1.
Duchy of Schleswig
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The region is also called Sleswick in English. Roman sources place the homeland of the Jute tribe north of the river Eider and that of the Angles to its south, who in turn abutted the neighbouring Saxons. During the early Viking Age, Haithabu - Scandinavias biggest trading centre - was located in this region and its construction, and in particular its great expansion around 737, has been interpreted as an indication of the emergence of a unified Danish state. In May 1931 scientists of the National Museum of Denmark announced the finding of eighteen Viking graves with the remains of eighteen men in them, the discovery came during excavations in Schleswig. The skeletons indicated that the men were bigger proportioned than twentieth-century Danish men, each of the graves was laid out from east to west. Researchers surmised that the bodies were entombed in wooden coffins originally, towards the end of the Early Middle Ages, Schleswig formed part of the historical Lands of Denmark as Denmark unified out of a number of petty chiefdoms in the 8th to 10th centuries. The southern boundary of Denmark in the region of the Eider River, the Treaty of Heiligen was signed in 811 between the Danish King Hemming and Charlemagne, by which the border was established at the Eider. During the 10th century there were wars between East Francia and Denmark. In 1027, Conrad II and Canute the Great again settled their mutual border at the Eider. In 1115, king Niels created his nephew Canute Lavard - a son of his predecessor Eric I - Earl of Schleswig, in the 1230s, Southern Jutland was allotted as an appanage to Abel Valdemarsen, Canutes great-grandson, a younger son of Valdemar II of Denmark. Feuds and marital alliances brought the Abel dynasty into a connection with the German Duchy of Holstein by the 15th century. The latter was a subordinate to the Holy Roman Empire. The title Duke of Schleswig was inherited in 1460 by the kings of Norway who were also regularly elected kings of Denmark simultaneously. This was an anomaly – a king holding a ducal title, the title and anomaly survived presumably because it was already co-regally held by the kings sons. Between 1544 and 1713/20 the ducal reign had become a condominium, with the royal House of Oldenburg, a third branch in the condominium, the short-lived House of Haderslev, was already extinct in 1580 by the time of John the Elder. On the west coast the Danish diocese of Ribe stopped about 5 km north of the present border and this line corresponds remarkably well with the present border. In the 17th century a series of wars between Denmark and Sweden—which Denmark lost—devastated the region economically, however the nobility responded with a new agricultural system that restored prosperity. In the period 1600 to 1800 the region experienced the growth of manorialism of the common in the rye-growing regions of eastern Germany
2.
Copenhagen
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Copenhagen, Danish, København, Latin, Hafnia) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark. Copenhagen has an population of 1,280,371. The Copenhagen metropolitan area has just over 2 million inhabitants, the city is situated on the eastern coast of the island of Zealand, another small portion of the city is located on Amager, and is separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the strait of Øresund. The Øresund Bridge connects the two cities by rail and road, originally a Viking fishing village founded in the 10th century, Copenhagen became the capital of Denmark in the early 15th century. Beginning in the 17th century it consolidated its position as a centre of power with its institutions, defences. After suffering from the effects of plague and fire in the 18th century and this included construction of the prestigious district of Frederiksstaden and founding of such cultural institutions as the Royal Theatre and the Royal Academy of Fine Arts. Later, following the Second World War, the Finger Plan fostered the development of housing, since the turn of the 21st century, Copenhagen has seen strong urban and cultural development, facilitated by investment in its institutions and infrastructure. The city is the cultural, economic and governmental centre of Denmark, Copenhagens economy has seen rapid developments in the service sector, especially through initiatives in information technology, pharmaceuticals and clean technology. Since the completion of the Øresund Bridge, Copenhagen has become integrated with the Swedish province of Scania and its largest city, Malmö. With a number of connecting the various districts, the cityscape is characterized by parks, promenades. Copenhagen is home to the University of Copenhagen, the Technical University of Denmark, the University of Copenhagen, founded in 1479, is the oldest university in Denmark. Copenhagen is home to the FC København and Brøndby football clubs, the annual Copenhagen Marathon was established in 1980. Copenhagen is one of the most bicycle-friendly cities in the world, the Copenhagen Metro serves central Copenhagen while the Copenhagen S-train network connects central Copenhagen to its outlying boroughs. Serving roughly 2 million passengers a month, Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup, is the largest airport in the Nordic countries, the name of the city reflects its origin as a harbour and a place of commerce. The original designation, from which the contemporary Danish name derives, was Køpmannæhafn, meaning merchants harbour, the literal English translation would be Chapmans haven. The English name for the city was adapted from its Low German name, the abbreviations Kbh. or Kbhvn are often used in Danish for København, and kbh. for københavnsk. The chemical element hafnium is named for Copenhagen, where it was discovered, the bacterium Hafnia is also named after Copenhagen, Vagn Møller of the State Serum Institute in Copenhagen named it in 1954. Excavations in Pilestræde have also led to the discovery of a well from the late 12th century, the remains of an ancient church, with graves dating to the 11th century, have been unearthed near where Strøget meets Rådhuspladsen
3.
