1.
Chisel (band)
–
Chisel was a punk rock band from the United States that existed between 1990 and 1997. In that time, the group released two albums and a compilation of early recordings. Chisel began in 1990 on the campus of the University of Notre Dame, when classmates Ted Leo, Chris Infante, and John Dugan began practicing in the basement of a campus dormitory. Leo had played shows with bands such as Animal Crackers in New Yorks all-ages scene and Dugan had drummed with the Washington. The band quickly went from playing a set to playing original songs written by Leo. Chisel began to perform at various venues in the Midwest and Northeast. Space in Washington and ABC No Rio in New York City, in 1992, Infante graduated from college and was replaced on bass by Chris Norborg, who also provided the backing vocal harmonies that soon became integral to Chisels sound. In 1994, the members relocated to Washington where Dugan had been interning with Amnesty International. It was followed in 1996 by 8 a. m, all Day, an album of all-new material recorded in the basement studio of Velocity Girl guitarist Archie Moore and produced by the band itself. By this time, Chisel was touring as an act for bands like Fugazi, Velocity Girl, Blonde Redhead. Following the release of 8 a. m, all Day, the band gained a growing following in the rock clubs of New York, Chicago and Boston and was being courted by dozens of record labels. For its next album, the band enlisted Nicolas Vernhes and his Rare Book Room studio in Williamsburg, the band first recorded a single, Its Alright, Youre Okay, in the studio and few months later booked Vernhes for 10 days. Within those ten days, the band tracked and mixed 16 songs and this new set of material found the band incorporating various Britpop influences, horns, Hammond organ, and thicker sonics into its sound. But the band also pared some pieces back to an almost minimalist rock aesthetic in order to push Leos increasingly dark, at the other end of the spectrum, Norborg contributed lead vocals to his own compositions Oh Dear Friends and Morley Timmons. Leo also soloed on guitar more often on the album, the band released its second and final LP/CD, Set You Free, in mid-1997, and set off on a well-attended tour with Boston band Karate. Chisel played its last show on May 16,1997 in Knoxville, plans to tour the West Coast and Europe were scrapped. A compilation of Chisel rarities has been in the works for some time, all Day Set You Free Swamp Fox/Spike b/w Listen Spectacles split with Brian, Colin & Vince Sunburn b/w Little Gidding 3 OClock High O. T. S. B/w If You Believe in Christmas Trees Its Alright, Youre O. K. T. S. on Darla 100 Spectacles on Songs for Cassavetes AllMusic Artist Page Epitonic page Band web site as of 2008 Official myspace website
Chisel (band)
–
Chisel plays on the University of Notre Dame campus, April 1991. From left, are Ted Leo, John Dugan and Chris Infante.
2.
Chisel (album)
–
Chisel is the 1991 compilation album by Australian pub rockers Cold Chisel. It features a selection of their best songs from albums, including live versions of the tracks Merry-Go-Round, Star Hotel. The track Misfits was an unreleased song and was removed from later re-issues of this album. A limited edition release of this included the long-deleted 1978 live EP Youre Thirteen, Youre Beautiful. The album spent over 50 weeks in the charts, peaking at number 3. To coincide with the new re-issues, Chisel was not only remastered, featuring a new black cover, the 2001 version was also released as a limited bonus disc edition which included a 20-page booklet
Chisel (album)
–
Chisel
Chisel (album)
–
2001 re-release of Chisel
3.
Tool
–
A tool is any physical item that can be used to achieve a goal, especially if the item is not consumed in the process. Tool use by humans dates back millions of years, and other animals are known to employ simple tools. Tools that are used in fields or activities may have different designations such as instrument, utensil, implement, machine, device. The set of tools needed to achieve a goal is equipment, the knowledge of constructing, obtaining and using tools is technology. Anthropologists believe that the use of tools was an important step in the evolution of mankind, because tools are used extensively by both humans and wild chimpanzees, it is widely assumed that the first routine use of tools took place prior to the divergence between the two species. These early tools, however, were made of perishable materials such as sticks. Stone artifacts only date back to about 2.5 million years ago, however, a 2010 study suggests the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis ate meat by carving animal carcasses with stone implements. This finding pushes back the earliest known use of tools among hominins to about 3.4 million years ago. Finds of actual tools date back at least 2.6 million years in Ethiopia, one of the earliest distinguishable stone tool forms is the hand axe. Up until recently, weapons found in digs were the tools of “early man” that were studied. Now, more tools are recognized as culturally and historically relevant, as well as hunting, other activities required tools such as preparing food, “…nutting, leatherworking, grain harvesting and woodworking…” Included in this group are “flake stone tools. “Man the hunter” as the catalyst for Hominin change has been questioned, based on marks on the bones at archaeological sites, it is now more evident that pre-humans were scavenging off of other predators carcasses rather than killing their own food. Mechanical devices experienced an expansion in their use in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome with the systematic employment of new energy sources. Their use expanded through the Dark Ages with the addition of windmills, machine tools occasioned a surge in producing new tools in the industrial revolution. Advocates of nanotechnology expect a similar surge as tools become microscopic in size, one can classify tools according to their basic functions, Cutting and edge tools, such as the knife, scythe or sickle, are wedge-shaped implements that produce a shearing force along a narrow face. Ideally, the edge of the needs to be harder than the material being cut or else the blade will become dulled with repeated use. But even resilient tools will require periodic sharpening, which is the process of removing deformation wear from the edge, other examples of cutting tools include gouges and drill bits. Moving tools move large and tiny items, many are levers which give the user a mechanical advantage
Tool
–
A modern
toolbox
Tool
–
Prehistoric
stone tools over 10,000 years old, found in
Les Combarelles cave, France
Tool
–
Carpentry tools recovered from the wreck of a 16th-century sailing ship, the
Mary Rose. From the top, a
mallet,
brace,
plane, handle of a
T-auger, handle of a
gimlet, handle of a
hammer?,
rule.
Tool
–
Stone and metal
knives
4.
Grind
–
The grind of a blade refers to the shape of the cross-section of the blade. It is distinct from the profile, though different tools. Grinding involves removing significant portions of metal from the blade and is distinct from honing and polishing. The terms edge angle and included angle can be important when talking about grinding, the edge angle is measured between the surface of an edge and a line running from the point of the cutting edge to the centre of the back edge. The included angle is the sum of the edge angles, all other things being equal, the smaller the included angle, the sharper the blade and the easier it is to damage the edge. An appropriate grind will depend upon what the blade is to be used for, knife manufacturers may offer the same model of knife with different grinds on the blade and owners of a blade may choose to reshape it as a different grind to obtain different blade properties. A trade-off exists between a blades ability to take an edge and its ability to keep an edge, various grinds are easier to maintain than others or can provide a better shape over the life of the blade as the blade is worn away by repeated sharpening. In the range of used for knives, the relationship between hardness and toughness is fairly complex and high hardness and high toughness are often possible at the same time. As a rough guide, Western kitchen knives generally have a double-bevel, while East Asian kitchen knives are made of steel and are ground at 15–18°. An irregular material or angled cut is also likely to apply more torque to hollow-ground blades due to the lip formed on either side of the edge. Also, any object being cut must be moved aside to make way for this wider blade section, and any force distributed to the grind surface reduces the pressure applied at the edge. One way around this dilemma is to use the blade at an angle, using the edge in this way is made easier by introducing a curve in the blade, as seen in sabers, tulwars, shamshirs, and katanas, among many others. Some old European swords and the Indonesian style of kris have a wavelike shape, with much the same effect in drawing or thrusting cuts. When speaking of Japanese edged weapons, the term refers to the grind of the blade. Katana tend to have much more niku than wakizashi and this is characteristic of straight razors, used for shaving, and yields a very sharp but weak edge which requires stropping for maintenance. Flat grind — The blade tapers all the way from the spine to the edge from both sides, a lot of metal is removed from the blade and is thus more difficult to grind, one factor that limits its commercial use. It sacrifices edge durability in favor of more sharpness, a true, flat ground knife having only a single bevel is somewhat of a rarity. Sabre grind — Similar to a flat grind blade except that the starts at about the middle of the blade
Grind
–
A wetgrinder is a hand operated grinding stone where the
swarf is gathered below the stone in water
Grind
–
A modernised wetgrinder
5.
Blade
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A blade is the portion of a tool, weapon, or machine with an edge that is designed to puncture, chop, slice or scrape surfaces or materials. A blade may be made from a stone, such as flint, metal, ceramic. Blades are one of humanitys oldest tools, and continue to be used for combat, food preparation, during food preparation, knives are mainly used for slicing, chopping, and piercing. In combat, a blade may be used to slash or puncture, the function is to sever a nerve, muscle or tendon fibers, or blood vessel to disable or kill the adversary. Severing a major blood vessel typically leads to death due to exsanguination, shrapnel causes wounds via the fragments blade-like nature. Blades may be used to scrape, moving the blade sideways across a surface, a simple blade intended for cutting has two faces that meet at an edge. Ideally this edge would have no roundness but in practice all edges can be seen to be rounded to some degree under magnification either optically or with an electron microscope, force is applied to the blade, either from the handle or pressing on the back of the blade. The handle or back of the blade has a large area compared to the fine edge and this concentration of applied force onto the small edge area increases the pressure exerted by the edge. It is this pressure that allows a blade to cut through a material by breaking the bonds between the molecules/crystals/fibres/etc. in the material. This necessitates the blade being strong enough to resist breaking before the material gives way. The angle at which the meet is important as a larger angle will make for a duller blade while making the edge stronger. A stronger edge is likely to dull from fracture or from having the edge roll out of shape. The shape of the blade is also important, a thicker blade will be heavier and stronger and stiffer than a thinner one of similar design while also making it experience more drag while slicing or piercing. A splitting maul has a section to avoid getting stuck in wood where chopping axes can be flat or even concave. Similarly, pushing on a rope tends to squash the rope while drawing serrations across it sheers the rope fibres, drawing a smooth blade is less effective as the blade is parallel to the direction draw but the serrations of a serrated blade are at an angle to the fibres. Saw blade serrations, for wood and metal, are typically asymmetrical so that they cut while moving in only one direction. Fullers are longitudinal channels either forged into the blade or later machined/milled out of the blade though the process is less desirable. This loss of material necessarily weakens the blade but serves to make the lighter without sacrificing stiffness
Blade
–
Knife blades
Blade
–
Blade of a whale knife
Blade
–
Drop-point blade
Blade
–
Clip-point blade
6.
Wood
–
Wood is a porous and fibrous structural tissue found in the stems and roots of trees, and other woody plants. It is a material, a natural composite of cellulose fibers which are strong in tension embedded in a matrix of lignin which resists compression. Wood is sometimes defined as only the secondary xylem in the stems of trees, in a living tree it performs a support function, enabling woody plants to grow large or to stand up by themselves. It also conveys water and nutrients between the leaves, other growing tissues, and the roots, Wood may also refer to other plant materials with comparable properties, and to material engineered from wood, or wood chips or fiber. In 2005, the stock of forests worldwide was about 434 billion cubic meters. As an abundant, carbon-neutral renewable resource, woody materials have been of intense interest as a source of renewable energy, in 1991 approximately 3.5 billion cubic meters of wood were harvested. Dominant uses were for furniture and building construction, a 2011 discovery in the Canadian province of New Brunswick discovered the earliest known plants to have grown wood, approximately 395 to 400 million years ago. Wood can be dated by carbon dating and in species by dendrochronology to make inferences about when a wooden object was created. People have used wood for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a fuel or as a material for making houses, tools, weapons, furniture, packaging, artworks. Constructions using wood date back ten thousand years, buildings like the European Neolithic long house were made primarily of wood. Recent use of wood has changed by the addition of steel. The year-to-year variation in tree-ring widths and isotopic abundances gives clues to the climate at that time. This process is known as growth, it is the result of cell division in the vascular cambium, a lateral meristem. These cells then go on to form thickened secondary cell walls, composed mainly of cellulose, hemicellulose, if the distinctiveness between seasons is annual, these growth rings are referred to as annual rings. Where there is little seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent, if the bark of the tree has been removed in a particular area, the rings will likely be deformed as the plant overgrows the scar. It is usually lighter in color than that near the portion of the ring. The outer portion formed later in the season is known as the latewood or summerwood. However, there are differences, depending on the kind of wood
Wood
–
Diagram of
secondary growth in a
tree showing idealised vertical and horizontal sections. A new layer of wood is added in each growing season, thickening the stem, existing branches and
roots, to form a
growth ring.
Wood
Wood
–
A knot on a tree at the
Garden of the Gods public park in
Colorado Springs, Colorado (October 2006)
Wood
–
Wood knot in vertical section
7.
