name to the early people, the territory of the Lambayeque Region is made up of wide plains irrigated by rivers from the Andes, in most of the arid area, irrigation is needed to support any farming. The fertile river valleys produce half of the sugar cane crop of Peru, in addition, Lambayeque and the Piura Region provide most of the rice crops consumed in Peru. Increased agricultural harvest is expected with completion of the Olmos Transandino Project, the water supply project will transfer up to 2 billion m3 annually of water from the Huancabamba River in the Cajamarca Region east of Lambayeque. In the smaller scale farming of earlier centuries, the Olmos Carob Tree Forest supported goat herds that fed on carobs. The fine goatskins were tanned to create the fine, pale, leather known as cordoban or cordovan, from the Spanish town of Córdoba, goat fat was used to make soap. There are two islands off the Pacific coast of the Lambayeque Region, Lobos de Afuera, and Lobos de Tierra. The region is bordered by the Piura Region on the north, the Cajamarca Region on the southeast, the La Libertad Region on the south, the region is divided into 3 provinces, which are composed of 38 districts. Formed by a brilliant cortege of nine foreign warriors, this float was led by a man of talent and courage, named Naymlap. Among the descendants of Naylmlap were the Moche and the Chimú, the Chimú grew to acquire a notable state parallel to the Inca. The Chimú moved their capital to the area, establishing great urban centers there. They were great farmers, textile experts and, wonderful goldsmiths, the Inca conquest of what today is Lambayeque, lasted almost four decades. Pachacuti, Tupac Inca Yupanqui and Huayna Cápac, successively, ruled during the process, in the 16th century, the Spaniard leader Francisco Pizarro took his conquistadors across the region on the way to Cajamarca to conclude the defeat of the Inca empire. He was amazed by the gold exposed in vases and utensils, during Colonial times, a rivalry started between the people of the towns of Lambayeque and Santiago de Miraflores de Saña. The reason of the conflict was the opulence in which the latter lived, a flood in 1720, however, destroyed Saña and marked the end of a flourishing city. The people of Lambayeque followed Juan Manuel Iturregui as their leader in the struggles for emancipation and he spread the libertarian ideas and helped get arms for the cause. Pómac Forest Historical Sanctuary Tucume Pyramids The most famous composer from Lambayeque was Luis Abelardo Nuñez and his songs are among the most popular ones in Peruvian music
Lambayeque region
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Sipán Museum, in
Lambayeque
Lambayeque region
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Location of the Lambayeque Region in Peru
Lambayeque region
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Presentation of a dish of Arroz con pato.
9.
Lima
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Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
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Collage of Lima
Lima
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Flag
Lima
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Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
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Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
10.
Felipe Santiago Salaverry
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Felipe Santiago de Salaverry was a Peruvian soldier and politician who served as the 13th President of Peru. He studied in the College of San Carlos in Lima, after the establishment of the republic of Peru, Salaverry rose rapidly in the army. At the age of twenty-eight, Salaverry had obtained the rank of general and General Inspector of the Peruvian Army, when the garrison of Callao revolted in January 1835, against then President Luis Orbegoso, and pronounced in favor of La Fuente, Salaverry defeated the insurgents. Orbegoso appointed him governor of the fortress, but on February 23, Salaverry rose in arms against the government. After Orbegoso abandoned Lima, Salaverry occupied the capital and proclaimed himself Supreme Chief of the Republic, in a few months he had possession of the south, and Orbegoso retreated with a small force to the northern provinces. He sought the intervention of Andrés Santa Cruz, leader of Bolivia, soon after, the Bolivian army invaded Peru, and Salaverry retreated to the city of Arequipa. Salaverry obtained victories at the battle of Uchumayo, February 4,1836, but on February 7, his forces were routed in Socabaya. This led to resistance and ultimately defeat of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation led by Santa Cruz. Salaverrys field jacket was given to his crying widow full of bullet holes, list of Presidents of Peru Bilbao, Manuel. The Modern History of Peru Walker, Charles F. Felipe Santiago Salaverry in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, new York, Charles Scribners Sons 1996
Felipe Santiago Salaverry
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Felipe Santiago de Salaverry
11.
Arequipa
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Arequipa is the capital and largest city of the Arequipa Region and the seat of the Constitutional Court of Peru. Its industrial activity includes manufactured goods and camelid wool products for export, the city has close trade ties with Chile, Bolivia and Brazil. The city was founded on August 15,1540, by Garcí Manuel de Carbajal as Villa Hermosa de Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, during the Colonial period, Arequipa became highly important for its economic prosperity and for its loyalty to the Spanish Crown. After Peru gained its independence from Spain in 1821, Arequipa acquired greater political significance, the historic center of Arequipa spans an area of 332 hectares and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its historic heritage, natural scenery and cultural sites make the city a major tourist destination and its religious, colonial, and republican architectural styles blend European and native characteristics into a unique style called Escuela Arequipeña. A local tradition states that Inca Mayta Capac received a petition from his subjects to reach the valley of the River Chili and they asked him for permission to stay in the region as they were impressed by the beauty of the landscape and the mild climate. However, another tale states that when the first Europeans arrived to the valley, they pointed at the ground. The local chief, not understanding the question, assumed they were asking for a permission to sit down and gave a positive answer, which sounded like Arequipa. Another possible origin of the name comes from the Aymara language phrase qhipaya ari or Ari qipa. The early inhabitants of the Arequipa City area were people who relied on activities such as hunting, fishing and gathering for survival. Later, pre-Inca cultures domesticated llamas and became sedentary with the development of agriculture, during this time, major irrigation channels were built within the valley of the Chili river, which allowed the development of agriculture by means of terraces built on both sides of the valley. The Yarabaya and Chimbe tribes settled in the current location. Lands were then distributed among three families who founded the towns of Yanahuara, Cayma, Tiabaya, Socabaya, Characato and others. At the time of its foundation, Arequipa had already a city council, because the foundation of the town occurred in part as a relocation of Villa Hermosa de Camana, the name was partially conserved as Villa Hermosa de Arequipa. Charles V of Germany and I of Spain gave the town a status of city by Royal Decree on 22 September 1541, the relocation efforts were led by Garci Manuel de Carbajal, who was selected as the political authority for the foundation of the new town. Among the first public works carried out in the city are the Main Church, the City Hall, the bridge on the Chili River and the monastery of Nuestra Señora de Gracia. Since its Spanish founding and over three centuries, the population of the city was mostly of Spanish origin, which represented a strong following of Spain. One aspect that distinguished Arequipa from the rest of the country was the explicit and public commitment of the city to the Spanish Crown
Arequipa
Arequipa
Arequipa
Arequipa
12.
Trujillo, Peru
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Trujillo is a city in coastal northwestern Peru and the capital of La Libertad Region. It is the third most populous city and center of the second most populous area of Peru. It is located on the banks of the Moche River, near its mouth at the Pacific Ocean and this was a site of the great prehistoric Moche and Chimu cultures before the Inca conquest and subsequent expansion. Trujillo is the birthplace of Perus judiciary, and it was designated as the capital of the country. It was the scene of the Revolution of Trujillo in 1932, Trujillo is considered the cradle of liberty and cradle of the judiciary in Peru. It has sponsored national and international cultural events, and has a lively arts community. Current festivals include the National Marinera Festival, the Trujillo Spring Festival and the International Book Festival, the city center contains many examples of colonial and religious architecture, often incorporating distinctive wrought ironwork. It includes residential areas, a business district, and industrial supply distribution to the various districts. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Trujillo has its seat here, in 2012 Trujillo was selected by IBM to participate in a Smarter Cities Challenge project intended to improve public safety and transportation through technology. The North Group was formed here, with Eduardo González Viaña, the city presents important national festivals, such as Marinera Festival, Spring Festival, and competitions for the paso horse and caballito de totora. The coat of arms of the city was awarded on December 7,1537 by Royal Decree issued by the King of Spain, Charles V. The flag is the coat of arms on a white background, Also it is flown every December 29 to commemorate the proclamation of independence of Trujillo in 1820. The anthem was written by Ramiro Mendoza Sánchez with music composed by Ramiro Herrera Orbegoso and it is performed mainly for official civic ceremonies, by bands of musicians. The history of Trujillo has its beginning in ancient times, as the area at the mouth of the Moche River was long a center of successive pre-European cultures and they extended their domains along the northern coast of Peru. The archaeological history of this goes back to the early pre-ceramic period. For example, Huaca Prieta was occupied as early as 4700 BC, several ancient cultures developed in this area, the Cupisnique, the Moche and Chimu. Numerous archaeological sites and monumental remains attest to the degree of complexity of these civilizations. Among the Cupisnique culture sites are Caballo Muerto and Huaca Prieta, the Moche culture sites include huacas, the Temples of the Sun and Moon south of the city, the Huaca del Dragón and the Huaca Esmeralda to the north, and others
Trujillo, Peru
Trujillo, Peru
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As the capital of culture, Trujillo hosts important events each year, including the
Marinera Festival in January. The queen of this festival salutes in a parade in the
Historic Centre of Trujillo.
Trujillo, Peru
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Mochica god "
Ai apaec " or "Degollador", in a wall of the
mochica sanctuary "
Huacas del Sol y de la Luna
Trujillo, Peru
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Mural of the
Huaca of the Moon Archeological site in "
Moche ", Trujillo
13.
Metropolitan areas of Peru
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The following is a list of the most populous Peruvian metropolitan areas with over 300,000 inhabitants. Note that the populations of metropolitan areas are not city populations but rather a combination of a large city. In Peru, cities with a population of more than 500,000, as of the 2007 census, these cities are Lima, Arequipa, and Chiclayo. Lima metropolitan area Lima metropolitan area is composed of 6 sub regions that group 43 urban districts of Lima Province and 6 districts of Callao Province. These sub regions are the Lima Norte, Lima Sur, Lima Este, Residential Lima, Central Lima, Chiclayo, Chiclayo, Eten, Leonardo Ortiz, La Victoria, Monsefú, Pimentel, Pomalca, Puerto Eten, Reque, Santa Rosa, Lambayeque and San José. Iquitos, Iquitos, Punchana, San Juan Bautista, Belén, Cusco, San Jerónimo, Cusco, Santiago, Wanchaq, San Sebastián. Chimbote, Chimbote, Nuevo Chimbote y Coishco, List of cities in Peru List of regions by population of Peru Peru
Metropolitan areas of Peru
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Lizet Castañeda and Gino Morales champions in
Trujillo Marinera Festival, a traditional
Peruvian dance
Metropolitan areas of Peru
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Trujillo
Metropolitan areas of Peru
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Arequipa
Metropolitan areas of Peru
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Chiclayo
14.