Denmark
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Denmark, officially the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Scandinavian country in Europe and a sovereign state. The southernmost and smallest of the Nordic countries, it is south-west of Sweden and south of Norway, Denmark also comprises two autonomous constituent countries in the North Atlantic Ocean, the Faroe Islands and Greenland. Denmark has an area of 42,924 square kilometres. The country consists of a peninsula, Jutland, and an archipelago of 443 named islands, with the largest being Zealand, the islands are characterised by flat, arable land and sandy coasts, low elevation and a temperate climate. The unified kingdom of Denmark emerged in the 10th century as a proficient seafaring nation in the struggle for control of the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were ruled together under the Kalmar Union, established in 1397 and ending with Swedish secession in 1523. Denmark and Norway remained under the monarch until outside forces dissolved the union in 1814. The union with Norway made it possible for Denmark to inherit the Faroe Islands, Iceland, beginning in the 17th century, there were several cessions of territory to Sweden. In the 19th century there was a surge of nationalist movements, Denmark remained neutral during World War I. In April 1940, a German invasion saw brief military skirmishes while the Danish resistance movement was active from 1943 until the German surrender in May 1945, the Constitution of Denmark was signed on 5 June 1849, ending the absolute monarchy which had begun in 1660. It establishes a constitutional monarchy organised as a parliamentary democracy, the government and national parliament are seated in Copenhagen, the nations capital, largest city and main commercial centre. Denmark exercises hegemonic influence in the Danish Realm, devolving powers to handle internal affairs, Home rule was established in the Faroe Islands in 1948, in Greenland home rule was established in 1979 and further autonomy in 2009. Denmark became a member of the European Economic Community in 1973, maintaining certain opt-outs, it retains its own currency, the krone. It is among the members of NATO, the Nordic Council, the OECD, OSCE. The etymology of the word Denmark, and especially the relationship between Danes and Denmark and the unifying of Denmark as a kingdom, is a subject which attracts debate. This is centred primarily on the prefix Dan and whether it refers to the Dani or a historical person Dan and the exact meaning of the -mark ending. Most handbooks derive the first part of the word, and the name of the people, from a word meaning land, related to German Tenne threshing floor. The -mark is believed to mean woodland or borderland, with references to the border forests in south Schleswig. The first recorded use of the word Danmark within Denmark itself is found on the two Jelling stones, which are believed to have been erected by Gorm the Old and Harald Bluetooth
4.
Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts
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The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts has provided education in the arts for more than 250 years, playing its part in the development of the art of Denmark. The Royal Danish Academy of Portraiture, Sculpture, and Architecture in Copenhagen was inaugurated on 31 March 1754 and its name was changed to the Royal Danish Academy of Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture in 1771. The building boom resulting from the Great Fire of 1795 greatly profited from this initiative, in 1814 the name was changed again, this time to the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. It is still situated in its building, the Charlottenborg Palace. The School of Architecture has been situated in former naval buildings on Holmen since 1996, the academy is larger and better funded than the Jutland Art Academy and Funen Art Academy, which offer similar programs. It teaches and conducts research on the subjects of painting, sculpting, architecture, graphics, photography, the academy is under the administration of the Danish Ministry of Culture. The academy’s School of Architecture offers education in the fields of design and restoration, urban and landscape planning and industrial, graphic. The school has nine departments, four research institutes and six affiliated research centres. The undergraduate course, leading to the Bachelor of Architecture diploma, in 2011, the Wall Street Journal named Ingels the Innovator of the Year for architecture. Hansen Medal Thorvaldsen Medal Eckersberg Medal Thorvald Bindesbøll Medal N. L. Høyen Medal The School of Visual Arts C. C
5.