Rock (geology)
–
Rock or stone is a natural substance, a solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids. For example, granite, a rock, is a combination of the minerals quartz, feldspar. The Earths outer solid layer, the lithosphere, is made of rock, rock has been used by mankind throughout history. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human civilization, three major groups of rocks are defined, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The scientific study of rocks is called petrology, which is a component of geology. At a granular level, rocks are composed of grains of minerals, the aggregate minerals forming the rock are held together by chemical bonds. The types and abundance of minerals in a rock are determined by the manner in which the rock was formed, many rocks contain silica, a compound of silicon and oxygen that forms 74. 3% of the Earths crust. This material forms crystals with other compounds in the rock, the proportion of silica in rocks and minerals is a major factor in determining their name and properties. Rocks are geologically classified according to such as mineral and chemical composition, permeability, the texture of the constituent particles. These physical properties are the end result of the processes that formed the rocks, over the course of time, rocks can transform from one type into another, as described by the geological model called the rock cycle. These events produce three general classes of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic, the three classes of rocks are subdivided into many groups. However, there are no hard and fast boundaries between allied rocks, hence the definitions adopted in establishing rock nomenclature merely correspond to more or less arbitrary selected points in a continuously graduated series. Igneous rock forms through the cooling and solidification of magma or lava and this magma can be derived from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planets mantle or crust. Typically, the melting of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes, an increase in temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition, igneous rocks are divided into two main categories, plutonic rock and volcanic. Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earths crust, a common example of this type is granite. Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or fragmental ejecta, the chemical abundance and the rate of cooling of magma typically forms a sequence known as Bowens reaction series. Most major igneous rocks are found along this scale, about 64. 7% of the Earths crust by volume consists of igneous rocks, making it the most plentiful category. Of these, 66% are basalts and gabbros, 16% are granite, only 0. 6% are syenites and 0. 3% peridotites and dunites
Rock (geology)
–
Balanced Rock stands in the
Garden of the Gods park in
Colorado Springs
Rock (geology)
–
Rock outcrop along a mountain creek near
Orosí,
Costa Rica.
Rock (geology)
–
Sample of igneous
gabbro
Rock (geology)
–
Sedimentary sandstone with iron oxide bands
8.
Metalworking
–
Metalworking is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale structures. The term covers a range of work from large ships and bridges to precise engine parts. It therefore includes a wide range of skills, processes. Metalworking is a science, art, hobby, industry and trade and its historical roots span cultures, civilizations, and millennia. Metalworking has evolved from the discovery of smelting various ores, producing malleable and ductile metal useful for tools, modern metalworking processes, though diverse and specialized, can be categorized as forming, cutting, or joining processes. Todays machine shop includes a number of machine tools capable of creating a precise, the oldest archaeological evidence of copper mining and working was the discovery of a copper pendant in northern Iraq from 8,700 BCE. The earliest substantiated and dated evidence of metalworking in the Americas was the processing of copper in Wisconsin, Copper was hammered until brittle then heated so it could be worked some more. This technology is dated to about 4000-5000 BCE, the oldest gold artifacts in the world come from the Bulgarian Varna Necropolis and date from 4450 BCE. Not all metal required fire to obtain it or work it, isaac Asimov speculated that gold was the first metal. His reasoning is that by its chemistry it is found in nature as nuggets of pure gold, in other words, gold, as rare as it is, is sometimes found in nature as the metal that it is. There are a few metals that sometimes occur natively. Almost all other metals are found in ores, a mineral-bearing rock, another feature of gold is that it is workable as it is found, meaning that no technology beyond a stone hammer and anvil to work the metal is needed. This is a result of properties of malleability and ductility. The earliest tools were stone, bone, wood, and sinew, at some unknown point the connection between heat and the liberation of metals from rock became clear, rocks rich in copper, tin, and lead came into demand. These ores were mined wherever they were recognized, remnants of such ancient mines have been found all over Southwestern Asia. Metalworking was being carried out by the South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh between 7000–3300 BCE, the end of the beginning of metalworking occurs sometime around 6000 BCE when copper smelting became common in Southwestern Asia. Ancient civilisations knew of seven metals. Here they are arranged in order of their potential, Iron +0.44 V
Metalworking
–
Turning a bar of metal on a
lathe
Metalworking
–
A turret lathe operator machining parts for transport planes at the Consolidated Aircraft Corporation plant, Fort Worth, Texas, USA in the 1940s
Metalworking
–
A
combination square used for transferring designs.
Metalworking
–
A caliper is used to precisely measure a short length.
9.
Mallet
–
A mallet is a kind of hammer, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually has a relatively large head. The term is descriptive of the size and proportions of the tool. Tool mallets come in different types, the most common of which are and they are typically used to form sheet metal, since they do not leave marks and are less likely to dent the workpiece. Rubber mallets are used for forcing tight-fitting parts together, for shifting plasterboard into place, in upholstery work. It is a tool of preference for wood workers using chisels with plastic, metal, or wooden handles and it is the most commonly used mallet. Wooden mallets are used in carpentry to knock wooden pieces together. A wooden mallet will not deform the striking end of a metal tool and it also is used to reduce the force driving the cutting edge of a chisel, giving better control. Hardwood mallets are used to knock in cricket bats. Copper, brass and leaden mallets are used on machinery to apply force to parts with a reduced risk of damaging them. As these metals are softer than steel, the mallet is deformed by any excessive force, meat mallets tenderise or flatten meat. Made from wood or metal, they are typically two-sided, one flat or with slight bumps, and their use has been reduced with the invention of cube steak machines and other electric tenderisers, but they can still be readily found at cookery stores and in professional use. Plastic mallets, made of nylon, polycarbonate, or polystyrene are used especially in leatherwork, split head mallets have removable faces which can be changed to an appropriate material for the job. Beetle mallets are large mallets with a wood or plastic head, with rounded ends about 15 to 18 inches in diameter. It is used by paviours for tapping paving stones into position when bedding them, beetles are also used in jobs such as timber framing to shift the bases of large wooden posts, to fit joints, and to drive in pegs. Dead blow mallets typically have an internal cavity partially filled with shot, lead shot. This modification evens out the curve of the impact, enabling a more powerful blow to be delivered without risk of marring the target. Mallets of various types are some of the oldest forms of tools, Mallets used as drumsticks are often used to strike a marimba, xylophone, glockenspiel, metallophone, or vibraphone, collectively referred to as mallet percussion. The sticks usually have made of rattan, birch, or fiberglass
Mallet
–
A rubber mallet, used in construction, woodworking, and auto-body work
Mallet
–
Stonemason's mallets of plastic, wood and steel
Mallet
–
A wooden mallet
Mallet
–
An iron mallet with copper faces. Solid head copper mallets are produced with a round or square head
10.
Hammer
–
A hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow to an object. Most hammers are hand tools used to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, hammers vary in shape, size, and structure, depending on their purposes. Hammers are basic tools in many trades, the usual features are a head and a handle. Although most hammers are hand tools, powered versions exist, they are known as powered hammers, types of power hammer include steam hammers and trip hammers, often for heavier uses, such as forging. Some hammers have other names, such as sledgehammer, mallet, the term hammer also applies to devices that deliver blows, such as the hammer of a firearm or the hammer of a piano or the hammer ice scraper. The use of simple hammers dates to about 2,600,000 BCE when various shaped stones were used to strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them. Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as hammers with handles by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age. The hammers archeological record shows that it may be the oldest tool for which evidence exists of its early existence. A traditional hand-held hammer consists of a head and a handle, fastened together by means of a special wedge made for the purpose, or by glue. This two-piece design is used, to combine a dense metallic striking head with a non-metallic mechanical-shock-absorbing handle. If wood is used for the handle, it is often hickory or ash, rigid fiberglass resin may be used for the handle, this material does not absorb water or decay, but does not dissipate shock as well as wood. A loose hammer head is hazardous because it can fly off the handle when in use. Wooden handles can often be replaced when worn or damaged, specialized kits are available covering a range of sizes and designs. Some hammers are one-piece designs made primarily of a single material, a one-piece metallic hammer may optionally have its handle coated or wrapped in a resilient material such as rubber, for improved grip and reduced user fatigue. The hammer head may be surfaced with a variety of materials, including brass, bronze, wood, plastic, rubber, some hammers have interchangeable striking surfaces, which can be selected as needed or replaced when worn out. A large hammer-like tool is a maul, a wood- or rubber-headed hammer is a mallet, the essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver a blow to the intended target without itself deforming. The impacting surface of the tool is usually flat or slightly rounded, some upholstery hammers have a magnetized face, to pick up tacks. In the hatchet, the hammer head may be secondary to the cutting edge of the tool
Hammer
–
A modern claw hammer
Hammer
Hammer
–
An early stone hammer
Hammer
–
Stone tapping hammer
11.
Hydraulic ram
–
A hydraulic ram, or hydram, is a cyclic water pump powered by hydropower. It takes in water at one hydraulic head and flow rate, the device uses the water hammer effect to develop pressure that allows a portion of the input water that powers the pump to be lifted to a point higher than where the water originally started. The hydraulic ram is sometimes used in areas, where there is both a source of low-head hydropower and a need for pumping water to a destination higher in elevation than the source. In this situation, the ram is often useful, since it requires no outside source of other than the kinetic energy of flowing water.9 metres. In 1783, he installed another in Ireland and he did not patent it, and details are obscure, but it is known to have had an air vessel. The first self-acting ram pump was invented by the Frenchman Joseph Michel Montgolfier in 1796 for raising water in his mill at Voiron. His friend Matthew Boulton took out a British patent on his behalf in 1797, eastons firm, inherited by his son James, grew during the nineteenth century to become one of the more important engineering manufacturers in the United Kingdom, with a large works at Erith, Kent. They specialised in water supply and sewerage systems worldwide, as well as land drainage projects, eastons had a good business supplying rams for water supply purposes to large country houses, farms, and village communities. Some of their installations still survived as of 2004, one example being at the hamlet of Toller Whelme. The firm closed in 1909, but the ram business was continued by James R Easton, in 1929, it was acquired by Green & Carter of Winchester, Hampshire, who were engaged in the manufacturing and installation of Vulcan and Vacher Rams. The first US patent was issued to Joseph Cerneau and Stephen S. Hallet in 1809, US interest in hydraulic rams picked up around 1840, as further patents were issued and domestic companies started offering rams for sale. Toward the end of the 19th century, interest waned as electricity, by the end of the twentieth century interest in hydraulic rams has revived, due to the needs of sustainable technology in developing countries, and energy conservation in developed ones. A good example is AID Foundation International in the Philippines, who won an Ashden Award for their work developing ram pumps that could be maintained for use in remote villages. The hydraulic ram principle has been used in proposals for exploiting wave power. The venturi valve is configured as a ring section positioned around the inlet of the pump with the delivery outlet of the pump being directly in line. The elastomeric material and operation of these valves also allows them to self-return without weight or spring assistance, a pressure vessel installed on a tee connected to the delivery port of the pump provides the pulsed flow accumulation means. This unique technology and design dramatically reduced the weight, manufacturing cost, systems have also been developed and utilised for rainwater harvesting, water treatment and other water utility applications. The Papa hydraulic ram pump also has two moving parts
Hydraulic ram
–
Figure 1: A hydraulic ram that drives a fountain at the
Centre for Alternative Technology
Hydraulic ram
–
Hydraulic ram, System Lambach now at
Roscheider Hof Open Air Museum
12.