Wari Empire
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The Wari Empire was a political formation that emerged around AD600 in the central highlands of Peru and lasted for about 500 years, to 1100 AD. It operated about the time as the Tiwanaku culture and at one time was thought to have been derived from it. In 2008 archeologists found a city, the Northern Wari ruins, also called Cerro Pátapo. The find was the first to show an extensive settlement related to the Wari culture that far north, some scholars in the field debate whether the Wari communities can be termed an empire. For instance, the archaeologist Ruth Shady has suggested the society could better be considered an economic network of Wari centres. Scholars who contend the society did constitute an empire include William Isbell, Katherine Schreiber, leaders had to plan projects and organize large amounts of labor to accomplish such projects. The discovery in early 2013 of an undisturbed, imperial royal tomb, El Castillo de Huarmey, provides evidence of the material wealth, the Wari Empire was a second-generation state of the Andean region, both it and Tiwanaku had been preceded by the first-generation Moche state. The Wari required mita labor of its subjects as a form of tribute, mita laborers were involved in the construction of buildings at the Wari capital and in the provinces. The two empires met at Moquegua, where the Wari and Tiwanaku populations co-existed without conflicts, while the Wari likely had significant organizational and administrative power, it remains unclear what the origins of its political and artistic forms were. The polity seems to have survived until ca, AD1100, when it collapsed, likely as a result of both environmental change and internal socio-political stresses. Wari culture Tiwanaku empire Wendell C, bennett, Excavations at Wari, Ayachucho, Peru. Gordon F. McEwan, The Middle Horizon in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru, William H. Isbell and Gordon F. McEwan, eds. Huari Administrative Structure, Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, katharina J. Schreiber, Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Politywide Analysis and Imperial Political Economy, The Relationship between Valley Political Complexity and Administrative Centers in the Wari Empire of the Central Andes
Wari Empire
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Wari and Tiwanaku zones of influence
15.
Lambayeque, Peru
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Lambayeque is a city in the Lambayeque region of northern Peru. It is notable for its exceptional museums featuring artifacts from local archaeological sites. The vast plains of Túcume are part of the Lambayeque Valley, the Lambayeque Valley is the site of scores of natural and man-made waterways and is also a region of about 250 decaying mud-brick pyramids. The Brüning Museum, established in the early 20th century, contains hundreds of gold and silver pieces, as well as textiles and ceramics, from the Vicus, Moche, Chimú, Lambeyeque and Inca cultures. The Tumba Real, established in 2002, contains artefacts from the Moche tombs of the Lord of Sipan, recently, researchers found an ancient clay temple in an archaeological dig. Colored murals can be discerned on the temple walls. Dating c.2000 BCE, the Ventarron temple is one of the oldest found in the Americas, as reported by the Peruvian archeologist Walter Alva. Lambayeque is also the home of King Kong milk candy, a dessert with filling made of fresh milk, pineapple sweets. The region is known for alfajores
Lambayeque, Peru
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Flag
16.
Moche (culture)
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The Moche civilization flourished in northern Peru with its capital near present-day Moche, Trujillo, Peru from about 100 to 800 during the Regional Development Epoch. While this issue is the subject of debate, many scholars contend that the Moche were not politically organized as a monolithic empire or state. Rather, they were likely a group of autonomous polities that shared a common culture, as seen in the rich iconography. Moche society was based, with a significant level of investment in the construction of a network of irrigation canals for the diversion of river water to supply their crops. Their culture was sophisticated, and their artifacts express their lives, with detailed scenes of hunting, fishing, fighting, sacrifice, sexual encounters, the Moche are particularly noted for their elaborately painted ceramics, gold work, monumental constructions and irrigation systems. The Salinar culture reigned on the north coast of Peru in 200 BC-200 AD, according to some scholars this was a short transition period between the Cupisnique and the Moche cultures. Theres considerable parallelism between Moche and Cupisnique iconography and ceramic designs, including the iconography of the Spider god, the nearby Huaca de la Luna is better preserved. Its interior walls contains many colorful murals with complex iconography, the site has been under professional archaeological excavation since the early 1990s. Other major Moche sites include Sipan, Loma Negra, Dos Cabezas, Pacatnamu, the El Brujo complex, Mocollope, Cerro Mayal, Galindo, Huanchaco and their adobe huacas have been mostly destroyed by looters and natural forces over the last 1300 years. The surviving ones show that the coloring of their murals was very vibrant, two distinct regions of the Moche civilization have been identified, Southern and Northern Moche, with each area probably corresponding to a different political entity. The Southern Moche region, believed to be the heartland of the culture, originally comprised the Chicama and Moche valleys, the Huaca del Sol-Huaca de la Luna site was probably the capital of this region. It appears that there was a lot of independent development among these various Moche centres and they all likely had ruling dynasties of their own, related to each other. Centralized control of the whole Moche area may have taken place from time to time, pampa Grande, in the Lambayeque Valley, on the shore of the Chancay River, became one of the largest Moche sites anywhere, and occupied the area of more than 400 ha. It was prominent in the Moche V period, and features an abundance of Moche V ceramics, the site was laid out and built in a short period of time, and has an enormous ceremonial complex. It includes Huaca Fortaleza, which is the tallest ceremonial platform in Peru, San Jose de Moro is another northern site in the Jequetepeque valley. It was prominent in the Middle and Late Moche Periods, numerous Moche tombs have been excavated here, including several burials containing high status female individuals. These women were depicted in Moche iconography as the Priestess, Moche pottery is some of the most varied in the world. The use of technology is evident
Moche (culture)
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Huaca del Sol (Temple of the Sun), Mochica cultural capital, 4 km south of the modern city of
Trujillo
Moche (culture)
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A map of Moche cultural influence.
Moche (culture)
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Moche portrait vessel,
Musée du quai Branly in Paris
Moche (culture)
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Resting
deer,
Larco Museum Collection
17.
Cajamarca Region
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Cajamarca is a region in Peru. The capital is the city of Cajamarca and it is located in the north part of the country and shares a border with Ecuador. It is located at heights reaching 2,700 metres above sea level in the Andes Mountain Range, part of its territory includes the Amazon Rainforest, in total the largest in the world. The Wari people conquered earlier cultures in the highlands and they established the administrative center of Wiraquchapampa. In the 15th century, the Incas conquered the territory, expanding their empire and they established their regional capital in what is now Cajamarca. The Incas in 1465 established a new province there to serve as a bridge to their later conquests, Cajamarca had long been one of the oldest cities in South America when the Spanish arrived in their conquest of Peru. The Region is divided into 13 provinces
Cajamarca Region
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Seal
Cajamarca Region
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Location of the Cajamarca Region in
Peru
18.
Naylamp
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This article concerns the Sican Culture of what is now Peru. For the people of ancient Sicily, see the article Sicani, the Sican culture is the name that archaeologist Izumi Shimada gave to the culture that inhabited what is now the north coast of Peru between about 750 and 1375. According to Shimada, Sican means temple of the Moon, the Sican culture is also referred to as Lambayeque culture, after the name of the region in Peru. There is still controversy among archeologists and anthropologists over whether the two are separate cultures, the Sican culture is divided into three major periods based on cultural changes as evidenced in archeological artifacts. Archaeologist Izumi Shimada, founder of the Sican Archaeological Project, named the culture which he discovered in northwestern Peru. They succeeded the Moche and preceded the Inca Empire, the civilization that encountered the Spanish explorers and conquistadors. The Sican inhabited a territory near the La Leche and Lambayeque Rivers. The archaeological sites span the Lambayeque region, including the Motupe, La Leche, Lambayeque, numerous sites have been identified in the Batán Grande area of the La Leche Valley. The climate of the area during Sican occupation was similar to the current climate, despite changes in landscape accumulated in the last 600 years, the drought-and-flood cycles seen in the region for the past 1500 years did not spare the Sican culture. The Early Sican period began around 750 and lasted until 900, the lack of artifacts has limited the development of knowledge about this early period. The Sican were probably descendants of the Moche culture, which fell around 800 and their works shows shared motifs in the artifacts recovered. Similar groups include Cajamarca, Wari and Pachacamac, the Lambayeque culture may have been a separate trading people as well. Around 800, the Sican created the city of Poma, located at Batán Grande, few other Early Sican sites have been discovered. The Early Sican culture is known for the polished, black-finish ceramics found in the La Leche Valley. This black-finish ceramic style began in the Moche culture prior to the Early Sican, much of the ceramics were examples of a single spout, loop-handle bottle, featuring an anthropomorphic-avian face at the spout base. The face consisted of bulging eyes, a beak or triangular projection instead of a nose, stylized ears. It appeared to be a predecessor to the faces of the Sican Deity. Aside from the ceramic styles, much of the Early Sican defines a distinguishable culture
Naylamp
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Gold Ceremonial Mask, La Leche Valley, A.D. 900-1100
Naylamp
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Map of Peru- Lambayeque region top left, third down on coast
Naylamp
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Gold disc ornament
Naylamp
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9-11th century Sican funerary mask in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
19.