Danish Golden Age
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The Danish Golden Age covers a period of exceptional creative production in Denmark, especially during the first half of the 19th century. Although Copenhagen had suffered fires, bombardment and national bankruptcy. It also saw the development of Danish architecture in the Neoclassical style, Copenhagen, in particular, acquired a new look, with buildings designed by Christian Frederik Hansen and by Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll. In relation to music, the Golden Age covers figures inspired by Danish romantic nationalism including J. P. E. Hartmann, Hans Christian Lumbye, Niels W. Gade, literature centred on Romantic thinking, introduced in 1802 by the Norwegian-German philosopher Henrik Steffens. Key contributors were Adam Oehlenschläger, Bernhard Severin Ingemann, N. F. S. Grundtvig and, last but not least, Hans Christian Andersen, Søren Kierkegaard furthered philosophy while Hans Christian Ørsted achieved fundamental progress in science. The Golden Age thus had an effect not only on life in Denmark but, with time. The origins of the Golden Age can be traced back to around the beginning of the 19th century, surprisingly, this was a very rough period for Denmark. Copenhagen, the centre of the intellectual life, first experienced huge fires in 1794 and 1795 which destroyed both Christiansborg Palace and large areas of the inner city. In 1801, as a result of the involvement in the League of Armed Neutrality. Then in 1813, as a result of the inability to support the costs of war. To make matters worse, Norway ceased to be part of the Danish realm when it was ceded to Sweden the following year, Copenhagens devastation nevertheless provided new opportunities. Architects and planners widened the streets, constructing beautifully designed Neoclassical buildings offering a brighter yet intimate look, at the time, with a population of only 100,000, the city was still quite small, built within the confines of the old ramparts. As a result, the figures of the day met frequently, sharing their ideas, bringing the arts. Henrik Steffens was perhaps the most effective proponent of the Romantic idea, in a series of lectures in Copenhagen, he successfully conveyed the ideas behind German romanticism to the Danes. Influential thinkers, such as Oehlenschläger and Grundtvig were quick to take up his views and it was not long before Danes from all branches of the arts and sciences were involved in a new era of Romantic nationalism, later known as the Danish Golden Age. Especially in the field of painting, change became apparent, grand historical art gave way to more widely appealing but less pretentious genre paintings and landscapes. The Golden Age is generally believed to have lasted until about 1850, around that time, Danish culture suffered from the outbreak of the First Schleswig War. In addition, political reforms involving the end of the monarchy in 1848
6.
Portrait painting
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See Portrait for more about the general topic of portraits. Portrait painting is a genre in painting, where the intent is to depict a human subject, the term portrait painting can also describe the actual painted portrait. Portraitists may create their work by commission, for public and private persons, portraits are often important state and family records, as well as remembrances. Historically, portrait paintings have primarily memorialized the rich and powerful, over time, however, it became more common for middle-class patrons to commission portraits of their families and colleagues. Today, portrait paintings are commissioned by governments, corporations, groups, clubs. In addition to painting, portraits can also be made in other such as etching, lithography, photography, video. A well-executed portrait is expected to show the essence of the subject or a flattering representation. As Aristotle stated, The aim of Art is to present not the appearance of things. In most cases, this results in a serious, closed lip stare, or as Charles Dickens put it, there are only two styles of portrait painting, the serious and the smirk. Even given these limitations, a range of subtle emotions is possible from quiet menace to gentle contentment. However, with the mouth relatively neutral, much of the facial expression needs to be created through the eyes, as author and artist Gordon C. Aymar states, the eyes are the place one looks for the most complete, reliable, and the eyebrows can register, almost single-handedly, wonder, pity, fright, pain, cynicism, concentration, wistfulness, displeasure, and expectation, in infinite variations and combinations. Portrait painting can depict the full length, half length, head and shoulders, or ‘head’, as well as in profile, three-quarter view, or full face, with varying directions of light. Occasionally, artists have created portraits with multiple views, as with Anthony van Dycks Triple Portrait of Charles I, there are even a few portraits where the front of the subject is not visible at all. Another example of the view in portraiture, in this case photography, can be found here. Among the other variables, the subject can be clothed or nude, indoors or out, standing, seated, reclining. Portrait paintings can be of individuals, couples, parents and children, families and they can be created in various media including oils, watercolor, pen and ink, pencil, charcoal, pastel, and mixed media. Artists may employ a wide-ranging palette of colors, as with Pierre-Auguste Renoirs Mme, charpentier and her children,1878 or restrict themselves to mostly white or black, as with Gilbert Stuarts Portrait of George Washington
7.