Trip hammer
–
Trip hammers were usually raised by a cam and then released to fall under the force of gravity. During the Industrial Revolution the trip hammer fell out of favor and was replaced with the power hammer, often multiple hammers were powered via a set of line shafts, pulleys and belts from a centrally located power supply. In ancient China, the trip hammer evolved out of the use of the mortar and pestle, the latter was a simple device employing a lever and fulcrum, which featured a series of catches or lugs on the main revolving shaft as well. This device enabled the labor of pounding, often in the decorticating and polishing of grain, the latter book states that the legendary mythological king known as Fu Xi was the one responsible for the pestle and mortar. Afterwards the power of animals—donkeys, mules, oxen, and horses—was applied by means of machinery, with his description, it is seen that the out-of-date Chinese term for pestle and mortar would soon be replaced with the Chinese term for the water-powered trip-hammer. The Han Dynasty scholar and poet Ma Rong mentioned in one of his poems of hammers pounding in the water-echoing caves. In his Rou Xing Lun, the government official Kong Rong remarked that the invention of the hammer was an excellent example of a product created by intelligent men during his own age. There are numerous references to trip hammers during the Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty, the recumbent hammer was found in Chinese illustrations by 1313 AD, with the publishing of Wang Zhens Nong Shu book on ancient and contemporary metallurgy in China. There were also illustrations of trip hammers in an encyclopedia of 1637, the main components for water-powered trip hammers - water wheels, cams, and hammers - were already known in Hellenistic times. Ancient cams are in evidence in early water-powered automata from the 3rd century BC and these trip-hammers were used for the pounding and hulling of grain. Apart from agricultural processing, archaeological evidence also suggests the existence of trip hammers in Roman metal working. In Ickham in Kent, a large metal hammer-head with mechanical deformations was excavated in an area where several Roman water-mills and metal waste dumps have also been traced. The widest application of trip hammers, however, seems to have occurred in Roman mining, here, the regularity and spacing of large indentations on stone anvils indicate the use of cam-operated ore stamps, much like the devices of later medieval mining. Later, Muslim engineers introduced the use of trip hammers in the production of paper, replacing the traditional Chinese mortar, water-powered and mechanised trip hammers reappeared in medieval Europe by the 12th century. Their use was described in written sources of Styria, written in 1135. Both texts mentioned the use of vertical stamp mills for ore-crushing, medieval French sources of the years 1116 and 1249 both record the use of mechanised trip hammers used in the forging of wrought iron. The well-known Renaissance artist and inventor Leonardo da Vinci often sketched trip hammers for use in forges and even file-cutting machinery, the oldest depicted European illustration of a martinet forge-hammer is perhaps the Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus of Olaus Magnus, dated to 1565 AD. In this woodcut image, there is the scene of three martinets and a working wood and leather bellows of the Osmund Bloomery furnace
Trip hammer
–
Trip hammer of the St. Michael's Furnace property – Museum of Iron of
Saint-Hubert (Belgium).
Trip hammer
Trip hammer
–
Hydraulic powered trip hammer set, illustration from the Tiangong Kaiwu encyclopedia of 1637, written by
Song Yingxing (1587–1666)
Trip hammer
–
Ore stamp mill (behind worker raking ore form chute). From:
Georg Agricola 's
De re metallica (1556)
13.
Chisel
–
The handle and blade of some types of chisel are made of metal or of wood with a sharp edge in it. Chiselling use involves forcing the blade into some material to cut it, the driving force may be applied by pushing by hand, or by using a mallet or hammer. In industrial use, a ram or falling weight drives a chisel into the material. A gouge, one type of chisel, serves - particularly in woodworking, woodturning, gouges most frequently produce concave surfaces. A gouge typically has a U-shaped cross-section, chisel comes from the Old French cisel, modern ciseau, Late Latin cisellum, a cutting tool, from caedere, to cut. Chisels have a variety of uses. Many types of chisel have been devised, each suited to its intended use. Different types of chisel may be constructed differently, in terms of blade width or length, as well as shape. They may have a wooden or plastic handle attached using a tang or socket, woodworking chisels range from small hand tools for tiny details, to large chisels used to remove big sections of wood, in roughing out the shape of a pattern or design. Typically, in woodcarving, one starts with a larger tool, one of the largest types of chisel is the slick, used in timber frame construction and wooden shipbuilding. There are many types of woodworking chisels used for specific purposes, such as, Butt chisel, short chisel with beveled sides and straight edge for creating joints. Carving chisels, used for designs and sculpting, cutting edges are many, such as gouge, skew, parting, straight, paring. Corner chisel, resembles a punch and has an L-shaped cutting edge, cleans out square holes, mortises and corners with 90 degree angles. Bevel edge chisel, can get into acute angles with its bevelled edges, flooring chisel, cuts and lifts flooring materials for removal and repair, ideal for tongue-and-groove flooring. Framing chisel, usually used with mallet, similar to a chisel, except it has a longer. Slick, a large chisel driven by pressure, never struck. Mortise chisel, thick, rigid blade with cutting edge and deep, slightly tapered sides to make mortises. Paring chisel, has a long blade ideal for cleaning grooves, skew chisel, has a 60 degree cutting angle and is used for trimming and finishing
Chisel
–
Steel woodworking chisel.
Chisel
–
Neolithic stone chisels from Schleswig-Holstein, Germany around 4100 to 2700 BCE
Chisel
–
A chisel (right) is used to remove wood to make space for a door hinge.
Chisel
–
A sharp wood chisel in combination with a
forstner wood drill bit is used to form this mortise for a half-lap joint in a timber frame.
14.
Woodworking
–
Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials, among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen provide some of the first examples of hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving, since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, there is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in Ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture has been preserved. Tombs represent a collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period and these joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period, Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Woodworking was essential to the Romans and it provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Vitruvius dedicates a chapter of his De architectura to timber. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants which provides a wealth of information on trees, the progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line and his teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing. Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as pots, tables, altars, etc. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous, with the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed
Woodworking
–
Artists can use woodworking to create delicate
sculptures.
Woodworking
–
Ancient Egyptian woodworking
Woodworking
–
Damascene woodworkers
carving wood for
hookahs, 19th century.
Woodworking
–
Micronesian of
Tobi,
Palau, making a paddle for his
wa with an
adze.
15.
Woodturning
–
Woodturning is the craft of using the wood lathe with hand-held tools to cut a shape that is symmetrical around the axis of rotation. Like the potters wheel, the lathe is a simple mechanism which can generate a variety of forms. The operator is known as a turner, and the skills needed to use the tools were known as turnery. In pre-industrial England, these skills were sufficiently difficult to be known as the misterie of the turners guild. The skills to use the tools by hand, without a point of contact with the wood, distinguish woodturning. Industrial production has replaced many of products from the traditional turning shop. However, the lathe is still used for decentralized production of limited or custom turnings. A skilled turner can produce a variety of objects with five or six simple tools. The tools can be reshaped easily for the task at hand, in many parts of the world, the lathe has been a portable tool that goes to the source of the wood, or adapts to temporary workspaces. 21st-century turners restore furniture, continue folk-art traditions, produce custom architectural work, woodturning appeals to people who like to work with their hands, find pleasure in problem-solving, or enjoy the tactile and visual qualities of wood. Wood lathes work with either reciprocating or continuous revolution, the reciprocating lathe is powered by a bow or a spring, rotating the wood first in one direction, and then in the other. The turner cuts on just one side of the rotation, as with the pole lathe, the reciprocating lathe may be human-powered with a bow, as well as with spring mechanisms. The reciprocating lathe, while primitive technology requiring considerable dexterity to operate, is capable of excellent results in skilled hands, for example, reciprocating bow lathes are still used to turn beads for the Arabian lattice windows called Meshrebeeyeh that so charmed Holtzapffel in the 1880s. Continuous revolution of the workpiece can be human-powered with a wheel, or achieved with water, steam. The style of cutting does not have the pause required by the reciprocating lathes rotation, even with continuous revolution, however, the turner controls the contact of tool and wood entirely by hand. The cutters are not fixed, nor advanced automatically, as with the metal-working lathe, the nature of wood defines woodturning techniques. The orientation of the grain, relative to the axis of the lathe, affects the tools. In spindle turning, the grain runs lengthwise along the lathe bed, grain is thus always perpendicular to the direction of rotation under the tool
Woodturning
–
Detail of woodturning in work
Woodturning
–
A turned wood bowl with natural edges
Woodturning
–
Pole lathe
Woodturning
–
Belt driven lathe
16.
Sculpture
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
Sculpture
–
The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul a Roman marble copy of a
Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE
Capitoline Museums, Rome
Sculpture
Sculpture
–
Michelangelo 's
Moses, (c. 1513–1515), housed in the church of
San Pietro in Vincoli in
Rome. The sculpture was commissioned in 1505 by
Pope Julius II for his
tomb.
Sculpture
–
Assyrian
lamassu gate guardian from
Khorsabad, c. 721–800 BCE
17.
Forstner bit
–
Drill bits are cutting tools used to remove material to create holes, almost always of circular cross-section. Drill bits come in sizes and shape and can create different kinds of holes in many different materials. In order to create holes drill bits are attached to a drill, the drill will grasp the upper end of a bit called the shank in the chuck. Drill bits come in sizes, described in the drill bit sizes article. A comprehensive drill bit and tap size chart lists metric and imperial sized drill bits alongside the required screw tap sizes, there are also certain specialized drill bits that can create holes with a non-circular cross-section. While the term drill may refer to either a machine or a drill bit for use in a drilling machine. In this article, for clarity, drill bit or bit is used throughout to refer to a bit for use in a drilling machine, Drill bit geometry has several characteristics, The spiral in the drill bit controls the rate of chip removal. A fast spiral drill bit is used in high feed rate applications under low spindle speeds, the point angle, or the angle formed at the tip of the bit, is determined by the material the bit will be operating in. Harder materials require a larger point angle, and softer materials require a sharper angle, the correct point angle for the hardness of the material influences wandering, chatter, hole shape, and wear rate. The lip angle determines the amount of support provided to the cutting edge, a greater lip angle will cause the bit to cut more aggressively under the same amount of point pressure as a bit with a smaller lip angle. Both conditions can cause binding, wear, and eventual failure of the tool. The proper amount of lip clearance is determined by the point angle, the length of a bit determines how deep a hole can be drilled, and also determines the stiffness of the bit and accuracy of the resultant hole. While longer bits can drill deeper holes, they are flexible meaning that the holes they drill may have an inaccurate location or wander from the intended axis. Twist drill bits are available in lengths, referred to as Stub-length or Screw-Machine-length, the extremely common Jobber-length. Most drill bits for use have straight shanks. For heavy duty drilling in industry, bits with tapered shanks are sometimes used, other types shanks used include hex-shaped, and various proprietary quick release systems. The diameter-to-length ratio of the bit is usually between 1,1 and 1,10. Much higher ratios are possible, but the higher the ratio, the best geometry to use depends upon the properties of the material being drilled
Forstner bit
–
From top to bottom: Spade, lip and spur (brad point), masonry bit and twist drill bits
Forstner bit
–
Titanium nitride coated twist bit
Forstner bit
–
Diamond coated 2mm bits, used for drilling materials such as glass.
Forstner bit
–
A 5 mm carbide bit displaying shallow point angle.
18.
Dovetail joint
–
A dovetail joint or simply dovetail is a joinery technique most commonly used in woodworking joinery including furniture, cabinets, carcase construction, log buildings and traditional timber framing. Noted for its resistance to being pulled apart, the joint is commonly used to join the sides of a drawer to the front. A series of cut to extend from the end of one board interlock with a series of tails cut into the end of another board. The pins and tails have a trapezoidal shape, once glued, a wooden dovetail joint requires no mechanical fasteners. The dovetail joint probably pre-dates written history, some of the earliest known examples of the dovetail joint are in furniture entombed with mummies dating from First Dynasty of ancient Egypt, as well the tombs of Chinese emperors. The dovetail design is an important method of distinguishing various periods of furniture, in Europe the dovetail joint is also called a swallow-tail joint or a fantail joint. The dovetail joint is strong because of the way the ‘tails’ and ‘pins’ are shaped. This makes it difficult to pull the joint apart and virtually impossible when glue is added and this type of joint is used in box constructions such as drawers, jewellery boxes, cabinets and other pieces of furniture where strength is required. It is a joint to make manually, requiring skilled workmanship. There are different types of joints and when cut accurately they are very impressive and attractive. The joint is strong especially when used with a good quality glue such as PVA or cascamite, the marking out and cutting procedure is outlined below. The angle of slope varies according to the wood used, typically the slope is 1,6 for softwoods and a shallower 1,8 slope for hardwoods. Often a slope of 1,7 is used as a compromise, the photograph at the top of this page shows a through dovetail joint, where the end grain of both boards is visible when the joint is assembled. Through dovetails are common in carcass and box construction, traditionally, the dovetails would have often been covered by a veneer. However, dovetails have become a signature of craftsmanship and are considered a feature. When used in construction, a through dovetail joint is sometimes referred to as an English dovetail. Use for, Carcass and box construction A half-blind dovetail is used when the craftsman does not wish end grain to be visible from the front of the item. The tails are housed in sockets in the ends of the board that is to be the front of the item so that their ends cannot be seen, half-blind dovetails are commonly used to fasten drawer fronts to drawer sides
Dovetail joint
–
A finished dovetail joint.
Dovetail joint
–
Dovetailed woodworking joints on a Romanian church.
Dovetail joint
–
Cast iron dovetail joints in
The Iron Bridge
19.