Pampa Grande
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Were you looking for the Bolivian community known as Pampagrande. Pampa Grande is a site located in the Lambayeque Valley, in northern Peru. It is located to the east of the city of Chiclayo and this ancient city belonged both to Cupisnique and to Chavin cultures, and the earliest dates are around 600 BC. Later, during the Moche period, the city was a regional capital. Another famous Moche site, Sipan, is located only about 10 km west from Pampa Grande along the Chancay River valley, Pampa Grande is located about 54 km inland from the Pacific Ocean. During the time of the Moche occupation at Pampa Grande the Lambayeque Valley generally had a moderate climate year round, the average temperature measures about 22 degrees C and ranges from 10 degrees C to 35 degrees C depending on the seasons. In the winter months from June to September the El Nino current picks up and brings torrential rains, however, these rains rarely hit the valley, as the annual precipitation levels are minimal. The rainy season lasts from February to April, the Chancay River is filled to capacity during the rainy season. Considerable rains must have hit the site since the Moche period, because the architecture of the site, during the Early Horizon Period, Cupisnique and Chavin occupations—600-300 B. C. The Early Intermediate Period Moche II-IV—100 B. C. -500 A. D, varied but expansive architecture, not portable artifacts. Phases III and IV developed a “momentum” of increased polity, the Middle Horizon Moche V -- 600-700 A. D. Biochrome/polychrome painted vessels/jars represent Moche V artistic tradition. Diversity in architectural structures exists to a further extent than Moche IV, the rectangular enclosures and settlement plan are evidence of Huari Empirical domination and development. The Late Intermediate Period Chimu culture—1000-1400 A. D, there is surprisingly little Inca pottery or materials left from their dominance until the arrival of the Spaniards. There is little left from pre-Moche II phases. If there were any significant evidence left behind, much of it would have destroyed by the later Moche civilization phases. According to Shimada, the “post-Moche V developments in the region remain largely unknown. ”This makes Moche phases II-V the most examined periods, the site was excavated with a large team of students and professionals for the Royal Ontario Museum Project starting in 1973, and continuing through 1975. Day, Izumi Shimada, Melody Shimada, Andrew Ignatieff, Martha Anders, Hans Knapp, John Haas, Manuel Arboleda, many of these participants helped in some way in the interpretation of the site as well. In addition, Terry D’Altroy, Christine Krueger, Ciro Hurtado, starting in 2004, Llana Johnson worked at the site for her dissertation at UCLA
Pampa Grande
–
Deer-headed figure on Moche pottery from
Sipan, near Pampa Grande. Tumbas Reales de Sipán Museum,
Chiclayo
20.
Sican culture
–
This article concerns the Sican Culture of what is now Peru. For the people of ancient Sicily, see the article Sicani, the Sican culture is the name that archaeologist Izumi Shimada gave to the culture that inhabited what is now the north coast of Peru between about 750 and 1375. According to Shimada, Sican means temple of the Moon, the Sican culture is also referred to as Lambayeque culture, after the name of the region in Peru. There is still controversy among archeologists and anthropologists over whether the two are separate cultures, the Sican culture is divided into three major periods based on cultural changes as evidenced in archeological artifacts. Archaeologist Izumi Shimada, founder of the Sican Archaeological Project, named the culture which he discovered in northwestern Peru. They succeeded the Moche and preceded the Inca Empire, the civilization that encountered the Spanish explorers and conquistadors. The Sican inhabited a territory near the La Leche and Lambayeque Rivers. The archaeological sites span the Lambayeque region, including the Motupe, La Leche, Lambayeque, numerous sites have been identified in the Batán Grande area of the La Leche Valley. The climate of the area during Sican occupation was similar to the current climate, despite changes in landscape accumulated in the last 600 years, the drought-and-flood cycles seen in the region for the past 1500 years did not spare the Sican culture. The Early Sican period began around 750 and lasted until 900, the lack of artifacts has limited the development of knowledge about this early period. The Sican were probably descendants of the Moche culture, which fell around 800 and their works shows shared motifs in the artifacts recovered. Similar groups include Cajamarca, Wari and Pachacamac, the Lambayeque culture may have been a separate trading people as well. Around 800, the Sican created the city of Poma, located at Batán Grande, few other Early Sican sites have been discovered. The Early Sican culture is known for the polished, black-finish ceramics found in the La Leche Valley. This black-finish ceramic style began in the Moche culture prior to the Early Sican, much of the ceramics were examples of a single spout, loop-handle bottle, featuring an anthropomorphic-avian face at the spout base. The face consisted of bulging eyes, a beak or triangular projection instead of a nose, stylized ears. It appeared to be a predecessor to the faces of the Sican Deity. Aside from the ceramic styles, much of the Early Sican defines a distinguishable culture
Sican culture
–
Gold Ceremonial Mask, La Leche Valley, A.D. 900-1100
Sican culture
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Map of Peru- Lambayeque region top left, third down on coast
Sican culture
–
Gold disc ornament
Sican culture
–
9-11th century Sican funerary mask in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
21.
Piura
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Piura is a city in northwestern Peru. It is the capital of the Piura Region and the Piura Province and it was here that Spanish Conqueror Francisco Pizarro founded the third Spanish city in South America and first in Peru, San Miguel de Piura, in July 1532. Piura declared its independence from Spain on 4 January 1821, like most of northern Peru, the territory of Piura has been inhabited by their autochthonous group of natives called tallanes and yungas. These groups lived without an organization or single leader to rule until the Muchik culture eventually took control, centuries later, Piura came under the rule of Tupac Inca Yupanqui for at least 40 years before the Spanish arrived. With the arrival of the Spanish in 1532, the current mestizo, the Spanish named the city from the Quechuan word, pirhua, meaning abundance. Nowadays, Piura is known as the Ciudad del eterno calor meaning The city of the eternal heat because it is hot all year round. Piura Department has a desert and semi-desert climate on the coast, precipitation is sparse except during El Niño events, when rainfall is abundant and water flows through normally dry watercourses, causing flooding and large-scale land movements. The hydrography of Piura Department is determined mainly by the amount of rainfall originating in the Pacific Ocean and these conditions lead to fluctuations in offshore sea temperatures, which are 18-23 °C in winter and spring, and 23-27 °C in summer and sometimes in autumn. The mean annual humidity is 66%, the mean atmospheric pressure is 1008.5 hPa, while winds are mainly from the north at an average speed of 3 m/s. Annual rainfall varies between 10 and 200 mm at altitudes of 100-500 m, between 200 and 800 mm at altitudes of 500-1500 m, and averages 1,550 mm at altitudes above 1500 m. Most of the region is arid, with rainfall concentrated in the high Andean areas, while on the plains the main water sources are seasonal rivers flowing from the north, the Chira. The southern half of the consists of the Sechura Desert. The main rivers are the Piura, the Huancabamba and the Chira, the reservoir of Poechos has been created within the course of the Chira. It has a capacity of 1,000,000,000 cubic metres and irrigates large portions of the coastal region, the river Quiroz, a tributary of the Piura, supplies the huge artificial lake of San Lorenzo. On the Huancabamba, in the mountains, there is a power station supplying energy to the region. One of the best known tourist attractions in Piura is La Esmeralda beach, Colan beach is a very long beach with warm waters. Local people like to go there during holidays, there are also great spots for surfers, like Mancora Beach and Cabo Blanco. Piura is served by the Cap, FAP Guillermo Concha Iberico International Airport
Piura
–
Piura Perú
22.
Peruvian War of Independence
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Because of this the viceroy often had the support of the Lima oligarchy, who saw their elite interests threatened by popular rebellion and were opposed to the new commercial class in Buenos Aires. During the first decade 1800s Peru had been a stronghold for royalists, among the most important events during the war was the proclamation of independence of Peru by José de San Martín on July 28,1821. During the Peninsular War central authority in the Spanish Empire was lost, after success of the royalist armies, Abascal annexed Upper Peru to the viceroyalty, which benefited the Lima merchants as trade from the silver-rich region was now directed to the Pacific. Because of this, Peru remained strongly royalist and participated in the reforms implemented by the Cádiz Cortes. Peru was represented at the first session of the Cortes by seven deputies, therefore, Peru became the second to last redoubt of the Spanish Monarchy in South America, after Upper Peru. Peru eventually succumbed to patriot armies after the continental campaigns of José de San Martín. Some of the early Spanish conquistadors that explored Peru made the first attempts for independence from the Spanish crown and they tried to liberate themselves from the Viceroyalty, who governed for the king of Castile. Throughout the eighteenth century, there were several uprisings against colonial rule. Some of these uprisings became true rebellions and it is debated whether these movements should be considered as precedents of the emancipation that was led by chiefs, Peruvian towns, and other countries in the American continent. The independence of Peru was an important chapter in the Hispano-American wars of independence, the campaign of Sucre in Upper Peru concluded in April 1825, and in November of the same year Mexico obtained the surrender of the Spanish bastion of San Juan de Ulúa in North America. The Spanish strongholds in Callao and Chiloé in South America fell in January 1826, Spain renounced all their continental American territories ten years later in 1836 leaving very little of its vast empire intact. Despite the royalist tendencies of Peru, junta movements did emerge, there were two short-lived uprisings in the southern city of Tacna in 1811 and 1813. One significant movement, led by Natives in Huánuco, began on February 22,1812 and it involved various leaders, including curacas and township magistrates, but was suppressed within a few weeks. More enduring was the rebellion of Cuzco from 1814 to 1815, the rebellion began in a confrontation between the Constitutional Cabildo and the Audiencia of Cuzco over the administration of the city. Cabildo officials and their allies were arrested by the Audiencia, Criollo leaders appealed to retired brigadier Mateo Pumacahua, who was curaca of Chinchero, and decades earlier had been instrumental in suppressing the rebellion of Túpac Amaru II. Pumacahua joined the Criollo leaders in forming a junta on August 3 in Cuzco, in 1814, the first expedition was successful in reconquering Chile after winning the Battle of Rancagua. In 1817 following the royalist defeat in the Battle of Chacabuco, initially it was successful in the Second Battle of Cancha Rayada, the expedition was finally defeated by José de San Martín in the Battle of Maipú. To begin the liberation of Peru, Argentina and Chile signed a treaty on February 5,1819 to prepare for the invasion, General José de San Martín believed that the liberation of Argentina wouldnt be secure until the royalist stronghold in Peru was defeated
Peruvian War of Independence
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The
Battle of Ayacucho Painting by
Antonio Herrera Toro
Peruvian War of Independence
–
Mateo Pumacahua
Peruvian War of Independence
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San Martín proclaims the independence of Peru. Oil painting by
Juan Lepiani.