Hans Christian Andersen
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Hans Christian Andersen (/ˈhɑːnz ˈkrɪstʃən ˈændərsən/, Danish, often referred to in Scandinavia as H. C. Although a prolific writer of plays, travelogues, novels, and poems, Andersens popularity is not limited to children, his stories, called eventyr in Danish, express themes that transcend age and nationality. Some of his most famous fairy tales include The Emperors New Clothes, The Little Mermaid, The Nightingale, The Snow Queen, The Ugly Duckling, Thumbelina and his stories have inspired ballets, animated and live-action films and plays. Hans Christian Andersen was born in the town of Odense, Denmark, Andersens father, also Hans, considered himself related to nobility. His paternal grandmother had told his father that their family had in the past belonged to a social class. A persistent theory suggests that Andersen was a son of King Christian VIII. Andersens father, who had received an education, introduced Andersen to literature. Andersens mother, Anne Marie Andersdatter, was uneducated and worked as a washerwoman following his fathers death in 1816, she remarried in 1818. Andersen was sent to a school for poor children where he received a basic education and was forced to support himself, working as an apprentice for a weaver and, later. At 14, he moved to Copenhagen to seek employment as an actor, having an excellent soprano voice, he was accepted into the Royal Danish Theatre, but his voice soon changed. A colleague at the theatre told him that he considered Andersen a poet, taking the suggestion seriously, Andersen began to focus on writing. Jonas Collin, director of the Royal Danish Theatre, felt a great affection for Andersen and sent him to a school in Slagelse. Andersen had already published his first story, The Ghost at Palnatokes Grave, though not a keen pupil, he also attended school at Elsinore until 1827. He later said his years in school were the darkest and most bitter of his life, at one school, he lived at his schoolmasters home. There he was abused and was told that it was to improve his character and he later said the faculty had discouraged him from writing in general, causing him to enter a state of depression. A very early fairy tale by Andersen, called The Tallow Candle, was discovered in a Danish archive in October 2012, the story, written in the 1820s, was about a candle who did not feel appreciated. It was written while Andersen was still in school and dedicated to a benefactor, in 1829, Andersen enjoyed considerable success with the short story A Journey on Foot from Holmens Canal to the East Point of Amager. Its protagonist meets characters ranging from Saint Peter to a talking cat, Andersen followed this success with a theatrical piece, Love on St. Nicholas Church Tower, and a short volume of poems
8.
Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg
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Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg was a Danish painter. He was born in Blåkrog in the Duchy of Schleswig, to Henrik Vilhelm Eckersberg, painter and carpenter and he went on to lay the foundation for the period of art known as the Golden Age of Danish Painting, and is referred to as the Father of Danish painting. In 1786 his family moved to Blans, a village near the picturesque Alssund, where he enjoyed drawing pictures of the surrounding countryside, after confirmation he began his training as a painter under church- and portrait painter, Jes Jessen of Aabenraa. He continued his training at 17 years of age under Josiah Jacob Jessen in Flensborg and he, however, had his sights set on being accepted at the Royal Danish Academy of Art in Copenhagen. Still under apprenticeship he produced proficient drawings and paintings, having amassed some money, including financial support from local well-wishers, he arrived at Copenhagens Tollbooth on 23 May 1803. He was accepted into the Academy without payment in 1803 where he studied with Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard and he made good progress, painting historical paintings, portraits and landscapes. However, friction between him and Abildgaard impeded his advancement, and he did not win the Academys big gold medal until 1809 and he also worked to earn living money as a hand laborer, and he made drawings for copperplate etchings. Although he received promise of a stipend in conjunction with the gold medal. On 1 July 1810, he married E. Christine Rebecca Hyssing against his wishes, in order to legitimize a son, Erling Carl Vilhelm Eckersberg and his son, Erling, eventually followed in his fathers footsteps with an Academy education, and a career as a copperplate engraver. On 3 July, a few days after the wedding, he began his travels out of the country, along with Tønnes Christian Bruun de Neergaard, writer, enthusiastic art lover and financial supporter, he made his way over Germany to Paris. Here he studied under neoclassicist Jacques-Louis David from 1811-1812 and he improved his skills in painting the human form, and followed his teachers admonition to paint after Nature and the Antique in order to find Truth. It was here that he developed a friendship with Paris roommate, fellow artist Jens Peter Møller. After two years he traveled further via Florence to Rome where he continued his studies between 1813-1816 and he worked on improving his skills as a history painter, and enjoyed painting smaller studies of the local life and area. He lived there three years among a group of artists, with Bertel Thorvaldsen as the cultural head. Eckersberg and Thorvaldsen developed a lasting relationship, and the master served the younger Eckersberg as both loyal friend and advisor. Eckersberg painted one of his best portraits, a portrait of Thorvaldsen, in Rome 1814, life in Rome agreed with him, and he was greatly affected by the bright southern light he experienced there. He produced a body of work during those years, including a number of exceptional landscape studies. His divorce from Hyssing was finalized during his stay out of the country, shortly after his return to Denmark he arranged for his admission into the Academy, and received as the subject of his admissions painting the Norse legend, the Death of Baldur
9.