Wood carving
–
The phrase may also refer to the finished product, from individual sculptures to hand-worked mouldings composing part of a tracery. It therefore forms an important hidden element in the art history of many cultures, outdoor wood sculptures do not last long in most parts of the world, so it is still unknown how the totem pole tradition developed. Many of the most important sculptures of China and Japan in particular are in wood, and so are the majority of African sculpture. Wood is light and can take very fine detail so it is suitable for masks. It is also easier to work on than stone. Some of the finest extant examples of early European wood carving are from the Middle Ages in Germany, Russia, Italy and France, in England, many complete examples remain from the 16th and 17th century, where oak was the preferred medium. The gouge, a tool with a cutting edge used in a variety of forms and sizes for carving hollows, rounds. The coping saw, a saw that is used to cut off chunks of wood at once. The chisel, large and small, whose straight cutting edge is used for lines, the V-tool, used for parting, and in certain classes of flat work for emphasizing lines. The U-Gauge, a deep gouge with a U-shaped cutting edge. Sharpening equipment, such as stones and a strop, necessary for maintaining edges. The nature of the wood being carved limits the scope of the carver in wood is not equally strong in all directions. The direction in which wood is strongest is called grain and it is smart to arrange the more delicate parts of a design along the grain instead of across it. Less commonly, this principle is used in solid pieces of wood. Probably the two most common used for carving in North America are basswood and tupelo, both are hardwoods that are relatively easy to work with. Chestnut, butternut, oak, American walnut, mahogany and teak are also very good woods, while for fine work Italian walnut, sycamore maple, apple, pear, box or plum, are usually chosen. Decoration that is to be painted and of not too delicate a nature is often carved in pine, the type of wood is important. Hardwoods are more difficult to shape but have greater luster and longevity, softer woods may be easier to carve but are more prone to damage
Wood carving
–
Carved wooden
cranes
Wood carving
–
Finely carved wooden door in the
Great Mosque of Kairouan,
Tunisia.
Wood carving
–
A selection of woodcarving hand tools: 3
fishtail gouges, a v-parting tool, 4 straight gouges, 3 spoon gouges, and a carvers mallet
Wood carving
–
Desay Madu Jhya (window) in
Kathmandu,
Nepal is a specimen of traditional Nepalese wood carving.
20.
Framing Slick
–
A slick is a large chisel, characterized by a wide, heavy blade, and a long, frequently slender, socketed handle. The combined blade and handle can reach two feet in length, the blade of a slick is slightly curved lengthwise, and/or the handle socket is cranked upward, such that the handle and socket clear the surface of the work when the edge is touching. This distinguishes the slick from the similarly-sized, short-handled millwrights chisel, in use, a slick is always pushed, never struck. Using a combination of the weight and bracing the handle against the shoulder or upper arm. Slicks are used mostly by shipwrights and timber framers, the Antique Tool Collectors Guide to Value
Framing Slick
–
Photo of a slick
Framing Slick
–
Drawing of a slick
21.
Timber framing
–
Timber framing and post-and-beam construction are methods of building with heavy timbers rather than dimensional lumber such as 2x4s. Traditional timber framing is the method of creating structures using heavy squared-off and it is commonplace in wooden buildings from the 19th century and earlier. The method comes from making out of logs and tree trunks without modern high tech saws to cut lumber from the starting material stock. Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in parts of the world. These styles are categorized by the type of foundation, walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers. Three basic types of frames in English-speaking countries are the box frame, cruck frame. The distinction presented here is the load is carried by the exterior walls. Purlins are also in a timber frame. A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers which form a bent or crossframe, more than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in the UK. Several types of frames are used, more information follows in English style below. True cruck or full cruck, blades, straight or curved, base cruck, tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam. Raised cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge, middle cruck, blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar. Upper cruck, blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters, jointed cruck, blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See also, hammerbeam roof End cruck is not a style, aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry more load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the concept of the aisle in church buildings, sometimes called a hall church. However, a nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisled barns are common in the U. S. the Netherlands, aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as variations of a Ständerhaus, the frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building
Timber framing
–
The market square of
Dornstetten (Germany), showing an ensemble of half-timbered buildings
Timber framing
–
Illustration of timber framing from the
Lexikon der gesamten Technik (1904)
Timber framing
–
A "true" or "full" cruck half-timbered building in
Weobley,
Herefordshire, England. The cruck blades are the tall, curved timbers which extend from near the ground to the ridge.
Timber framing
–
Half timbered houses,
Marbach am Neckar, Germany
22.
Construction
–
Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
Construction
–
In large construction projects, such as this
skyscraper in
Melbourne,
Australia,
cranes are essential.
Construction
–
Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan
Construction
–
The National Cement Share Company of
Ethiopia 's new plant in
Dire Dawa.
Construction
–
Framing
23.
Slick (tool)
–
A slick is a large chisel, characterized by a wide, heavy blade, and a long, frequently slender, socketed handle. The combined blade and handle can reach two feet in length, the blade of a slick is slightly curved lengthwise, and/or the handle socket is cranked upward, such that the handle and socket clear the surface of the work when the edge is touching. This distinguishes the slick from the similarly-sized, short-handled millwrights chisel, in use, a slick is always pushed, never struck. Using a combination of the weight and bracing the handle against the shoulder or upper arm. Slicks are used mostly by shipwrights and timber framers, the Antique Tool Collectors Guide to Value
Slick (tool)
–
Photo of a slick
Slick (tool)
–
Drawing of a slick
24.
Mortise and tenon
–
The mortise and tenon joint has been used for thousands of years by woodworkers around the world to join pieces of wood, mainly when the adjoining pieces connect at an angle of 90°. In its basic form it is simple and strong. Although there are many joint variations, the mortise and tenon comprises two components, the mortise hole and the tenon tongue. The tenon, formed on the end of a member generally referred to as a rail, is inserted into a square or rectangular hole cut into the corresponding member. The tenon is cut to fit the hole exactly and usually has shoulders that seat when the joint fully enters the mortise hole. The joint may be glued, pinned, or wedged to lock it in place and this joint is also used with other materials. For example, it is a method for stonemasons and blacksmiths. A mortise is a cavity cut into a timber to receive a tenon, there are several kinds of mortise, Open mortise a mortise that has only three sides. Stub mortise a mortise, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber. Through mortise a mortise that passes entirely through a piece, wedged half-dovetail a mortise in which the back is wider, or taller, than the front, or opening. The space for the wedge initially allows room for the tenon to be inserted and it is sometimes called a suicide joint, since it is a one-way trip. Through-wedged half-dovetail a wedged half-dovetail mortise that passes entirely through the piece, a tenon is a projection on the end of a timber for insertion into a mortise. Usually the tenon is taller than it is wide. There are several kinds of tenon, Stub tenon short, the depth of which depends on the size of the timber, through tenon a tenon that passes entirely through the piece of wood it is inserted into, being clearly visible on the back side. Loose tenon a tenon that is a part of the joint. Teasel tenon a term used for the tenon on top of a jowled or gunstock post, a common element of the English tying joint. Top tenon the tenon that occurs on top of a post, hammer-headed tenon a method of forming a tenon joint when the shoulders cannot be tightened with a clamp. Half shoulder tenon An asymmetric tenon with a shoulder on one side only, a common use is in framed, ledged and braced doors
Mortise and tenon
–
Through-wedged tenons used on a French
granary.
Mortise and tenon
–
Diagram of a mortise (on left) and tenon joint
25.
Dovetail
–
A dovetail joint or simply dovetail is a joinery technique most commonly used in woodworking joinery including furniture, cabinets, carcase construction, log buildings and traditional timber framing. Noted for its resistance to being pulled apart, the joint is commonly used to join the sides of a drawer to the front. A series of cut to extend from the end of one board interlock with a series of tails cut into the end of another board. The pins and tails have a trapezoidal shape, once glued, a wooden dovetail joint requires no mechanical fasteners. The dovetail joint probably pre-dates written history, some of the earliest known examples of the dovetail joint are in furniture entombed with mummies dating from First Dynasty of ancient Egypt, as well the tombs of Chinese emperors. The dovetail design is an important method of distinguishing various periods of furniture, in Europe the dovetail joint is also called a swallow-tail joint or a fantail joint. The dovetail joint is strong because of the way the ‘tails’ and ‘pins’ are shaped. This makes it difficult to pull the joint apart and virtually impossible when glue is added and this type of joint is used in box constructions such as drawers, jewellery boxes, cabinets and other pieces of furniture where strength is required. It is a joint to make manually, requiring skilled workmanship. There are different types of joints and when cut accurately they are very impressive and attractive. The joint is strong especially when used with a good quality glue such as PVA or cascamite, the marking out and cutting procedure is outlined below. The angle of slope varies according to the wood used, typically the slope is 1,6 for softwoods and a shallower 1,8 slope for hardwoods. Often a slope of 1,7 is used as a compromise, the photograph at the top of this page shows a through dovetail joint, where the end grain of both boards is visible when the joint is assembled. Through dovetails are common in carcass and box construction, traditionally, the dovetails would have often been covered by a veneer. However, dovetails have become a signature of craftsmanship and are considered a feature. When used in construction, a through dovetail joint is sometimes referred to as an English dovetail. Use for, Carcass and box construction A half-blind dovetail is used when the craftsman does not wish end grain to be visible from the front of the item. The tails are housed in sockets in the ends of the board that is to be the front of the item so that their ends cannot be seen, half-blind dovetails are commonly used to fasten drawer fronts to drawer sides
Dovetail
–
A finished dovetail joint.
Dovetail
–
Dovetailed woodworking joints on a Romanian church.
Dovetail
–
Cast iron dovetail joints in
The Iron Bridge
26.
Lathe (tool)
–
Lathes are used in woodturning, metalworking, metal spinning, thermal spraying, parts reclamation, and glass-working. Lathes can be used to shape pottery, the design being the potters wheel. Most suitably equipped metalworking lathes can also be used to produce most solids of revolution, plane surfaces, ornamental lathes can produce three-dimensional solids of incredible complexity. The workpiece is held in place by either one or two centers, at least one of which can typically be moved horizontally to accommodate varying workpiece lengths. Other work-holding methods include clamping the work about the axis of rotation using a chuck or collet, or to a faceplate, using clamps or dogs. Examples of objects that can be produced on a lathe include candlestick holders, gun barrels, cue sticks, table legs, bowls, baseball bats, musical instruments, crankshafts, and camshafts. The lathe is an ancient tool, dating at least to ancient Egypt and known to be used in Assyria, the lathe was very important to the Industrial Revolution. It is known as the mother of machine tools, as it was the first machine tool that lead to the invention of other machine tools, the origin of turning dates to around 1300 BCE when the Ancient Egyptians first developed a two-person lathe. One person would turn the work piece with a rope while the other used a sharp tool to cut shapes in the wood. Ancient Rome improved the Egyptian design with the addition of a turning bow, in the Middle Ages a pedal replaced hand-operated turning, allowing a single person to rotate the piece while working with both hands. The pedal was usually connected to a pole, often a straight-grained sapling, the system today is called the spring pole lathe. Spring pole lathes were in use into the early 20th century. An important early lathe in the UK was the boring machine that was installed in 1772 in the Royal Arsenal in Woolwich. It was horse-powered and allowed for the production of more accurate. One of the key characteristics of this machine was that the workpiece was turning as opposed to the tool, henry Maudslay who later developed many improvements to the lathe worked at the Royal Arsenal from 1783 being exposed to this machine in the Verbruggen workshop. During the Industrial Revolution, mechanized power generated by water wheels or steam engines was transmitted to the lathe via line shafting, allowing faster and easier work, metalworking lathes evolved into heavier machines with thicker, more rigid parts. Between the late 19th and mid-20th centuries, individual electric motors at each lathe replaced line shafting as the power source, today manually controlled and CNC lathes coexist in the manufacturing industries. A lathe may or may not have legs, which sit on the floor, a lathe may be small and sit on a workbench or table, not requiring a stand
Lathe (tool)
–
A
watchmaker using a lathe to prepare a component cut from copper for a watch.
Lathe (tool)
–
A metalworking lathe from 1911 showing component parts. a = bed b = carriage (with cross-slide and toolpost) c = headstock d = back gear (other geartrain nearby drives leadscrew) e = cone pulley for a
belt drive from an external power source f = faceplate mounted on spindle g = tailstock h = leadscrew
Lathe (tool)
–
Exact drawing made with
camera obscura of horizontal boring machine by Jan Verbruggen in Woolwich Royal Brass Foundry approx 1778 (drawing 47 out of set of 50 drawings)
Lathe (tool)
–
A steady rest
27.