23.
Districts of Peru
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The districts of Peru are the third-level country subdivisions of Peru. They are subdivisions of the provinces, which in turn are subdivisions of the regions or departments. There are 1,838 districts in total, in the dry Andean area, many districts have less than 3,500 inhabitants due to low population density in the area. In some cases, their populations have decreased in comparison to the days when they were founded, districts that are located at very high altitudes tend to be scarcely populated. These districts usually are large in area, have few available land for use, many basic government services do not reach all residents of these districts due to their difficult geography. Many lack financial means to govern their jurisdictions and they often have high emigration rates. A similar pattern can be observed in many districts located in the Peruvian Amazon rainforest, once important settlements created during the era of colonization, they nowadays do not offer much space for agriculture. Deeper into the jungle, the districts of the selva alta have higher populations living on geographically large districts, districts located outside the colonized area have very low populations that are entirely composed of Native Amazonian tribes. All over the country, many districts have higher populations than the minimum required by law and these districts are old and tend to be smaller in area with high population densities since prehispanic times. Districts with a population of more than 10000 inhabitants should ideally be subdivided, particularly if they are large in area. Colonization happens quickly and boundaries of districts are not modified. This is less of a problem in the coast where communication is easier, however, reaching to large populations remain a problem in this area. This is a list of the top twenty Peruvian districts by population, population density, area, Source, INEI Source, INEI Source, INEI Source, INEI Regions of Peru Provinces of Peru Administrative divisions of Peru
Districts of Peru
–
Districts of Peru
24.
Desert climate
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An area that features this climate usually experiences from 25 to 200 mm per year of precipitation and in some years may experience no precipitation at all. Averages may be even less such as in Arica, Chile, there are usually two or three variations of a desert climate, a hot desert climate, a cold desert climate and, sometimes, a mild desert climate. To determine whether a location has a climate, the precipitation threshold is determined. If the areas precipitation is less than half the threshold. Hot desert climates are found under the subtropical ridge where there is largely unbroken sunshine for the whole year due to the stable descending air. These areas are located between 30 degrees south and 30 degrees north latitude, under the subtropical latitudes called the horse latitudes, hot desert climates are generally hot, sunny and dry year-round. Hot desert climates also reach similar latitudes in the Middle East, North Africa, hot desert climates usually feature hot, sometimes exceptionally hot, periods of the year. In many locations featuring a hot climate, maximum temperatures of over 40 °C are not uncommon in summer. The world absolute heat records, over 50 °C, are generally in the hot deserts, some desert locations consistently experience very high temperatures all year long, even during wintertime. These locations feature some of the highest annual average temperatures recorded on Earth and this last feature is seen in some parts of deserts of Africa and Arabia. During colder periods of the year, night-time temperatures can drop to freezing or below due to the radiation loss under the clear skies. However, very rarely do temperatures drop far below freezing, only one region in Europe has a hot desert climate, Province of Almeria, Province of Alicante and Province of Murcia in South Eastern Spain. Cold desert climates usually feature warm and dry summers, though summers typically are not quite as hot as summers in hot desert climates, unlike hot desert climates, cold desert climates tend to feature cold winters with rare snow. Cold desert climates are found at higher altitudes than hot desert climates. A cold desert climate is found in temperate zones, usually in the rain shadow of high mountains. A classic example of this is the Patagonian Desert in Argentina bounded by the Andes to its west, in the case of Central Asia, mountains restrict precipitation from the monsoon. The Gobi desert in Mongolia is an example of this. Though hot in summer, it shares the cold winters of the rest of Central Asia
Desert climate
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Namib Desert, Namibia
Desert climate
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A dusting of snow in the Atacama Desert.
Desert climate
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Cold deserts do get the occasional blanket of snow, such as
Snake Valley, Utah and Nevada
25.
Subtropical
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The subtropics are geographic and climate zones located roughly between the tropic circle of latitude at 23.5 latitude and temperate latitudes. Subtropical climates are characterized by warm to hot summers and cool to mild winters with infrequent frost. Subtropical climates can occur at elevations within the tropics, such as in the southern end of the Mexican Plateau and in Vietnam. Six climate classifications use the term to define the various temperature. A great portion of the deserts are located within the subtropics. Within savanna regimes in the subtropics, a wet season is seen annually during the summer, within Mediterranean climate regimes, the wet season occurs during the winter. Areas bordering warm oceans are prone to heavy rainfall from tropical cyclones. Plants such as palms, citrus, mango, lychee, the tropics have been historically defined as lying between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn, located at 23. 45° north and south latitude respectively. The poleward fringe of the subtropics is located at approximately 40° north and south latitude respectively, northern fringes of the type can go further north due to moderating effects of ocean streams, like in parts of Southern Europe due to heat transported by the Gulf Stream. Several methods have used to define the subtropical climate. In the Trewartha climate classification, a subtropical region should have at least eight months with a temperature greater than 10 °C. According to the Troll-Paffen climate classification, there exists one large subtropical zone named the warm-temperate subtropical zone. According to the E. Neef climate classification, the zone is divided into two parts, Rainy winters of the west sides and Eastern subtropical climate. According to the Wilhelm Lauer & Peter Frankenberg climate classification, the zone is divided into three parts, high-continental, continental, and maritime. According to the Siegmund/Frankenberg climate classification, subtropical is one of six zones in the world. Heating of the earth near the equator leads to large amounts of upward motion and convection along the trough or Intertropical convergence zone. The upper-level divergence over the near-equatorial trough leads to air rising and moving away from the equator aloft, as the air moves towards the Mid-Latitudes, it cools and sinks, which leads to subsidence near the 30th parallel of both hemispheres. This circulation is known as the Hadley cell and leads to the formation of the subtropical ridge, many of the worlds deserts are caused by these climatological high-pressure areas, located within the subtropics
Subtropical
–
Tadrart Acacus desert, part of the Sahara, in western
Libya.
Subtropical
–
The subtropics and tropics
Subtropical
–
Hadley cells located on the Earth's atmospheric circulation.
Subtropical
–
Curitiba,
Brazil: Live oak with
araucarias.
26.
Precipitation
–
In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel, Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and precipitates. Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated, Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called showers, moisture that is lifted or otherwise forced to rise over a layer of sub-freezing air at the surface may be condensed into clouds and rain. This process is active when freezing rain is occurring. A stationary front is often present near the area of freezing rain, provided necessary and sufficient atmospheric moisture content, the moisture within the rising air will condense into clouds, namely stratus and cumulonimbus. Eventually, the droplets will grow large enough to form raindrops. Lake-effect snowfall can be locally heavy, thundersnow is possible within a cyclones comma head and within lake effect precipitation bands. In mountainous areas, heavy precipitation is possible where upslope flow is maximized within windward sides of the terrain at elevation, on the leeward side of mountains, desert climates can exist due to the dry air caused by compressional heating. The movement of the trough, or intertropical convergence zone. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 cubic kilometres of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 cubic kilometres of it over the oceans and 107,000 cubic kilometres over land. Given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres, Climate classification systems such as the Köppen climate classification system use average annual rainfall to help differentiate between differing climate regimes. Precipitation may occur on celestial bodies, e. g. when it gets cold, Mars has precipitation which most likely takes the form of frost. Precipitation is a component of the water cycle, and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the planet. Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year,398,000 km3 of it over the oceans, given the Earths surface area, that means the globally averaged annual precipitation is 990 millimetres. Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall, Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice
Precipitation
–
A thunderstorm with heavy precipitation
Precipitation
–
Long-term mean precipitation by month
Precipitation
–
Late-summer
rainstorm in
Denmark
Precipitation
–
Lenticular cloud forming due to mountains over Wyoming
27.
Relative humidity
–
Relative humidity is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapor to the equilibrium vapor pressure of water at a given temperature. Relative humidity depends on temperature and the pressure of the system of interest and it requires less water vapor to attain high relative humidity at low temperatures, more water vapour is required to attain high relative humidity in warm or hot air. Humans are sensitive to high humidity because the body uses evaporative cooling, enabled by perspiration. Perspiration evaporates from the more slowly under humid conditions than under arid. For example, if the air temperature is 24 °C and the humidity is zero percent. If the relative humidity is 100 percent at the air temperature. In other words, if the air is 24 °C and contains saturated water vapor, then the human body cools itself at the rate as it would if it were 27 °C. The heat index and the humidex are indices that reflect the effect of temperature. In cold climates, the temperature causes lower capacity for water vapour to flow about. Dry cracked skin can result from dry air, low humidity causes tissue lining nasal passages to dry, crack and become more susceptible to penetration of Rhinovirus cold viruses. Low humidity is a cause of nosebleeds. The use of a humidifier in homes, especially bedrooms, can help with these symptoms, indoor relative humidities should be kept above 30% to reduce the likelihood of the occupants nasal passages drying out. Humans can be comfortable within a range of humidities depending on the temperature—from thirty to seventy percent—but ideally between 50% and 60%. Very low humidity can create discomfort, respiratory problems, and aggravate allergies in some individuals, in the winter, it is advisable to maintain relative humidity at 30 percent or above. Extremely low relative humidities may also cause eye irritation, wooden furniture can shrink, causing the paint that covers these surfaces to fracture. When the temperature is low and the humidity is high. When relative humidity approaches 100 percent, condensation can occur on surfaces, leading to problems with mold, corrosion, decay, condensation can pose a safety risk as it can promote the growth of mold and wood rot as well as possibly freezing emergency exits shut. The basic principles for buildings, above, also apply to vehicles, in addition, there may be safety considerations
Relative humidity
–
Humidity and hygrometry
28.