Bertel Thorvaldsen
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Bertel Thorvaldsen was a Danish/Icelandic sculptor of international fame, who spent most of his life in Italy. Thorvaldsen was born in Copenhagen into a Danish/Icelandic family of humble means, working part-time with his father, who was a wood carver, Thorvaldsen won many honors and medals at the academy. He was awarded a stipend to travel to Rome and continue his education, in Rome, Thorvaldsen quickly made a name for himself as a sculptor. Maintaining a large workshop in the city, he worked in a heroic neo-classicist style and his patrons resided all over Europe. Upon his return to Denmark in 1838, Thorvaldsen was received as a national hero, the Thorvaldsen Museum was erected to house his works next to Christiansborg Palace. Thorvaldsen is buried within the courtyard of the museum, in his time, he was seen as the successor of master sculptor Antonio Canova. His strict adherence to classical norms has tended to estrange modern audiences, Thorvaldsen was born in Copenhagen in 1770, the son of Gottskálk Þorvaldsson, an Icelander who had settled in Denmark. Thorvaldsens mother was Karen Dagnes, a Jutlandic peasant girl and his birth certificate and baptismal records have never been found, and the only record is of his confirmation in 1787. Thorvaldsen had claimed descent from Snorri Thorfinnsson, the first European born in America, Thorvaldsens childhood in Copenhagen was humble. His father had a habit that slowed his career. Nothing is known of Thorvaldsens early schooling, and he may have been schooled entirely at home and he never became good at writing, and he never acquired much of the knowledge of fine culture that was expected from an artist. In 1781, by the help of friends, eleven-year-old Thorvaldsen was admitted to Copenhagens Royal Danish Academy of Art first as a draftsman. At night he would help his father in the wood carving, among his professors were Nicolai Abildgaard and Johannes Wiedewelt, who are both likely influences for his later neo-classicist style. At the Academy he was praised for his works and won all the prizes from the small Silver Medal to the large Gold Medal for a relief of St. Peter healing the crippled beggar in 1793. As a consequence, he was granted a Royal stipend, enabling him to complete his studies in Rome. Leaving Copenhagen on August 30 on the frigate Thetis, he landed in Palermo in January 1797 traveled to Naples where he studied for a month before making his entry to Rome on 8 March 1797. Since the date of his birth had never recorded, he celebrated this day as his Roman birthday for the rest of his life. In Rome he lived at Via Sistina in front of the Spanish Steps and had his workshop in the stables of the Palazzo Barberini and he was taken under the wing of Georg Zoëga a Danish archeologist and numismatist living in Rome
10.