Tempered steel
–
Tempering is a process of heat treating, which is used to increase the toughness of iron-based alloys. The exact temperature determines the amount of hardness removed, and depends on both the composition of the alloy and on the desired properties in the finished product. For instance, very hard tools are often tempered at low temperatures, tempering is a heat treatment technique applied to ferrous alloys, such as steel or cast iron, to achieve greater toughness by decreasing the hardness of the alloy. The reduction in hardness is usually accompanied by an increase in ductility, tempering is usually performed after quenching, which is rapid cooling of the metal to put it in its hardest state. Tempering is accomplished by controlled heating of the quenched work-piece to a temperature below its critical temperature. Heating above this temperature is avoided, so as not to destroy the very-hard, quenched microstructure, precise control of time and temperature during the tempering process is crucial to achieve the desired balance of physical properties. Low tempering temperatures may only relieve the stresses, decreasing brittleness while maintaining a majority of the hardness. Higher tempering temperatures tend to produce a reduction in the hardness, sacrificing some yield strength. In carbon steels, tempering alters the size and distribution of carbides in the martensite, tempering is also performed on normalized steels and cast irons, to increase ductility, machinability, and impact strength. Tempering is an ancient heat-treating technique, the oldest known example of tempered martensite is a pick axe which was found in Galilee, dating from around 1200 to 1100 BC. The process was used throughout the ancient world, from Asia to Europe, tempering was often confused with quenching and, often, the term was used to describe both techniques. I shall employ the word tempering in the sense as softening. In metallurgy, one may encounter many terms that have specific meanings within the field. Terms such as hardness, impact resistance, toughness, and strength can carry many different connotations, some of the terms encountered, and their specific definitions are, Strength, also called rigidity, this is resistance to permanent deformation and tearing. Strength, in metallurgy, is still a vague term, so is usually divided into yield strength, tensile strength, shear strength. Toughness, Resistance to fracture, as measured by the Charpy test, toughness often increases as strength decreases, because a material that bends is less likely to break. Hardness, Hardness is often used to strength or rigidity but, in metallurgy. In conventional metal alloys, there is a relation between indentation hardness and tensile strength, which eases the measurement of the latter
Tempered steel
–
Differentially tempered steel. The various colors produced indicate the temperature to which the steel was heated. Light-straw indicates 204 °C (399 °F) and light blue indicates 337 °C (639 °F).
Tempered steel
–
Photomicrograph of martensite, a very hard
microstructure formed when steel is quenched. Tempering reduces the hardness in the martensite by transforming it into various forms of tempered martensite.
Tempered steel
–
Pieces of through-tempered steel flatbar. The first one, on the left, is normalized steel. The second is quenched, untempered martensite. The remaining pieces have been tempered in an oven to their corresponding temperature, for an hour each. "Tempering standards" like these are sometimes used by blacksmiths for comparison, ensuring that the work is tempered to the proper color.
Tempered steel
–
A differentially tempered sword. The center is tempered to a springy hardness while the edges are tempered to a very high hardness.
28.
Sledgehammer
–
A sledgehammer is a tool with a large, flat, often metal head, attached to a lever. The size of its head allows a sledgehammer to apply more force than other hammers of similar size, along with the mallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types of hammers, which concentrate force in a small area. The word sledgehammer is derived from the Anglo Saxon slægan, which, in its first sense, the English words slag, slay, and slog are cognates. The handle can range from 50 centimetres to a full 1 metre long, depending on the mass of the head, the head mass is usually 1 to 3 kilograms. Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10 to 20 pounds heads, sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entire torso, in contrast to smaller hammers used for driving in nails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, sledgehammers are often used in destruction work, for breaking through drywall or masonry walls. Sledgehammers are seldom used in mining operations, particularly hand steel. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object, another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by forces in raids on property to gain entry by force. They were and still are used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The British SAS counter terrorist team used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege, however, today they use a tool called a dynamic hammer. Another iconic use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into wooden sleepers during rail construction, when the two ends of the Union Pacific railroad were joined at Promontory, Utah, Leland Stanford hammered a golden spike into a tie with a silver hammer. Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved heads that came down to a beak that was only one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the hit was often not much larger than a dime. Anything larger would hit the plate or the tie, the curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often called spike mauls, a drilling hammer, club hammer, lump hammer, crack hammer, mini-sledge or thor hammer is a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow single-handed use. It is useful for demolition work, driving masonry nails
Sledgehammer
–
20 pounds (9.1 kg) and 10 pounds (4.5 kg) sledgehammers
Sledgehammer
–
A straight peen sledge hammer from an 1899 American book on blacksmithing
Sledgehammer
–
Sledgehammer used for driving railroad spikes into wooden sleepers during rail construction.
29.
Tin snips
–
Snips, also known as shears, are hand tools used to cut sheet metal and other tough webs. There are two categories, tinners snips, which are similar to common scissors, and compound-action snips. Tinners snips, also known as tinner snips or tin snips, are one of the most popular type of snips and they are defined by their long handles and short blades. They usually have extra wide jaws and are made of forged carbon steel. Depending on the size of the blade, tin snips can cut between 24 and 16 gauge cold rolled low-carbon tin and they can be ranged in length from 7 to 14 in long. There are two types, straight-pattern and duckbill-pattern. Straight-pattern are best for straight cuts, but can handle gentle curves, duckbill-pattern snips, also known as trojan-pattern snips, have blades that taper down from the pivot to the tip of the blades. The blade edges are also bevelled to more easily cut curves and circles or shapes and they are a lighter duty snip that can only cut up to 25 gauge mild steel. Other common blade patterns include the pattern or curved pattern. Circle pattern snips have a blade and are used to cut circles. Hawks-bill snips are used to cut small radii on the inside and outside of a circle, the shape of the blades allow for sharp turns without buckling the sheet metal. A common use is cutting holes in pipes, compound-action snips are also known as aviation snips because they were developed to cut aluminum in the construction of aircraft. They can handle aluminium up to 18 gauge, mild steel up to 24 gauge or stainless steel up to 26 gauge and these type of snips have become the most popular because of the linkage that increases the mechanical advantage without increasing the length of the snips. There are three cutting styles, straight cutting, left cutting, and right cutting and these different cutting styles are necessary because metal is stiff and heavy and does not move out of the way readily when cutting around a curve. The respective styles move the material out of the way when cutting in the direction they are designed for, the blades are usually serrated to prevent material slippage. In addition to the configurations outlined below, there are also upright, the upright snip has the blades rotated 90° from the handles. This configuration is more ergonomic and commonly used in tight spaces, the long cut snip has long blades that make it easier to make long straight cuts. These snips are used on vinyl or aluminium siding
Tin snips
–
Antique Roman tinners snips dating to 1st to 4th century A.D.
Tin snips
–
Straight-pattern snips
Tin snips
–
Right cutting and left-cutting compound-action snips, respectively; the green snips are an offset-pattern
Tin snips
–
Straight-cutting compound-action snips
30.
Beryllium copper
–
Beryllium copper, also known as copper beryllium, beryllium bronze and spring copper, is a copper alloy with 0. 5—3% beryllium and sometimes other elements. Beryllium copper combines high strength with non-magnetic and non-sparking qualities and it has excellent metalworking, forming and machining properties. It has many specialized applications in tools for hazardous environments, musical instruments, precision measurement devices, bullets, beryllium alloys present a toxic inhalation hazard during manufacture. Beryllium copper is a ductile, weldable, and machinable alloy and it is resistant to non-oxidizing acids, to plastic decomposition products, to abrasive wear, and to galling. It can be heat-treated for increased strength, durability, and electrical conductivity, beryllium copper attains the greatest strength of any copper-based alloy. In solid form and as finished objects, beryllium copper presents no known health hazard, however, inhalation of dust, mist, or fume containing beryllium can cause the serious lung condition, chronic beryllium disease. That disease affects primarily the lungs, restricting the exchange of oxygen between the lungs and the bloodstream, the International Agency for Research on Cancer lists beryllium as a Group 1 Human Carcinogen. The National Toxicology Program also lists beryllium as a carcinogen, beryllium copper is a non-ferrous alloy used in springs, spring wire, load cells, and other parts that must retain their shape under repeated stress and strain. It has high electrical conductivity, and is used in low-current contacts for batteries, beryllium copper is non-sparking but physically tough and nonmagnetic, fulfilling the requirements of ATEX directive for Zones 0,1, and 2. Beryllium copper screwdrivers, pliers, wrenches, cold chisels, knives, and hammers are available for environments with explosive hazards, such oil rigs, coal mines, an alternative metal sometimes used for non-sparking tools is aluminium bronze. Compared to steel tools, beryllium copper tools are more expensive, not as strong, and less durable, beryllium copper is frequently used for percussion instruments for its consistent tone and resonance, especially tambourines and triangles. Beryllium copper has been used for armour piercing bullets, though usage is unusual because bullets made from steel alloys are much less expensive and have similar properties. Beryllium copper is used for measurement-while-drilling tools in the drilling industry. A non-magnetic alloy is required, as magnetometers are used for field-strength data received from the tool, beryllium copper gaskets are used to create an RF-tight, electronic seal on doors used with EMC testing and anechoic chambers. For a time, beryllium copper was used in the manufacture of clubs, particularly wedges. Though some golfers prefer the feel of BeCu club heads, regulatory issues, kiefer Plating of Elkhart, Indiana built some beryllium-copper trumpet bells for the Schilke Music Co. of Chicago. These light-weight bells produce a sound preferred by some musicians, beryllium copper wire is produced in many forms, round, square, flat and shaped, in coils, on spools and in straight lengths. Beryllium copper valve seats and guides are used in high performance engines with coated titanium valves
Beryllium copper
–
Example of a non-sparking tool made of beryllium copper
31.
Ember
–
An ember is a glowing, hot coal made of greatly heated wood, coal, or other carbon-based material that remain after, or sometimes precede, a fire. Embers can glow very hot, sometimes as hot as the fire which created them, in order to avoid the danger of accidentally spreading a fire, many campers pour water on the embers or cover them in dirt. They are often used for cooking, such as in charcoal barbecues and this is because embers radiate a more constant form of heat, as opposed to an open fire which is constantly changing along with the heat it radiates. An ember is formed when a fire has only partially burnt a piece of fuel. Often this happens because the chemical energy is so deep into the center that air does not reach it. It continues to stay hot and does not lose its thermal energy quickly because combustion is still happening at a low level, the small yellow, orange and red lights often seen among the embers are actually combustion. There just is not enough combustion happening at one time to create a flame, once the embers are completely burned through, they are not carbon as is commonly believed, but rather various other oxidized minerals like calcium and phosphorus. At that point they are called ashes. See, Wood ash for more on the residue that is left, embers play a large role in forest fires. Since embers are typically burnt leaves and thus small and lightweight, during a large fire, with the right wind conditions, embers can be blown far ahead of the fire front, starting spot fires several kilometres away. A number of measures can be undertaken by homeowners to reduce the consequences of such an ember attack that bombards especially wooden structures
Ember
–
Embers of
coal
Ember
–
A
bonfire in rural
Australia, with a large number of embers being blown by the wind.
Ember
–
Ember of
Charcoal Used for cooking
32.
Forge
–
A forge is a type of hearth used for heating metals, or the workplace where such a hearth is located. The forge is used by the smith to heat a piece of metal to a temperature where it easier to shape by forging. The metal is transported to and from the forge using tongs, the slack tub also provides water to control the fire in the forge. A forge typically uses bituminous coal, industrial coke or charcoal as the fuel to heat metal, the designs of these forges have varied over time, but whether the fuel is coal, coke or charcoal the basic design has remained the same. The forge fire in this type of forge is controlled in three ways, amount of air, volume of fuel, and shape of the fuel/fire, traditionally hearths have been constructed of mud brick, fired brick, stone, or later, constructed of iron. During operation, fuel is placed in or on the hearth, a source of moving air, such as a fan or bellows, introduces additional air into the fire through the tuyere. With additional air, the fire more fuel and burns hotter (and cleaner - smoke can be thought of as escaped potential fuel. A blacksmith balances the fuel and air in the fire to suit particular kinds of work, often this involves adjusting and maintaining the shape of the fire. In a typical coal forge, a firepot will be centered in a flat hearth, the tuyere will enter the firepot at the bottom. In operation, the hot core of the fire will be a ball of burning coke in, the heart of the fire will be surrounded by a layer of hot but not burning coke. Around the unburnt coke will be a layer of coal being transformed into coke by the heat of the fire. If a larger fire is necessary, the smith increases the air flowing into the fire as well as feeding and deepening the coke heart, the smith can also adjust the length and width of the fire in such a forge to accommodate different shapes of work. The major variation from the forge and fire just described is a draft where there is no fire pot. Coke and charcoal may be burned in the forges that use coal, but since there is no need to convert the raw fuel at the heart of the fire. A gas forge typically uses propane or natural gas as the fuel, one common, efficient design uses a cylindrical forge chamber and a burner tube mounted at a right angle to the body. The chamber is lined with refractory materials such as a hard castable refractory ceramic or a soft ceramic thermal blanket. The burner mixes fuel and air which are ignited at the tip, the air pressure, and therefore heat, can be increased with a mechanical blower or by taking advantage of the Venturi effect. A small forge can even be carved out of a single soft firebrick, the primary advantage of a gas forge is ease of use, particularly for a novice
Forge
–
A blacksmith's coal forge
Forge
–
Wooden smithy in Opole, Upper Silesia, Poland
Forge
–
A smithy in
East Meon,
Hampshire,
England
Forge
–
A forge fire for
hot working of metal
33.