Deutscher Wetterdienst
–
It is attached to the Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure. The DWDs principal tasks include warning against weather-related dangers and monitoring and rating climate changes affecting Germany, the organization runs atmospheric models on their supercomputer for precise weather forecasting. The DWD also manages the national archive and one of the largest specialized libraries on weather. The DWD was formed in 1952 when the services of the western occupation zones were merged. In 1954, the Federal Republic of Germany joined the World Meteorological Organization, in 1975 the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts was formed for numerical weather prediction up to ten days in advance. In 1990, following the reunification, the services of the German Democratic Republic were incorporated in the DWD. Since the 1990s, the DWD has continuously reduced the number of manned weather stations, the DWD does not expect a reduction in forecast quality, given techniques like weather radar or satellites, which have significantly improved weather data collection. The German Meteorological Office runs a global model of its own. They developed the High Resolution Regional Model in 1999, which is run within the operational and research meteorological communities. The German non-hydrostatic Lokal-Modell for Europe has been run since 2002, since March 2009, the DWD operates a NEC SX-9 with a peak performance of 109 teraFLOPS to help in the weather forecasting process. Since 2005, the DWD has been publishing regional warnings against heat with the aim to reduce heat related fatalities and this decision was made because of the hot summer in 2003, when estimated 7000 people died from direct or indirect effects of the heat. Additionally it sends out sea weather reports as radioteletype and faxes, since 2006, the pollen warnings can be subscribed to for free on the DWD web site. Within its duty of primary meteorological information, the DWD offers a daily weather report for Germany which can be subscribed to by email on their official website. DWD offers free access to its climate data and its work is based on the German Meteorological Office Act. Currently, the DWD consists of roughly 2600 occupants, besides the DWD central in Offenbach, there are regional centers in Hamburg, Potsdam, Leipzig, Essen, Stuttgart and Munich
Deutscher Wetterdienst
–
Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach, Germany
Deutscher Wetterdienst
–
Wetterpark Offenbach, Germany
29.
Latam Airlines
–
LATAM Airlines Group S. A. is a South American airline holding company incorporated under Chilean and Brazilian law and headquartered in Santiago, Chile and São Paulo, Brazil. The group also has subsidiaries in Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, enrique Cueto, former CEO of LAN, is CEO of LATAM, Mauricio Rolim Amaro, formerly vice-chairman of TAM, became LATAM chairman. The agreement to establish LATAM was approved by Chilean authorities on 21 September 2011, at the time TAM had two pairs of slots while LAN had four, LAN had to relinquish two pairs to competitors interested in using them. On 7 March 2013, LATAM announced its decision to choose Oneworld as its global airline alliance. In August 2015 it was announced that all LATAM Airline Group airlines would fully rebrand as LATAM, the first of these aircraft were repainted in a new LATAM livery in April 2016. LATAM Airlines Group is currently working on the process, which is expected to be completed by 2019. Changes are becoming more evident in physical spaces, on planes, at business offices, airport service counters, web sites. LATAM’s main hubs are Santiago de Chile, Lima, São Paulo, the company is exploring the creation of a new hub in northeastern Brazil with the objective of expanding operations between Europe and South America. Bogota was recently announced as the new hub for the Caribbean
Latam Airlines
–
First LAN flights.
Latam Airlines
–
LATAM
Latam Airlines
–
TAM Founders.
Latam Airlines
–
VIP Lounge in Guarulhos Airport, Sao Paulo, BR.
30.
Copa Airlines
–
Compañía Panameña de Aviación, S. A. is the flag carrier of Panama. It is headquartered in Panama City, Panama, with its hub at Tocumen International Airport. It operates more than 315 daily scheduled flights to 74 destinations in 31 countries around North, Central and South America, Copa is a subsidiary of Copa Holdings, S. A. as well as a member of the Star Alliance. The airline is also the operator and owner of Colombian airline AeroRepública. Copa was founded in 1947 as the airline of Panama. The airline then abandoned its domestic flights in 1980, in favor of international flights, as of 2013, Copa Airlines employed over 9,000 people, most of them residing in Panama and was one of the fastest growing and largest companies in the country. It is headed by Chief Executive Officer Pedro Heilbron, the airline was established as Compañía Panameña de Aviación on June 21,1944, and started operations on August 15,1947. It was founded by a group of prominent Panamanian investors with assistance from Pan American World Airways and it began operating domestic flights with a small fleet of Douglas DC-3 aircraft. The airline started its first international flights in the early 1970s, with services to cities in Jamaica, Colombia, until the early 1980s, the airline had significant competition from Air Panamá Internacional, which had a higher profile. Copa discontinued domestic flights in 1980 and acquired its first jet, today, the airline operates flights to San Juan, Puerto Rico, as well as to the Dominican Republic and Miami, Florida. Until the introduction of the Embraer 190 in 2005, the airline had an all-Boeing 737 fleet, in 1992, Copa Airlines signed a strategic alliance with TACA Airlines, and the airline began flying from Tocumen International Airport, making it the first flight connection center in Latin America. As a result, Tocumen was dubbed as the “Hub of the Americas” and several Latin American airlines such as LACSA of Costa Rica, Aviateca of Guatemala, the alliance ended in 1998 when the six-year agreement expired. In 1998, Continental Airlines acquired 49% of the airline, marking the beginning of a marketing and operating alliance. On May 19,1999, Continental increased its stake to 51%, since then, Copa has adopted a livery and corporate logo similar to Continental’s. Copa participated in the OnePass frequent flyer program until Continental’s merger with United Airlines, in connection with the initial public offering in December 2005, Continental reduced its stake to approximately 27. 3% and through a follow-on offering in 2006, further reduced it to approximately 10%. In 2000, Copa Airlines inaugurated service to Los Angeles, Cancún, in 2004, it began service to John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York City. Copa also announced in August of that year an agreement with Mexicos Mexicana de Aviación. On June 1,2005, Copa Airlines acquired 90% of the Colombian domestic air carrier AeroRepública, Copa rebranded AeroRepública to Copa Airlines Colombia in 2010, increased destinations and modernized the fleet
Copa Airlines
–
A Copa Airlines
Lockheed L-188 Electra at
La Aurora International Airport in 1980.
Copa Airlines
–
Since 1980, the Boeing 737 has been a backbone for the medium-long haul expansion of Copa Airlines. Pictured; a
Boeing 737-800.
Copa Airlines
–
Embraer 190, mainly deployed for regional flights across Central America and Colombia.
Copa Airlines
–
In June 2012, Copa Airlines became one of the first Latin American airlines to enter the
Star Alliance.
31.
Tocumen International Airport
–
Tocumen International Airport is the international airport of Panama City, the capital of Panama. The airport serves as the homebase for Copa Airlines and is a hub to and from The Caribbean, South, North and Central America. During World War II, Panamanian airports were leased exclusively by the U. S. military, the nearest airport to Tocumen was the Paitilla Point Airfield. Several airports were built to protect the Panama Canal from foreign aggression, Tocumen International Airport was inaugurated on June 1,1947 by President Enrique A. Jiménez, and airport operations began before the construction works were completed. The administrative building/passenger terminal was inaugurated seven years later, during the administration of Colonel Jose Antonio Remon Cantera, the old airport building, which currently is being used as a cargo terminal, was built on an area of 720 ha and was 126 ft above sea level. As time passed, and due to Panamas role as a country of transit and this compelled the aeronautical authorities at the time to consider expanding the airport. Work on the new buildings began in 1971, in order to build the structure that currently houses the current passenger terminal, a lot of land had to be moved and the bed of the Tocumen river had to be diverted from its original site. The current passenger terminal was inaugurated on August 15,1978, the Tocumen International Airport is one of the few airports in the region that has two landing runways able to serve the largest commercial aircraft operating today. After nine years, the name was reestablished after the fall of the dictatorship of Panama by the U. S. invasion of 1989. The original runway is used for cargo and private flights. The main runway is 3,050 m ×45 m and is used primarily for commercial flights, until May 31,2003 Tocumen International Airport was managed by the Civil Aeronautics Directorate. This law allowed the creation of Aeropuerto Internacional de Tocumen, S. A. also referred to as Tocumen and this law is one of a number of laws that restructured the aeronautical sector in Panama to further its improvement and modernization. In January 2016, the route was delayed due to a lack of opportunities for the flight. It has not yet been announced when the flight will begin regularly scheduled operations and it was planned to make the route between Tocumen International Airport and Dubai the longest flight in the world, until Emirates started flying between Dubai and Auckland. During 2016 to 2017, Tocumen International Airport will undergo the completion of the airports new South Terminal, in 2006, Tocumen S. A. started a major expansion and renovation program. The main passenger terminal was expanded 20,830 m2 at a cost of approximately US$21 million, new boarding gates were built to allow more flights to and from Panama, and to facilitate the growth of commercial and internal circulation areas. Tocumen airport administration acquired 22 new boarding bridges and replaced the oldest 14 and this included the addition of 6 remote positions, hence allowing Tocumen Airport to have a total of 28 boarding gates. The new installations were opened in 2006, the airport also has a VIP lounge, Copa Club, operated by the partnership between United Airlines and Copa Airlines that caters to Copas partner airlines and Star Alliance members
Tocumen International Airport
–
Aircrafts in North Terminal
Tocumen International Airport
–
Main building
Tocumen International Airport
–
Check-in hall
32.