Anvil
–
An anvil is a block with a hard surface on which another object is struck. The block is as massive as is practical, because the higher the inertia of the anvil, on a quality anvil the smiths hammer should rebound with almost as much energy as the smith puts into the downward stroke, ultimately making the smiths job easier and less physically strenuous. In most cases the anvil is used as a forging tool, before the advent of modern welding technology, it was a primary tool of metal workers. The great majority of modern anvils are made of cast or forged steel that has been heat treated, inexpensive anvils have been made of cast iron and low quality steel, but are considered unsuitable for serious use as they deform and lack rebound when struck. Because anvils are very ancient tools and were at one time very commonplace, the primary work surface of the anvil is known as the face. It is generally made of hardened steel and should be flat, any marks on the face will be transferred to the work. Also, sharp edges tend to cut into the metal being worked, the face is hardened and tempered to resist the blows of the smiths hammer, so the anvil face does not deform under repeated use. A hard anvil face also reduces the amount of force lost in each hammer blow. Hammers, tools, and work pieces of hardened steel should never directly strike the face with full force, as they may damage it. The horn of the anvil is a conical projection used to form various shapes and is generally unhardened steel or iron. The horn is used mostly in bending operations and it also is used by some smiths as an aid in drawing down stock. Some anvils, mainly European, are made with two horns, one square and one round, also, some anvils are made with side horns or clips for specialized work. The step is that area of the anvil between the horn and the face, the hardie hole is a square hole into which specialized forming and cutting tools, called Hardy tools, are placed. It is also used in punching and bending operations, the pritchel hole is a small round hole that is present on most modern anvils. Some anvils have more than one and it is used mostly for punching. At times, smiths will fit a second tool to this hole to allow the more flexibility when using more than one anvil tool. An anvil needs to be placed upon a base made from an impact. It requires being fastened firmly to the base, so it not move when struck with a hammer
Anvil
–
Anvil
Anvil
–
A
blacksmith working iron with a hammer and anvil
Anvil
–
A
blacksmith working with a
Sledgehammer assistant(Striker) and Lokomo anvil in
Finland
Anvil
–
An anvil at the medieval construction site of
Guédelon in
Treigny, France.
34.
Hardy hole
–
An anvil is a block with a hard surface on which another object is struck. The block is as massive as is practical, because the higher the inertia of the anvil, on a quality anvil the smiths hammer should rebound with almost as much energy as the smith puts into the downward stroke, ultimately making the smiths job easier and less physically strenuous. In most cases the anvil is used as a forging tool, before the advent of modern welding technology, it was a primary tool of metal workers. The great majority of modern anvils are made of cast or forged steel that has been heat treated, inexpensive anvils have been made of cast iron and low quality steel, but are considered unsuitable for serious use as they deform and lack rebound when struck. Because anvils are very ancient tools and were at one time very commonplace, the primary work surface of the anvil is known as the face. It is generally made of hardened steel and should be flat, any marks on the face will be transferred to the work. Also, sharp edges tend to cut into the metal being worked, the face is hardened and tempered to resist the blows of the smiths hammer, so the anvil face does not deform under repeated use. A hard anvil face also reduces the amount of force lost in each hammer blow. Hammers, tools, and work pieces of hardened steel should never directly strike the face with full force, as they may damage it. The horn of the anvil is a conical projection used to form various shapes and is generally unhardened steel or iron. The horn is used mostly in bending operations and it also is used by some smiths as an aid in drawing down stock. Some anvils, mainly European, are made with two horns, one square and one round, also, some anvils are made with side horns or clips for specialized work. The step is that area of the anvil between the horn and the face, the hardie hole is a square hole into which specialized forming and cutting tools, called Hardy tools, are placed. It is also used in punching and bending operations, the pritchel hole is a small round hole that is present on most modern anvils. Some anvils have more than one and it is used mostly for punching. At times, smiths will fit a second tool to this hole to allow the more flexibility when using more than one anvil tool. An anvil needs to be placed upon a base made from an impact. It requires being fastened firmly to the base, so it not move when struck with a hammer
Hardy hole
–
Anvil
Hardy hole
–
A
blacksmith working iron with a hammer and anvil
Hardy hole
–
A
blacksmith working with a
Sledgehammer assistant(Striker) and Lokomo anvil in
Finland
Hardy hole
–
An anvil at the medieval construction site of
Guédelon in
Treigny, France.
35.
Tongs
–
Tongs are a tool used to grip and lift objects, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use. Tongs consisting of a band of metal bent round one or two bands joined at the head by a spring, as in sugar-tongs, asparagus-tongs and the like. Tongs in which the pivot or joint is placed close to the ends, such as a drillers round tongs. Tongs are commonly used as a utensil, as they provide a way to move, rotate. According to Pirkei Avot, a classical Jewish text of the century of the common era. The reasoning is that a blacksmith must use a pair of tongs in order to fashion a new pair of tongs, accordingly, God must have provided humankind with the first pair of tongs. Fire iron Food preparation utensils Forceps Trongs Tweezers Food portal
Tongs
–
Silicone-tipped locking tongs designed to withstand temperatures up to 500 degrees Fahrenheit
36.
Stone sculpture
–
Stone sculpture is the result of forming 3-dimensional visually interesting objects from stone. It is an ancient activity where pieces of natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone. Petroglyphs are perhaps the earliest form, images created by removing part of a surface which remains in situ, by incising, pecking, carving. Monumental sculpture covers large works, and architectural sculpture, which is attached to buildings. Hardstone carving is the carving for artistic purposes of semi-precious stones such as jade, agate, onyx, rock crystal, sard or carnelian, alabaster or mineral gypsum is a soft mineral that is easy to carve for smaller works and still relatively durable. Engraved gems are small carved gems, including cameos, originally used as seal rings, carving stone into sculpture is an activity older than civilization itself, beginning perhaps with incised images on cave walls. Prehistoric sculptures were usually human forms, such as the Venus of Willendorf, later cultures devised animal, human-animal and abstract forms in stone. The earliest cultures used abrasive techniques, and modern technology employs pneumatic hammers, but for most of human history, sculptors used hammer and chisel as the basic tools for carving stone. In the direct method of carving, the work usually begins with the selection of a stone for carving. The artist using the method may use sketches but eschews the use of a physical model. The fully dimensional form or figure is created for the first time in the stone itself, as the artist removes material, sketches on the block of stone, and develops the work along the way. On the other hand, is the method, when the sculptor begins with a clearly defined model to be copied in stone. The models, usually made of plaster or modeling clay, may be fully the size of the intended sculpture, once the model is complete, a suitable stone must be found to fit the intended design. The model is copied in stone by measuring with calipers or a pointing machine. This method is used when the carving is done by other sculptors. Some artists use the stone itself as inspiration, the Renaissance artist Michelangelo claimed that his job was to free the human form hidden inside the block. When he or she is ready to carve, the carver usually begins by knocking off, or pitching, large portions of unwanted stone. For this task he may select a point chisel, which is a long, hefty piece of steel with a point at one end, a pitching tool may also be used at this early stage, which is a wedge-shaped chisel with a broad, flat edge
Stone sculpture
–
different mallets and pitching tool
Stone sculpture
–
Roughed out carvings
Stone sculpture
Stone sculpture
–
Venus of Willendorf.
37.
Stonemasonry
–
The craft of stonemasonry has existed since humanity could use and make tools - creating buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone from the earth. These materials have been used to construct many of the long-lasting, ancient monuments, artifacts, cathedrals, quarrymen split veins, or sheets of rock, and extract the resulting blocks of stone from the ground. Sawyers cut these rough blocks into cuboids, to required size with diamond-tipped saws, the resulting block if ordered for a specific component is known as sawn six sides. Banker masons are workshop-based, and specialize in working the stones into the shapes required by a design, this set out on templets. They can produce anything from stones with simple chamfers to tracery windows, detailed mouldings and the more classical architectural building masonry. When working a stone from a block, the mason ensures that the stone is bedded in the right way. Occasionally though some stones need to be orientated correctly for the application, the basic tools, methods and skills of the banker mason have existed as a trade for thousands of years. Carvers cross the line from craft to art, and use their ability to carve stone into foliage, figures. Fixer masons specialize in the fixing of stones onto buildings, using lifting tackle, sometimes modern cements, mastics and epoxy resins are used, usually on specialist applications such as stone cladding. Metal fixings, from simple dowels and cramps to specialised single application fixings, are also used, the precise tolerances necessary make this a highly skilled job. Memorial masons or monumental masons carve gravestones and inscriptions, the modern stonemason undergoes comprehensive training, both in the classroom and in the working environment. Hands-on skill is complemented by intimate knowledge of each type, its application and best uses. The mason may be skilled and competent to carry out one or all of the branches of stonemasonry. In some areas the trend is towards specialization, in other areas towards adaptability, stonemasons use all types of natural stone, igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary, while some also use artificial stone as well. Igneous stones, Granite is one of the hardest stones, with great persistence, simple mouldings can and have been carved into granite, for example in many Cornish churches and the city of Aberdeen. Generally, however, it is used for purposes that require its strength and durability, such as kerbstones, countertops, flooring, igneous stone ranges from very soft rocks such as pumice and scoria to somewhat harder rocks such as tuff and hard rocks such as granite and basalt. Metamorphic, Marble is a fine stone easily workable, that comes in various colours and it has traditionally been used for carving statues, and for facing many Byzantine and Renaissance Italian buildings. Their work was preceded by older sculptors from Mesopotamia and Egypt, the famous Acropolis of Athens is said to be constructed using the Pentelicon marble
Stonemasonry
–
Stonemason working on a fountain with pneumatic tools
Stonemasonry
–
A stonemason at
Eglinton Tournament bridge with a selection of tools of the trade
Stonemasonry
–
Typical
Aberdeen city street showing the widespread use of local
granite
Stonemasonry
–
The foreground tool with serrated blades is a cockscomb, cock's comb or stonemason's drag, used on soft limestone
38.
Sculptors
–
Sculpture is the branch of the visual arts that operates in three dimensions. It is one of the plastic arts, a wide variety of materials may be worked by removal such as carving, assembled by welding or modelling, or molded, or cast. However, most ancient sculpture was painted, and this has been lost. Those cultures whose sculptures have survived in quantities include the cultures of the ancient Mediterranean, India and China, the Western tradition of sculpture began in ancient Greece, and Greece is widely seen as producing great masterpieces in the classical period. During the Middle Ages, Gothic sculpture represented the agonies and passions of the Christian faith, the revival of classical models in the Renaissance produced famous sculptures such as Michelangelos David. Relief is often classified by the degree of projection from the wall into low or bas-relief, high relief, sunk-relief is a technique restricted to ancient Egypt. Relief sculpture may also decorate steles, upright slabs, usually of stone, techniques such as casting, stamping and moulding use an intermediate matrix containing the design to produce the work, many of these allow the production of several copies. The term sculpture is used mainly to describe large works. The very large or colossal statue has had an enduring appeal since antiquity, another grand form of portrait sculpture is the equestrian statue of a rider on horse, which has become rare in recent decades. The smallest forms of life-size portrait sculpture are the head, showing just that, or the bust, small forms of sculpture include the figurine, normally a statue that is no more than 18 inches tall, and for reliefs the plaquette, medal or coin. Sculpture is an important form of public art, a collection of sculpture in a garden setting can be called a sculpture garden. One of the most common purposes of sculpture is in form of association with religion. Cult images are common in cultures, though they are often not the colossal statues of deities which characterized ancient Greek art. The actual cult images in the innermost sanctuaries of Egyptian temples, of which none have survived, were rather small. The same is true in Hinduism, where the very simple. Some undoubtedly advanced cultures, such as the Indus Valley civilization, appear to have had no monumental sculpture at all, though producing very sophisticated figurines, the Mississippian culture seems to have been progressing towards its use, with small stone figures, when it collapsed. Other cultures, such as ancient Egypt and the Easter Island culture, from the 20th century the relatively restricted range of subjects found in large sculpture expanded greatly, with abstract subjects and the use or representation of any type of subject now common. Today much sculpture is made for intermittent display in galleries and museums, small sculpted fittings for furniture and other objects go well back into antiquity, as in the Nimrud ivories, Begram ivories and finds from the tomb of Tutankhamun
Sculptors
–
The Dying Gaul, or The Capitoline Gaul a Roman marble copy of a
Hellenistic work of the late 3rd century BCE
Capitoline Museums, Rome
Sculptors
–
Michelangelo 's
Moses, (c. 1513–1515), housed in the church of
San Pietro in Vincoli in
Rome. The sculpture was commissioned in 1505 by
Pope Julius II for his
tomb.