Spirit Airlines
–
Spirit Airlines, Inc. is an American Ultra Low Cost Carrier, headquartered in Miramar, Florida. Spirit operates scheduled flights throughout the United States and in the Caribbean, Mexico, Latin America, the airline operates bases at Atlantic City, Chicago–OHare, Dallas/Fort Worth, Detroit, Fort Lauderdale and Las Vegas as of 2015. The company initially started as Clipper Trucking Company in 1964, the company changed its name to Ground Air Transfer, Inc. in 1974. In 1990, Charter One began scheduled service from Boston and Providence, Rhode Island, on May 29,1992, Charter One brought jet equipment into the fleet and changed its name to Spirit Airlines. Scheduled flights between Detroit and Atlantic City began on June 1,1992, scheduled flights between Boston and Providence began on June 15,1992. On April 2,1993, Spirit Airlines began scheduled service to Orlando, Fort Lauderdale, Flights between Atlantic City and Fort Myers, Florida, began on September 25,1993. Service at Philadelphia began in 1994, during the next five years, Spirit expanded further, increasing service from Detroit and adding service in new markets such as Myrtle Beach, Los Angeles, and New York City. In Summer 1994, Spirit Airlines overbooked flights, and 1,400 customers tickets were canceled, the overbooking occurred because Spirit Airlines had given incorrect instructions to travel agents, causing those tickets not to be valid, even though the customers had paid for the flights. Spirit initially had their headquarters in Eastpointe, Michigan in Greater Detroit and it relocated its headquarters in November 1999, moving to Miramar, Florida in the Miami Metropolitan Area. Prior to the decision to move the headquarters to Miramar, Spirit considered Atlantic City, New Jersey and Detroit, in 2000, the US Federal Aviation Administration proposed to fine Spirit Airlines $67,000 for allegedly violating federal regulations on cabin and seat markings and placards. Discrepancies were found in the marking and placarding of emergency equipment, passenger seats, storage areas and doors on eight of Spirits DC9 and MD80 aircraft. In November 2001, Spirit inaugurated service to San Juan, Puerto Rico, in the fall of 2003, Spirit resumed flights to Washington, D. C. s Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, which were suspended after the September 11 attacks. Spirit also began service to Grand Cayman, San Francisco, and Boston in 2006, and in 2007 filed DOT applications to service to Costa Rica, Haiti. In 2006, Spirit exercised options to order 30 Airbus A320-200 aircraft for further expansion, on March 6,2007, Spirit began a transition to an ultra low-cost carrier. On June 3,2008, Spirit Airlines made a WARN application to relocate or lay off hundreds of pilots and flight attendants. In September 2008, Spirit began advertising on the side of aircraft, overhead bins, tray tables, seatback inserts, in May 2009, Spirit pilots overwhelmingly voted in favor of strike action due to stalled contract negotiations with management. Areas of dispute included compensation, work rules and benefits, at that time, Spirit pilots were among the lowest paid Airbus pilots in the United States. On June 20,2010, Spirit Plus was rebranded as Big Front Seat, for an additional fee, a person could choose Big Front Seat, or upgrade at the airport
Spirit Airlines
–
Spirit DC-9-40 number N130NK, in old livery, lands at
Logan International Airport in
Boston,
Massachusetts.
Spirit Airlines
–
Spirit Airlines
Spirit Airlines
–
Spirit Airlines Check In,
Chicago O'Hare International Airport
Spirit Airlines
–
Spirit Airlines
Airbus A320 moments from touching down at
Fort Lauderdale – Hollywood International Airport, the main operating base of Spirit Airlines. This plane is painted in the early 2010s livery.
33.
Fort Lauderdale
–
Fort Lauderdale /ˌfɔərt ˈlɔːdərdeɪl/ is a city in the U. S. state of Florida,28 miles north of Miami. It is the county seat of Broward County, as of the 2010 census, the city had a population of 165,521. It is a city of the Miami metropolitan area, which was home to an estimated 6,012,331 people at the 2015 census. The city is a popular tourist destination, with an average temperature of 75.5 °F and 3,000 hours of sunshine per year. Greater Fort Lauderdale which takes in all of Broward County hosted 12 million visitors in 2012, the district has 561 hotels and motels comprising nearly 35,000 rooms. Forty six cruise ships sailed from Port Everglades in 2012, greater Fort Lauderdale has over 4,000 restaurants,63 golf courses,12 shopping malls,16 museums,132 nightclubs,278 parkland campsites, and 100 marinas housing 45,000 resident yachts. Fort Lauderdale is named after a series of forts built by the United States during the Second Seminole War, the forts took their name from Major William Lauderdale, younger brother of Lieutenant Colonel James Lauderdale. William Lauderdale was the commander of the detachment of soldiers who built the first fort, however, development of the city did not begin until 50 years after the forts were abandoned at the end of the conflict. The area in which the city of Fort Lauderdale would later be founded was inhabited for more two thousand years by the Tequesta Indians. For the Tequesta, disease, coupled with continuing conflict with their Calusa neighbors, although control of the area changed between Spain, United Kingdom, the United States, and the Confederate States of America, it remained largely undeveloped until the 20th century. The Fort Lauderdale area was known as the New River Settlement before the 20th century, in the 1830s there were approximately 70 settlers living along the New River. William Cooley, the local Justice of the Peace, was a farmer and wrecker, who traded with the Seminole Indians. On January 6,1836, while Cooley was leading an attempt to salvage a ship, a band of Seminoles attacked his farm, killing his wife and children. The first United States stockade named Fort Lauderdale was built in 1838, the fort was abandoned in 1842, after the end of the war, and the area remained virtually unpopulated until the 1890s. The city was incorporated in 1911, and in 1915 was designated the county seat of newly formed Broward County, Fort Lauderdales first major development began in the 1920s, during the Florida land boom of the 1920s. The 1926 Miami Hurricane and the Great Depression of the 1930s caused a deal of economic dislocation. In July 1935, an African-American man named Rubin Stacy was accused of robbing a woman at knife point. He was arrested and being transported to a Miami jail when police were run off the road by a mob, a group of 100 white men proceeded to hang Stacy from a tree near the scene of his alleged robbery
Fort Lauderdale
–
Downtown Fort Lauderdale
Fort Lauderdale
–
The
New River in downtown Fort Lauderdale
Fort Lauderdale
–
A1A, north of Sunrise Blvd
Fort Lauderdale
–
Fort Lauderdale Beach
34.
Cajamarca
–
Cajamarca is the capital and largest city of the Cajamarca Region as well as an important cultural and commercial center in the northern Andes. It is located in the highlands of Peru at approximately 2,750 m above sea level in the valley of the Mashcon river. Cajamarca had an population of about 226,031 inhabitants in 2015. Cajamarca has a highland climate, and the area has a very fertile soil. The city is known for its dairy products and mining activity in the surroundings. The history of the city is highlighted by the Battle of Cajamarca, the etymology of Cajamarca may mean town of thorns or cold place depending on the source. All sources agree that the word has quechua origin, the city and its surroundings have been occupied by several cultures for more than 2000 years. Traces of pre-Chavín cultures can be seen in archaeological sites, such as Cumbe Mayo. During the period between 1463 and 1471, Tupac Inca conquered the area and brought Cajamarca into the Tawantinsuyu, at the time, it was ruled by Tupac Incas father Pachacuti. In 1532 Atahualpa defeated his brother Huáscar in a battle for the Inca throne in Quito, on his way to Cusco to claim the throne with his army, he stopped at Cajamarca. Francisco Pizarro and his 168 soldiers met Atahualpa here after weeks of marching from Piura, as the two leaders faced off, the young captain Hernando De Soto, rode on horseback directly up to Atahualpa to intimidate him. Having taken Atahualpa captive, they held him in Cajamarcas main temple, Atahualpa offered his captors a ransom for his freedom, a room filled with gold and silver, within two months. Although having complied with the offering, Atahualpa was brought to trial, Pizarro, De Soto, and others shared in the ransom. In 1986 the Organization of American States designated Cajamarca as a site of Historical and Cultural Heritage of the Americas, the style of ecclesiastical architecture in the city differs from other Peruvian cities due to the geographic and climatic conditions. Cajamarca is further north with a climate, the colonial builders used available stone rather than the clay of used in the coastal desert cities. Cajamarca has six Christian churches of Spanish colonial style, San Jose, La Recoleta, La Immaculada Concepcion, San Antonio, although all were built in the seventeenth century, the latter three are the most outstanding due to their sculpted facades and ornamentation. The facades of three churches were left unfinished, most likely due to lack of funds. The façade of the Cathedral is the most elegantly decorated, to the extent that it was completed, El Belen has a completed façade of the main building, but the tower is half finished
Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca
Cajamarca
–
Ransom Room of
Atahualpa.
35.
Chachapoyas, Peru
–
Chachapoyas is a city in northern Peru at an elevation of 2,235 meters. The city has a population of approximately 20,279 people, situated in the mountains far from the Peruvian coast, Chachapoyas remains fairly isolated from other regions of Peru. Hikers and adventurers can visit the Chachapoya region There is daily service by bus to Chiclayo, the bus from Chiclayo is an overnight bus but to Cajamarca due to the difficult and winding roads the bus only goes during the day. The road to Cajamarca is a road so it is almost impossible to travel to Cajamarca during the rainy season from Chachapoyas. The city is served by Chachapoyas Airport, the city of Chachapoyas is the capital of the Amazonas Region. It was founded on September 5,1538 by the Spanish conquistador Alonso de Alvarado, local agriculture includes sugar cane, orchid and coffee growing. Named San Juan de la Frontera de los Chachapoyas, the city was first established near La Jalca, the citys original locations were abandoned due to climate, disease and a lack of defenses against rebelling local groups. The location of the city changed several times, until it was settled in the place that it now occupies at 2334 m, at first the date of settlement had not been specified. It is believed that the Spanish colonials moved the city to its present location in 1545, the city still preserves its wide colonial casonas of big courts and lounges, with roofs made of tiles. Its Plaza de Armas is located to the west of the city, located on the south side of the plaza is a monument to the Hero of Arica, colonel Francisco Bolognesi. From the viceroyalty period dates the legend that the Indian chief Pantoja asked the viceroy for permission to put a roof in his house. This and other treasures would be hidden in one of the 40 caves that surround the city, at one time there was a lagoon surrounded with totoras and palm trees. From these plants, wood was extracted to build the temples of the city, the Kuélap stadium now stands this location. From the route of Bagua towards the Mayo River and Huallaga Central, the citys geographical location has determined its isolation until recently, when better roads were constructed between Chachapoyas and the cities of the northern Peruvian coast. Chachapoyas is surrounded by extensive and matted wooded formations, during the rainy season, these formations are covered with a thick haze, from which the citys name may be derived. Another interpretation of the name Chachapoyas is the one that alludes its meaning of strong male, however, in some areas the temperature can drop to 2 °C. Chachapoyas has a climate and is moderately rainy. The annual average of maximum and minimum temperature is 19.8 °C and 9.2 °C, annual average precipitation accumulated for period 1960-1991 is 777.8 mm. Jiron Triunfo is the street which links the three principal plazas of the city
Chachapoyas, Peru
–
Aereal view of the city of Chachapoyas
Chachapoyas, Peru
–
Huancas.
Chachapoyas, Peru
–
Buildings in Chachapoyas
36.
Tumbes (city)
–
Tumbes is a city in northwestern Peru, on the banks of the Tumbes River. It is the capital of the Tumbes Region, as well as of Tumbes Province, located near the border with Ecuador, Tumbes has 111,595 inhabitants as of 2015. Tumbes has its origins back in times when it was inhabited by a cultural group of natives called Tumpis. At its peak, its population is estimated to have reached 178,000, after 1400, Inca Pachacuti ruled over Tumbes and the territory became an important political stronghold during the Inca Empire. Later Inca emperor Huayna Capac expanded Tumbes by ordering the construction of roads, Tumbes was first visited by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro during the start of the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1528. Pizarro made an expedition in 1532 during which he encountered resistance from the curaca Chilimaza in what became known as the Battle of the Manglares. Pizarro was eventually successful and is said to have planted a cross in the territory as a sign of Hispanic victory. Felipillo and Yacané, the first South American Indigenous interpreters who later aided Pizarro, during its colonial period, Tumbes was sparsely populated and formed a part of the Audiencia of Quito through an unmodified Cedula of 1563 and Cedula of 1740. When Tumbes declared its independence from Spain it opted to join Peru believing in the right of free determination of peoples, first, the Republic of the Gran Colombia challenged that right and then Ecuador claiming de jure rights through unmodified colonial Royal Decrees, but to no avail. The Protocol of Rio de Janeiro signed in 1942 with Ecuador legally confirmed Perus previously de facto rights over Tumbes after a victorious war, however, lasting peace between both countries was not achieved until 1998, after a final conflict in 1995. The city has a warm climate, with an average annual precipitation of 258.2 mm. Tumbes travel guide from Wikivoyage
Tumbes (city)
–
Top left:Punta Sal Beach (Playa Punta Sal), Top right:Tumbes Cathedral, 2nd left:Tumbes River and Tumbes National Reserve Mangrove Sanctuary, 2nd right:Malecon Benavides, 3rd left:A Condor monument and Tumbes Clock Tower in Jerusalem Walks (Paseo Jerusalem), 3rd right:Armas Square (Plaza del Armas), Bottom:Sunset in Pizarro Port
Tumbes (city)
–
Coat of arms
Tumbes (city)
–
Tumbes Cathedral
Tumbes (city)
–
Port Pizzarro
37.
Panamerican Highway
–
The Pan-American Highway is a network of roads measuring about 30,000 kilometres in total length. Except for a rainforest break of approximately 160 km, called the Darién Gap, according to Guinness World Records, the Pan-American Highway is the worlds longest motorable road. However, because of the Darién Gap, it is not possible to cross between South America and Central America. Jake Silverstein, writing in 2006, described the Pan-American Highway as a system so vast, so incomplete, the idea of building a highway emerged at the Fifth International Conference of American States in 1923. The first conference regarding construction of the highway occurred on October 5,1925, in 1950, Mexico became the first Latin American country to complete its portion of the highway. Several southern highway termini are claimed to exist, including the cities of Puerto Montt and Quellón in Chile and Ushuaia in Argentina. West and north of the Darien Gap, it is known as the Inter-American Highway through Central America. All routes north of the contiguous 48 states are unofficial, Interstate 25 runs north from Interstate 10 at Las Cruces, New Mexico to Interstate 90 in Wyoming. This route has no extension into Canada, but links indirectly to Interstate 15 which leads to Alberta Highway 2. Interstate 35 is a continuation of the original Pan-American highway following Mexican Federal Highway 85. It extends from Laredo, Texas to the Canada–United States border north of Duluth, Minnesota with a spur, Interstate 29, in Canada, no particular road has been officially or unofficially designated as the Pan-American Highway. However, some claims have been made based on routes that are a natural extension of several key American highways that reach the Canada–US border. British Columbia Highway 97 and Highway 2 to Alberta both pick up where the end of the Alaska highway leaves off. Highway 97 becomes U. S. Route 97 at the Canada–US border, i-15 runs south all the way to San Diego where it converges with Interstate 5 then heads east as Interstate 8. This links indirectly via a stretch of Interstate 10 to Interstate 19 that becomes a spur of the Pan-American highway through Mexico at the Nogales border crossing. In 1966, the Federal Highway Administration designated the entire Interstate Highway System part of the Pan-American Highway System, the section of Interstate 35 in San Antonio, Texas is referred to as the Pan Am Expressway by locals. As a result, the Trans-Canada Highway from Alberta to Thunder Bay has been considered as a route for the Pan-American Highway. This portion of I-25 largely follows the historic Camino Real, like I-35, the complete route of Interstate 25 is an official northerly continuation towards Alberta, where Highway 2 provides a direct link to the Alaska Highway
Panamerican Highway
–
1933 map of the Inter-American Highway portion of the Pan-American Highway.
Panamerican Highway
–
The Pan-American Highway from
Prudhoe Bay, U.S. to
Ushuaia, Argentina, with selected official and unofficial routes shown through the United States and Canada.
Panamerican Highway
–
Pan-American Highway in
Chimaltenango (
Guatemala), 2001.
Panamerican Highway
–
Pan-American Highway at
David, Chiriquí
38.
INEI
–
The Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática is a semi-autonomous Peruvian government agency which coordinates, compiles, and evaluates statistical information for the country. Its current director is Renán Quispe Llanos, as stated on its website, the INEI eases decision-making with help of quality statistical information and the use of information technology and thus helps develop the society. The latest census performed by the INEI is the 2005 Census and its preliminary results were released to the public on November 30,2005 and final results on February 20,2006. An earlier census is the 1993 Census, in its reports INEI uses standard coding systems for geographical location and classification of economical activities, UBIGEO ClaNAE Census in Peru INEI website
INEI
INEI
–
The INEI the 2007 Census.
39.
Tourism in Peru
–
Tourism in Peru makes up the nations third largest industry, behind fishing and mining. Tourism is directed towards archeological monuments, ecotourism in the Peruvian Amazon, cultural tourism in colonial cities, gastronomic tourism, adventure tourism, according to a Peruvian government study, the satisfaction rate for tourists after visiting Peru is 94%. Tourism is the most rapidly growing industry in Peru, growing annually at a rate of 25% over the past five years, Tourism is growing in Peru faster than any other country in South America. Iperú is the Peruvian national tourist office, Peru does not have one clear national airline, but rather a number of different airlines offering service to Peru from North America, South America, Europe, and Asia. Some of the most popular airlines are LAN Perú, Avianca Peru, the countrys airports are also served by many international airlines from other nations. The Jorge Chávez International Airport in Lima is the leading international airport. Domestic air travel serves as a method for tourists to traverse the country with multiple airlines offering service between many of Perus cities. Peru has land borders with five countries and has connections with all. International bus routes are operated on each of these highways providing service from Peruvian cities to other South American cities, domestically, the highway system is extensive and covers nearly the entire country excluding the department of Loreto which can only be accessed by boat or airplane. There are frequent buses traveling throughout the country, but, bus travel is dangerous as many of these highways are built on cliffs, and accidents leading to death are frequently reported by the media. Occasionally buses are held up by highwaymen in remote areas, the buses range in size and comfort but they usually have cushioned reclining seats and a form of onboard entertainment, such as a movie or music. Many offer bus-camas, or sleeper buses, with seats that recline to become beds, the Lima Metro is partially complete, with one line operational, but other regions do not have this system. Tourists must travel by bus or taxi within the city, outside of Lima, there are only two major railway systems in operation, one in the central part of the country and the other in the south. The central railway starts at sea level in Lima and traverses the Andes, crossing through the Junín and Huancavelica departments. The southern railway is the one most commonly used by tourists, as a segment of its route goes from the city of Cusco to the citadel of Machu Picchu and this route offers seating options ranging from economy class to first class. The railway is operated by PeruRail, the largest railway manager in Peru, another mode of transportation in the Amazonian area is river transport. River transportation companies operate routes between the cities of the Peruvian Amazon, the main hubs of this network are the cities of Iquitos, Puerto Maldonado, Pucallpa, and Yurimaguas. Because of the lack of roads in this region, river transport, Tourism is the third largest industry in Peru
Tourism in Peru
–
The
Cathedral of Lima in the
Historic Centre of Lima
Tourism in Peru
–
Map showing the 15 most visited tourist destinations in Peru.
Tourism in Peru
–
The
jaguar, an animal native to the
national parks of Peru.
Tourism in Peru
–
The
Inca Trail from
Cusco to
Machu Picchu
40.