Sculptors
–
Assyrian
lamassu gate guardian from
Khorsabad, c. 721–800 BCE
Sculptors
–
Netsuke of tigress with two cubs, mid-19th century Japan, ivory with shell inlay
39.
Lump hammer
–
A sledgehammer is a tool with a large, flat, often metal head, attached to a lever. The size of its head allows a sledgehammer to apply more force than other hammers of similar size, along with the mallet, it shares the ability to distribute force over a wide area. This is in contrast to other types of hammers, which concentrate force in a small area. The word sledgehammer is derived from the Anglo Saxon slægan, which, in its first sense, the English words slag, slay, and slog are cognates. The handle can range from 50 centimetres to a full 1 metre long, depending on the mass of the head, the head mass is usually 1 to 3 kilograms. Modern heavy duty sledgehammers come with 10 to 20 pounds heads, sledgehammers usually require two hands and a swinging motion involving the entire torso, in contrast to smaller hammers used for driving in nails. The combination of a long swinging range, and heavy head, sledgehammers are often used in destruction work, for breaking through drywall or masonry walls. Sledgehammers are seldom used in mining operations, particularly hand steel. Sledgehammers are also used when substantial force is necessary to dislodge a trapped object, another common use is for driving fence posts into the ground. Sledgehammers are used by forces in raids on property to gain entry by force. They were and still are used by blacksmiths to shape heavy sections of iron. The British SAS counter terrorist team used sledgehammers to gain access to rooms during the 1980 Iranian Embassy Siege, however, today they use a tool called a dynamic hammer. Another iconic use of sledgehammers is for driving railroad spikes into wooden sleepers during rail construction, when the two ends of the Union Pacific railroad were joined at Promontory, Utah, Leland Stanford hammered a golden spike into a tie with a silver hammer. Sledges used to drive spikes for rails had curved heads that came down to a beak that was only one inch across. The shape meant that drivers needed to be accurate, and spot where the hit was often not much larger than a dime. Anything larger would hit the plate or the tie, the curved head kept the handle away from the rail, as the spikes were driven with the rail between the spike and the driver. These are often called spike mauls, a drilling hammer, club hammer, lump hammer, crack hammer, mini-sledge or thor hammer is a small sledgehammer whose relatively light weight and short handle allow single-handed use. It is useful for demolition work, driving masonry nails
Lump hammer
–
20 pounds (9.1 kg) and 10 pounds (4.5 kg) sledgehammers
Lump hammer
–
A straight peen sledge hammer from an 1899 American book on blacksmithing
Lump hammer
–
Sledgehammer used for driving railroad spikes into wooden sleepers during rail construction.
40.
Hammer drill
–
A hammer drill, also known as a rotary hammer, roto-drill or hammering drill, is a rotary drill with a hammering action. The hammering action provides a short, rapid hammer thrust to pulverize relatively brittle material and these tools are usually electrically powered, and increasingly powered by batteries. The same technology is used in electric demolition hammers, also known as chipping guns or breakers. With cam-action drills, the chuck has a mechanism whereby the entire chuck and bit move forward and backwards on the axis of rotation, the motion is tied to the rotation of the chuck. This type of drill is used with and without the hammer action. These units are smaller and are commonly powered by cordless technology. They are not typically used for production construction drilling, but rather for occasional drilling of concrete or masonry, an EP hammer has two pistons—a drive piston, and a flying piston. An electric motor turns a crank, which moves the piston back. The flying piston is at the end of the same cylinder. The pistons do not actually touch, but the air pressure in the EP cylinder allows for a more efficient transfer of hammering energy than springs in the cam-action style tools. The majority of modern rotary hammers as well as all electric-powered chipping guns or jack-hammers all utilize this EP technology, modern units allow the hammer and rotation functions to be used separately or in combination, i. e. hammer mode, drill mode, or both. When used in the mode, the tool provides a drilling function similar to a jackhammer. Hammer drills of both working principles are well suited for drilling holes in masonry or stone and they are also both used to drill holes in concrete footings to pin concrete wall forms and to drill holes in concrete floors to pin wall framing. Larger rotary hammers can also be used for doweling, and through-holes in concrete, the hammering action helps to break up the masonry so that it can be removed by the drill bits flutes. A hammer drill has a specially designed clutch that allows it to not only spin the drill bit, the actual distance the bit travels in and out and the force of its blow are both very small, and the hammering action is very rapid—thousands of BPM or IPM. For this reason, a hammer drill drills much faster than a drill through concrete or brick. Holes in hard materials are needed for anchor bolts, concrete screws, hammer drills almost always have a lever or switch that locks off the special hammer clutch, turning the tool into a conventional drill for wood or metal work. Hammer drills are more expensive and more bulky than regular drills, for example, an electrician would use a hammer drill for attaching items to either wood studs or masonry walls
Hammer drill
–
Hammer drill
Hammer drill
–
Ramset 342 Dyna Drill and Chipping Hammer, shown with chipping chisel.
Hammer drill
–
A rotary hammer drill used in construction
Hammer drill
–
Worn masonry drill bit
41.
Jack hammer
–
A jackhammer is a pneumatic or electro-mechanical tool that combines a hammer directly with a chisel. It was invented by William Mcreavy, who sold the patent to Charles Brady King. Hand-held jackhammers are generally powered by compressed air, but some are powered by electric motors. Larger jackhammers, such as rig mounted hammers used on machinery, are usually hydraulically powered. They are typically used to break up rock, pavement, a jackhammer operates by driving an internal hammer up and down. The hammer is first driven down to strike the back and then back up to return the hammer to the position to repeat the cycle. The effectiveness of the jackhammer is dependent on how much force is applied to the tool and it is generally used like a hammer to break the hard surface or rock in construction works and it is not consider under earth moving equipment, along with its accessories. In British English, electromechanical versions are known as Kangos. Pneumatic drills were developed in response to the needs of mining, quarrying, excavating, in 1838 Isaac Singer invented a steam driven drill. A pneumatic drill was proposed by a C, the first percussion drill was made in 1848 and patented in 1849 by Jonathan J. Couch of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In this drill, the drill bit passed through the piston of a steam engine, the piston snagged the drill bit and hurled it against the rock face. In 1849, Couchs assistant, Joseph W. Fowle, filed a patent caveat for a drill of his own design. In Fowle’s drill, the bit was connected directly to the piston in the steam cylinder, specifically. The drill also had a mechanism for turning the drill bit around its axis between strokes and for advancing the drill as the hole deepened, by 1850 or 1851, Fowle was using compressed air to drive his drill, making it the first true pneumatic drill. By contrast, compressed air could be conveyed over distances without loss of its energy. The need for a rock drill was obvious and this sparked research on pneumatic rock drills in Europe. A Frenchman, Cavé, designed, and in 1851 patented, a drill that used compressed air. In 1854, in England, Thomas Bartlett made and then patented a rock drill whose drill bit was connected directly to the piston of a steam engine, in 1855 Bartlett demonstrated his drill, powered by compressed air, to officials of the Mt. Fréjus tunnel project
Jack hammer
–
A
Wacker Neuson gasoline-powered breaker on a demolition site
Jack hammer
–
Drilling a blast hole with a jackhammer
Jack hammer
–
A compressor for running a pneumatic jackhammer
Jack hammer
–
A single phase demolition breaker.
42.
Drill bit shank
–
The shank is the end of a drill bit grasped by the chuck of a drill. The cutting edges of the drill bit contact the workpiece, and are connected via the shaft with the shank, in many cases a general-purpose arrangement is used, such as a bit with cylindrical shaft and shank in a three-jaw chuck which grips a cylindrical shank tightly. Different shank and chuck combination can deliver improved performance, such as allowing higher torque, greater centering accuracy, or moving the bit and this shank was common before 1850, and is still in production. At first, the shank was just rammed into a square hole in the end of the drill. Over time, various designs have been invented, and modern chucks can grasp. It has been difficult to find a reference to the angle of the taper, but 7 different bits were measured. The whole of the bit, shaft and shank, is usually of the same diameter. It is held usually in a 3-jaw drill chuck, bits of diameter too small to grip firmly can have straight shanks of larger diameter than the drill, which can be held firmly in a standard size collet or chuck. Large drill bits can have straight shanks narrower than the drill diameter so that they can be fitted in chucks not able to chuck the full diameter, such a drill bit is called a reduced-shank or blacksmiths drill. For example, this allows a 1/2 bit to be used in a pistol-grip drills 3/8 chuck, one particular type of reduced-shank drill bits are Silver & Deming bits, whose sets run from 9/16 to 1-1/2 drill body diameter with a standard 1/2 reduced shank for all. This allows drill presses with 1/2 chucks to run the larger drills, s&D bits are 6 long with a 3 flute length. A hex shank can be grasped by a 3-jaw drill chuck or held in a specifically for hex shanks. Quarter-inch hex shanks are common for machine screwdriver bits and have spread from that application to be used for drill bits that are compatible with screwdriver machinery. The SDS shank has the advantage of fitting into a simple spring-loaded chuck and this shank and chucks made for it are especially suited to hammer drilling with masonry drills in stone and concrete. The drill bit is not held solidly in the chuck, but can slide back and forth like a piston, it not slip during rotation due to the non-circular shank cross-section. Rotational drive uses the sliding keyways that open to the end of the shank, the smaller indentations that do not open to the end are grasped by the chuck to prevent the drill bit falling out. The hammer of the hits the flat end of the shank. The shank must be lubricated with grease to allow it to slide in the chuck, there are three standard sizes of SDS, SDS-plus, SDS-Top and SDS-max
Drill bit shank
–
Brace drill bit shank
Drill bit shank
–
Straight drill bit shank
Drill bit shank
–
Hex drill bit shank
Drill bit shank
–
SDS-plus drill bit shank
43.
Jackhammer
–
A jackhammer is a pneumatic or electro-mechanical tool that combines a hammer directly with a chisel. It was invented by William Mcreavy, who sold the patent to Charles Brady King. Hand-held jackhammers are generally powered by compressed air, but some are powered by electric motors. Larger jackhammers, such as rig mounted hammers used on machinery, are usually hydraulically powered. They are typically used to break up rock, pavement, a jackhammer operates by driving an internal hammer up and down. The hammer is first driven down to strike the back and then back up to return the hammer to the position to repeat the cycle. The effectiveness of the jackhammer is dependent on how much force is applied to the tool and it is generally used like a hammer to break the hard surface or rock in construction works and it is not consider under earth moving equipment, along with its accessories. In British English, electromechanical versions are known as Kangos. Pneumatic drills were developed in response to the needs of mining, quarrying, excavating, in 1838 Isaac Singer invented a steam driven drill. A pneumatic drill was proposed by a C, the first percussion drill was made in 1848 and patented in 1849 by Jonathan J. Couch of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. In this drill, the drill bit passed through the piston of a steam engine, the piston snagged the drill bit and hurled it against the rock face. In 1849, Couchs assistant, Joseph W. Fowle, filed a patent caveat for a drill of his own design. In Fowle’s drill, the bit was connected directly to the piston in the steam cylinder, specifically. The drill also had a mechanism for turning the drill bit around its axis between strokes and for advancing the drill as the hole deepened, by 1850 or 1851, Fowle was using compressed air to drive his drill, making it the first true pneumatic drill. By contrast, compressed air could be conveyed over distances without loss of its energy. The need for a rock drill was obvious and this sparked research on pneumatic rock drills in Europe. A Frenchman, Cavé, designed, and in 1851 patented, a drill that used compressed air. In 1854, in England, Thomas Bartlett made and then patented a rock drill whose drill bit was connected directly to the piston of a steam engine, in 1855 Bartlett demonstrated his drill, powered by compressed air, to officials of the Mt. Fréjus tunnel project
Jackhammer
–
A
Wacker Neuson gasoline-powered breaker on a demolition site
Jackhammer
–
Drilling a blast hole with a jackhammer
Jackhammer
–
A compressor for running a pneumatic jackhammer
Jackhammer
–
A single phase demolition breaker.