Gustave Eiffel
–
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel was a French civil engineer and architect. A graduate of École Centrale Paris, he made his name with various bridges for the French railway network and he is best known for the world-famous Eiffel Tower, built for the 1889 Universal Exposition in Paris, and his contribution to building the Statue of Liberty in New York. After his retirement from engineering, Eiffel focused on research into meteorology and aerodynamics, Gustave Eiffel was born in France, in the Côte-dOr, the first child of Catherine-Mélanie and Alexandre Bönickhausen. He was a descendant of Jean-René Bönickhausen, who had emigrated from the German town of Marmagen, the family adopted the name Eiffel as a reference to the Eifel mountains in the region from which they had come. Although the family used the name Eiffel, Gustaves name was registered at birth as Bönickhausen. The business was successful enough for Catherine Eiffel to sell it in 1843, both men spent a lot of time with the young Eiffel, teaching him about everything from chemistry and mining to theology and philosophy. During his second year he chose to specialize in chemistry, however, shortly afterwards Nepveus company went bankrupt, but Nepveu found Eiffel a job designing a 22 m sheet iron bridge for the Saint Germaine railway. These were constructed with the aid of compressed air caissons and hydraulic rams, Eiffel was initially given the responsibility of assembling the metalwork and eventually took over the management of the entire project from Nepveu, who resigned in March 1860. Following the completion of the project on schedule Eiffel was appointed as the engineer of the Compagnie Belge. Further promotion within the company followed, but the business began to decline, at the same time he was employed by Jean-Baptiste Kranz to assist him in the design of the exhibition hall for the Exposition Universelle which was to be held in 1867. Eiffels principal job was to draw up the arch girders of the Galerie des Machines, at the end of 1866 Eiffel managed to borrow enough money to set up his own workshops at 48 Rue Fouquet in Levallois-Perret. On 6 October 1868 he entered partnership with Théophile Seyrig, like Eiffel a graduate of the École Centrale. In 1875, Eiffel et Cie were given two important contracts, one for a new terminus for the line from Vienna to Budapest, the station in Budapest was an innovative design. The bridge over the Douro came about as the result of a competition held by the Royal Portuguese Railroad Company and this was greater than the longest arch span which had been built at the time. Eiffels proposal was for a bridge deck was supported by five iron piers. The price quoted by Eiffel was FF, the members included Jean-Baptiste Krantz, Henri Dion and Léon Molinos, both of whom had known Eiffel for a long time, their report was favorable, and Eiffel got the job. On-site work began in January 1876 and was complete by the end of October 1877, the Exposition Universelle in 1878 firmly established his reputation as one of the leading engineers of the time. As well as exhibiting models and drawings of work undertaken by the company, one of these, a pavilion for the Paris Gas Company, was Eiffels first collaboration with Stephen Sauvestre, who was later to become the head of the companys architectural office
Gustave Eiffel
–
Eiffel in 1888, photographed by
Félix Nadar
Gustave Eiffel
–
The Bordeaux bridge, Eiffel's first major work.
Gustave Eiffel
–
The Budapest-Nyugati station.
Gustave Eiffel
–
The
Maria Pia Bridge
41.
Yehude Simon Munaro
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Yehude Simon Munaro is a Peruvian politician and former Prime Minister of Peru. Born in Lima to a family of Arab and Italian descent and he married Nancy Valcárcel, a Chiclayo painter with whom he had four children, Jessica, Yehuda, and Yusef Yail and four grandchildren, David, Micaela, Joaquín and Isabella. Yehuda Simon began his activity in 1983, when he applied for the post of Mayor of prosperous Chiclayo by the party United Left. In 1985 he applied to the Chamber of Deputies by United Left, was elected MP for Lambayeque, integrating the Committees on Justice and Human Rights Congress. In 1991, he founded the Free Patriotic Movement, who was accused of being the legal wing of the MRTA rebel movement, on 5 April 1992, Simon was in Europe, participating in conferences. Upon learning of the breakdown of the constitutional President Alberto Fujimori he returned to Peru, on 11 June 1992 he was arrested along with other leaders of Patria Libre, and accused of being a subversive. Later that year he was sentenced by the judiciary to 20 years of imprisonment for the crime of glorification of terrorism. During his eight and a half years in prison, human rights organizations, Amnesty International, some media, after being cleared of all charges, Simon served as governor of the prosperous Lambayeque Region. Since July 2008 he has been the president of the moderate center-left Peruvian Humanist Party, on 14 October 2008, Simon was sworn in as President of the Peruvian Minister Cabinet, a position akin to that of a Prime Minister. In June 2009, Simon announced that he would resign as minister in the coming weeks. He resigned on 10 July 2009 and was replaced on 12 July 2009 by Ángel Javier Velásquez Quesquén, Simon pledged to work to persuade the Peruvian congress to repeal these controversial laws. In the general election,2011 Simon was elected Congressman for Lambayeque on the list of the Alliance for the Great Change to which Simons Humanist Party has integrated, article drawn primarily from Spanish-language Wikipedia entry of same name
Yehude Simon Munaro
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Yehude Simon
42.
Tania Libertad
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Tania Libertad de Souza Zúñiga, known professionally as Tania Libertad, is a Peruvian-Mexican singer. She is considered one of the best singers in the World music genre, in 2009, she received the Latin Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award for musical excellence to honor her brilliant career. With more than 44 albums and sales of over 10 million copies, her work has been hailed throughout the Americas, Europe, Tania was singing the Rafael Alberti composition La Paloma a capella, and each note touched a string in my soul until I was completely dazzled. - José Saramago Libertad was born in the town of Zaña. Her mother was a nurse of indigenous descent, and her father was a policeman of Portuguese descent with very traditional views on gender roles and she grew up with eight older brothers. She found growing up in such a male-dominated environment difficult and she first sang on stage at the age of five in Chiclayo. Because her parents worked long hours, her family didnt know she was singing, in early performances, she sang traditional Peruvian and Mexican songs, including waltzes and boleros. She further developed her repertoire with traditional and rock music on the radio, and recalls singing in competitions at age seven, knowing 300 boleros by eight, as a teenager, Libertad moved to the Peruvian capital of Lima. She sang in nightclubs there, and her father worked as her manager and she was soon offered a contract with RCA Victor and had her first national hit in Peru, La Contamanina. While Libertad pursued her career she convinced her father to let her study engineering in the university. Because her father wanted to study one of her brothers did, she studied science. During this time, Libertads interest in Afro-Peruvian music, which flourished in her native north, the nationalist Peruvian government wanted to encourage expressions of Peruvian culture, going so far as to establish an Afro-Peruvian ballet company. She also became uncomfortable singing in nightclubs due to the sexism and racism prevalent there, in 1976, Libertad began to travel abroad, and was inspired by the musical traditions and political consciousness she encountered in the places she visited, such as Cuba. Unsuccessful in Peru with her new brand of music, she decided to emigrate to Mexico and she arrived there penniless and bonded with Latin American artists who fled their home countries for political reasons. Soon, she found her first job at the Blanquita Theatre in Mexico City, there, Libertad was given a contract by PolyGram singing trova, Afro-Peruvian music, salsa, and bolero. In 1985, she released her first album of boleros and she has lived in Mexico since, and has sung in over 20 countries on every inhabited continent. Her albums Costa Negra and Color Negro, from 2003 and 2004 respectively, are recordings of Afro-Peruvian songs, Libertad is married to a businessman and has a son, they live in Mexico City. She considers herself a citizen of the world, and ascribes to the ideas of Simón Bolívar and she identifies as anti-war, but does not like to be labeled a protest singer
Tania Libertad
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Tania Libertad performing live.
43.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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Two NOAA
WP-3D Orions
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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Logo of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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NOAA engineer at work
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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Commercial certification authorities
44.
Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
Wayback Machine
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Wayback Machine
45.
Ayacucho
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Ayacucho, is the capital city of Huamanga Province, Ayacucho Region, Peru. Ayacucho is famous for its 33 churches, which represent one for year of Jesus life. Ayacucho has large religious celebrations, especially during the Holy Week of Easter and these celebrations include horse races featuring Peruvian Caballos de Paso and the traditional running of the bulls, known locally as the jalatoro or pascuatoro. The jalatoro is similar to the Spanish encierro, except that the bulls are led by horses of the Morochucos, the name is derived from the Quechua words aya and kuchu, referring to a major battle for independence. Another possible interpretation is soul or spirit corner, in reference to the devotion of its people. Vestiges of human settlements more than 15,000 years old have been found in the site of Pikimachay, from 500 to 900, the region became occupied by the Wari culture, which became known as the first expansionist empire based in the Andes before the Inca Empire. The Ayacucho region was inhabited by varying indigenous cultures for thousands of years, including the Wari, Chanka people, the Spanish colonial founding of Ayacucho was led by conqueror Francisco Pizarro on April 25,1540, who named it San Juan de la Frontera de Huamanga. On May 17,1544, by Royal decree, Ayacucho was titled La Muy Noble y Leal Ciudad de Huamanga, the citys main University was founded on July 3,1677 as San Cristóbal of Huamanga University. On February 15,1825, Simón Bolívar changed the name to Ayacucho. The city is named after the historical Battle of Ayacucho, upon seeing so many casualties on the battlefield, citizens called the area Ayakuchu, aya meaning dead and kuchu meaning corner in Ayacucho Quechua. The Battle of Ayacucho was the last armed clash between Spanish armies and patriots during the Peruvian War of Independence, the battle developed in the nearby pampas of La Quinua on December 9,1824. Independentist forces were led by Antonio José de Sucre, Simón Bolívars lieutenant, viceroy José de la Serna e Hinojosa was wounded, and after the battle second commander-in-chief José de Canterac signed the final capitulation of the Royalist army. The patriot victory sealed the independence of Peru and South America, La Paz, now the seat of government of Bolivia, was similarly renamed La Paz de Ayacucho following this battle. The citys economy is based on agriculture and light manufacturing, including textiles, pottery, leather goods, and filigree ware. It is a tourism destination, known for its 33 churches built in the colonial period, and for the nearby battlefield of La Quinua. In 1980, the insurgent organization known as the Shining Path used Ayachucho as its base for its campaign against the Peruvian government, the campaign faded after the leader Abimael Guzmán Reynoso was captured in 1992 and put in prison. The region headed by Ayacucho is rural and one of the poorest of all the country, with the peace of the last 15 years, the citizens work hard to improve the living conditions and attract jobs. María Parado de Bellido, heroine in War of Independence, efraín Morote Best, anthropologist and university president
Ayacucho
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Ayacucho's cathedral by night
Ayacucho
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Cathedral of Vilcashuaman, built on remains of Inca temple.
Ayacucho
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Arch of the triumph and San Francisco de Asís church.
Ayacucho
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Mariscal Sucre Monument in the Plaza Mayor de Ayacucho.
Peru
Media related to Chiclayo at Wikimedia Commons
Chiclayo travel guide from Wikivoyage
"Chiclayo". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.
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Peruvian cities with a population of over 100,000