44.
Mortar (masonry)
–
In its broadest sense mortar includes pitch, asphalt, and soft mud or clay, such as used between mud bricks. Mortar comes from Latin mortarium meaning crushed, mortars are typically made from a mixture of sand, a binder, and water. The most common binder since the early 20th century is Portland cement, there are several types of cement mortars and additives. The first mortars were made of mud and clay, because of a lack of stone and an abundance of clay, Babylonian constructions were of baked brick, using lime or pitch for mortar. According to Roman Ghirshman, the first evidence of using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh of Baluchistan in Pakistan. The ancient sites of Harappan civilization of third millennium BCE are built with kiln-fired bricks, gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids and many other ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a firing temperature. It is therefore easier to make lime mortar and sets up much faster which may be a reason it was used as the typical mortar in ancient, brick arch. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp conditions, in early Egyptian pyramids, which were constructed during the Old Kingdom, the limestone blocks were bound by mortar of mud and clay, or clay and sand. In later Egyptian pyramids, the mortar was made of gypsum or lime. Gypsum mortar was essentially a mixture of plaster and sand and was quite soft, in the Indian subcontinent, multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as the Mohenjo-daro city-settlement that dates to earlier than 2600 BCE. Bitumen mortar was used at a lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro. Historically, building with concrete and mortar next appeared in Greece, the excavation of the underground aqueduct of Megara revealed that a reservoir was coated with a pozzolanic mortar 12 mm thick. This aqueduct dates back to c.500 BCE, pozzolanic mortar is a lime based mortar, but is made with an additive of volcanic ash that allows it to be hardened underwater, thus it is known as hydraulic cement. The Greeks obtained the volcanic ash from the Greek islands Thira and Nisiros, or from the then Greek colony of Dicaearchia near Naples, the Romans later improved the use and methods of making what became known as pozzolanic mortar and cement. Even later, the Romans used a mortar without pozzolana using crushed terra cotta, introducing aluminum oxide and this mortar was not as strong as pozzolanic mortar, but, because it was denser, it better resisted penetration by water. Hydraulic mortar was not available in ancient China, possibly due to a lack of volcanic ash, around 500 CE, sticky rice soup was mixed with slaked lime to make an inorganic−organic composite mortar that had more strength and water resistance than lime mortar. It is not understood how the art of making hydraulic mortar and cement, during the Middle Ages when the Gothic cathedrals were being built, the only active ingredient in the mortar was lime
Mortar (masonry)
–
Mortar holding weathered bricks
Mortar (masonry)
–
Roman mortar on display at
Chetham's School of Music.
Mortar (masonry)
–
Laying bricks with Portland cement mortar
Mortar (masonry)
–
Mortar mixed inside a 5-gallon bucket using clean water and mortar from a bag. When it's the right consistency as in the photo (trowel stands up) it's ready to apply.
45.
Hafting
–
Hafting is a process by which an artifact, often bone, metal, or stone, is attached to a haft. This makes the artifact more useful by allowing it to be shot, thrown, when constructed properly, hafting can tremendously improve a weapons damage and range. It is estimated that hafted weapons were most common during the Upper Paleolithic, Hafting was a significant milestone in the history of technology. It was one of the first tools where hominins took separate elements and united them into a single tool increasing the efficiency, the development of hafting was considered a significant milestone of humans by archaeologists. Hafting weapons is perhaps best known for its use by humans in prehistory, but it is practiced by enthusiasts today. Many people still practice the techniques by using old-fashioned methods to figure out the best way to attach a handle onto tools, while improving the overall structure. Hafting has evolved through the past and the idea can still be seen in the structure of modern day tools such as hammers, axes, and many other hand tools. The evolution of tools such as hammers, and axes would be greatly altered had the people of our past failed to invent the idea of hafting. The methods of hafting and the process have also varied and evolved over the years. There must be some way to attach the artifact to the strap or shaft, flanges are produced by a process of knapping or grinding the excess stone away, resulting in indentations in the piece. If a shaft or handle is to be used, it must also be prepared in some way. Wood is commonly used, and many people prefer Big Leaf Maple due to its structure that allows them to easily chip away at the end of the shaft to which the tool is to be affixed. A good piece of wood would have a large enough to provide adequate strength yet small enough to hold comfortably for long periods of time. A common practice of hafting is to remove the outer layer of bark where your hand would be to prevent cuts and the painful imperfections found in bark. Attaching the tool to the shaft can be difficult which is why there are two methods used to soften the wooden shaft including burning the end, and/or soaking it in water. These soften the material to allow the slits to be cut vertically into the center of the shaft. This provides a place for the head of the tool or weapon to fit, alternatively, the shaft may be split down the center which allows the artifact to fully sit within the shaft, and once fully wrapped up, can be much stronger. The artifact can then be inserted into the slit, and fixed to the shaft by tying around the flanges with a suitable material, materials such as Australian Sea Grass Cordage, and split deer intestine can be used due to its high strength and durability once installed
Hafting
–
Flint (tool)
46.
Linoleum
–
The finest linoleum floors, known as inlaid, are extremely durable, they were made by joining and inlaying solid pieces of linoleum. Cheaper patterned linoleum came in different grades or gauges, and were printed with thinner layers which were prone to wear and tear. High quality linoleum is flexible and thus can be used in buildings where a more material would crack. Linoleum was invented by Englishman Frederick Walton, in 1855, Walton happened to notice the rubbery, flexible skin of solidified linseed oil that had formed on a can of oil-based paint, and thought that it might form a substitute for India rubber. Raw linseed oil oxidizes very slowly, Walton accelerated the process by heating it with lead acetate and this made the oil form a resinous mass into which lengths of cheap cotton cloth were dipped until a thick coating formed. The coating was then scraped off and boiled with benzene or similar solvents to form a varnish, Walton initially planned to sell his varnish to the makers of water-repellent fabrics such as oilcloth, and patented the process in 1860. However, his method had problems, the cotton cloth soon fell apart, little interest was shown in his varnish. In addition, his first factory burned down, and he had persistent, such surfaces being afterward printed, embossed, or otherwise ornamented. Waltons friend Jerimiah Clarke designed the linoleum patterns, typically with a Grecian urn decor around the borders, unlike Waltons process, which took weeks, Parnacott’s method took only a day or two, although the quality of the linoxyn was not as good. Despite this, many opted to use the less expensive Parnacott process. Corticine was mainly made of cork dust and linoxyn without a cloth backing, by 1869 Walton’s factory in Staines, England was exporting to Europe and the United States. Walton opened the American Linoleum Manufacturing Company in 1872 on Staten Island, in partnership with Joseph Wild, the company’s town being named Linoleumville. It was the first U. S. linoleum manufacturer, but was followed by the American Nairn Linoleum Company, established by Sir Michael Nairn in 1887, in Kearny. Congoleum now manufactures sheet vinyl and no longer has a linoleum line, Walton was unhappy with Michael Nairn & Co’s use of the name Linoleum and brought a lawsuit against them for trademark infringement. It is considered to be the first product name to become a generic term, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, it was favoured in hallways and passages, and as a surround for carpet squares. However, most people associate linoleum with its common twentieth century use on kitchen floors and its water resistance enabled easy maintenance of sanitary conditions and its resilience made standing easier and reduced breakage of dropped china. Other products devised by Walton included Linoleum Muralis in 1877, which better known as Lincrusta. Essentially a highly durable linoleum wallcovering, Lincrusta could be manufactured to resemble carved plaster or wood and it was very successful, and inspired a much cheaper imitation, Anaglypta, originally devised by one of Walton’s showroom managers
Linoleum
–
Linoleum from around the 1950s
Linoleum
–
Early linoleum at
Tyntesfield.
Linoleum
–
Unlike most
vinyl flooring, the colour goes all the way through the linoleum
47.
Linocut
–
Linocut is a printmaking technique, a variant of woodcut in which a sheet of linoleum is used for a relief surface. A design is cut into the surface with a sharp knife, V-shaped chisel or gouge. The linoleum sheet is inked with a roller, and then impressed onto paper or fabric, Linocuts can also be achieved by the careful application of arts on the surface of the lino. This creates a similar to a soft ground etching and these caustic-lino plates can be printed in either a relief. Essentially, after each successive colour is imprinted onto the paper, however, in the contemporary art world the linocut is an established professional print medium, following its use by Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse. In 1911 “linoleum art” was first displayed in New York City by the Czech émigré Vojtěch Preissig, the first large-scale colour linocuts made by an American artist were created ca. 1943–45 by Walter Inglis Anderson, and exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum in 1949, today, linocut is a popular technique among street artists and street art-related fine art. Block Prints, How to Make Them, Milwaukee, Bruce Publishing Company,1941, draffin, Nicholas, Australian Woodcuts and Linocuts of the 1920s and 1930s, South Melbourne, Sun Books,1976. 30 Awesome and Fabulous Examples of Lino Printing articles by Artatm Creative Art Mazazine photo series, Linocut articles by German printmaker Joachim Graf Large scale hand printed linocut video
Linocut
–
Linocut Bar by
Carl Eugen Keel
Linocut
–
Using a handheld gouger to cut a design into linoleum for a linocut print
Linocut
–
Linocut printing; using a design cut into linoleum to make a print on paper
48.
List of Bronze Age hoards in Great Britain
–
List of hoards in Britain List of Iron Age hoards in Britain List of Roman hoards in Britain Barton, Caroline, Hitchcock, Fi, eds. Department for Culture, Media and Sport, Bland, Roger, ed. Treasure Annual Report 1998 -1999. Department for Culture, Media and Sport, department for Culture, Media and Sport. Department for Culture, Media and Sport, gannon, Anna, Voden-Decker, Lisa, Bland, Roger, eds. Department for Culture, Media and Sport, gannon, Anna, Voden-Decker, Lisa, Bland, Roger, eds. Department for Culture, Media and Sport, Hitchcock, Fi, ed. Treasure Annual Report 2004. Department for Culture, Media and Sport, lewis, Michael, ed. Portable Antiquities and Treasure Annual Report 2007. Department of Portable Antiquities and Treasure, British Museum
List of Bronze Age hoards in Great Britain
–
Burnham-on-Crouch Hoard
List of Bronze Age hoards in Great Britain
List of Bronze Age hoards in Great Britain
–
Burton Hoard
List of Bronze Age hoards in Great Britain
–
Hollingbourne Hoard
49.
Digging bar
–
A digging bar is a long, straight metal bar used as a hand tool to deliver blows to break up and loosen hard or compacted materials or as a lever to move objects. Digging bars are known by other names depending on locale, structural features. In Britain, Australia and New Zealand the tool is referred to as a crowbar, pry bar, in North America digging bars have various names including slate bar, shale bar, spud bar, pinch point bar, and San Angelo bar. They are often used where space would not allow use of a pickaxe, the ends of a digging bar are shaped during manufacturing to make them useful for various purposes. Typically, each end has a different shape so as to two different tool functions in one tool. Common end shapes include, Blunt — a broad, blunt surface for tamping, point — for breaking hard materials and prying. Wedge — an unsharpened blade for digging, breaking and prying, a San Angelo bar has a wedge at one end. Chisel — a sharpened blade for cutting roots, digging and prying, a pinch point bar has a chisel at one end. Bars are typically 5 to 6 ft long and weigh 15 to 23 lb and they are usually made entirely of cylindrical or hexagonal forged steel with a diameter of approximately 1 in. Chisel and wedge ends typically have a blade width measuring 1 to 3 in, Blunt ends typically have a diameter of 2 to 3 in. A spud bar has a chisel at one end that is intended for removing material though a chipping or shaving action. In the British Isles these typically have a narrow, unsharpened chisel point at one end, some have fiberglass bodies, and some have wider chisel ends, or rakes, for specific jobs such as roofing tear-offs. Fishing through holes in ice is common in parts of the world. One of the earliest methods of cutting these holes was to use a device known as an ice spud or ice chisel. Many chisel variations exist, including jagged teeth, skewed edges, early ice spuds often had wooden handles and a steel chisel fixed with a tang and collar or socket, similar to a carpenters chisel. Ice spuds are still carried by ice fishermen as a means to test ice thickness and safety. Log-peeling spuds are used to remove the bark from logs and these spuds typically have a wooden or steel handle of length 18 in to over 6 ft. This tool is called a bark spud or a barking iron
Digging bar
–
A digging bar with pointed and blunt ends
Digging bar
–
A spud bar
50.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
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A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chisel". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 247.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