N. F. S. Grundtvig
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Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig, most often referred to as N. F. S. Grundtvig, was a Danish pastor, author, poet, philosopher, historian, teacher and politician. He was one of the most influential people in Danish history and it was steeped in the national literature and supported by deep spirituality. Grundtvig holds a position in the cultural history of his country. Grundtvig and his followers are credited with being influential in the formulation of modern Danish national consciousness. Called Frederik rather than Nikolaj by those close to him, N. F. S. Grundtvig was the son of a Lutheran pastor and he was brought up in a very religious atmosphere, although his mother also had great respect for old Norse legends and traditions. He was schooled in the tradition of the European Enlightenment, but his faith in reason was also influenced by German romanticism, in 1791 he was sent to Thyregod in Sydjylland to live and study with pastor Laurids Svindt Feld. He subsequently studied at the Aarhus Katedralskole, the school of Aarhus. He left for Copenhagen in 1800 to study theology and was accepted to the University of Copenhagen in 1801, at the close of his university life, Grundtvig began to study Icelandic and the Icelandic Sagas. In 1805 Grundtvig took a position of tutor in a house on the island of Langeland, the next three years he used his free time to study writers Shakespeare, Schiller, and Fichte. In 1802 his cousin, the philosopher Henrich Steffens, returned to Copenhagen full of the teaching of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and his lectures and the early poetry of Adam Oehlenschläger opened Grundtvigs eyes to the new era in literature. His first work, On the Songs in the Edda, attracted no attention, returning to Copenhagen in 1808, Grundtvig achieved greater success with his Northern Mythology, and again in 1809 with a long drama, The Fall of the Heroic Life in the North. Grundtvig boldly denounced the clergy of the city in his first sermon in 1810, when Grundtvig published the sermon three weeks later it offended the ecclesiastical authorities, and they demanded him punished. In 1810 Grundtvig underwent a crisis and converted to a strongly held Lutheranism. He retired to his fathers country parish in Udby as his chaplain and it won him notoriety among his peers and cost him several friends, notably the historian Christian Molbech. Upon his fathers death in 1813, Grundtvig applied to be his successor in the parish but was rejected, from 1816 to 1819 he was editor of and almost sole contributor to a philosophical and polemical journal entitled Danne-Virke, which also published poetry. From 1813 to 1815, he attempted to form a movement to support the Norwegians against the Swedish government, later he preached on how the weakness of the Danish faith was the cause of the loss of Norway in 1814. His sermon was met by a congregation in Copenhagen. Grundtvig withdrew from the pulpit because of lacking his own parish, in 1821 he resumed preaching briefly when granted the country living of Præstø, and returned to the capital the year after
11.
Nordfriesland
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Nordfriesland is the northernmost district of Germany, part of the state of Schleswig-Holstein. As of 2008, Nordfriesland was the most visited rural district in Germany, the sea has always had a strong influence in the region. In medieval times, storm tides made life in what is now Nordfriesland rather dangerous, only in modern times was the loss of land and lives able to be stopped by building solid dikes. Many villages that existed are now at the bottom of the sea. The best-known example is the seaport of Rungholt, which was destroyed by a storm surge in 1362. The island of Strand vanished in the Burchardi flood, another storm in 1634. Subsequent to this surge, there were many small islets instead of Strand. Nordfriesland is still a district, there are people speaking standard German, Low German, North Frisian. The North Frisian language exists in nine slightly different dialects, yet it is used by older citizens in mainland Nordfriesland. A relatively lively community of Frisian speakers exists though on the islands of Föhr, after becoming German, three districts were established in the region, Südtondern in the north, Husum in the centre, and Eiderstedt in the south. In 1970 these three districts were merged to form the Nordfriesland district, the entire coastal region is part of the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park. Nordfriesland includes the section between Dithmarschen and Denmark. In the south is the Eiderstedt peninsula, where the River Eider meets the sea, the North Frisian Islands are also part of the Nordfriesland district and located inside the national park as well. There are five islands and ten smaller islets known as Halligen
12.
Christian August Lorentzen
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Christian August Lorentzen was a Danish painter. He was the instructor of Martinus Rørbye, christian August Lorentzen was born on 10 August 1749 as the son of a watchmaker. He arrived in Copenhagen around 1771 where he frequented the Royal Academy of Fine Arts, from 1779 to 1782 he went abroad to develop his skills, visiting the Netherlands, Antwerp and Paris where he copied old masters. In 1792 he traveled to Norway to paint prospects, in a number of painting, such as Slaget på Reden and Den rædsomste nat, he documented key events from the English Wars between 1801 and 1814. Later in his career he painted portraits, landscapes and scenes from Ludvig Holbergs comedies. As a professor at the Royal Academy in Copenhagen from 1803 and until his death in 1828, he exercised great influence on the next generation of painters such as Martinus Rørbye among others
13.
Dresden Academy of Fine Arts
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The Dresden Academy of Fine Arts, often abbreviated HfBK Dresden or simply HfBK, is a vocational university of visual arts located in Dresden, Germany. Apart from this magnificent building, the Academy owns the building for sculpture in Pfotenhauerstrasse, in 1764, the “Allgemeine Kunst-Academie der Malerey, Bildhauer-Kunst, Kupferstecher- und Baukunst” was founded by order of the Prince-Elector Frederick Christian. From 1768 to 1786 it was located in the Fürstenberg Palace and its first director was the Frenchmen Charles Hutin. After the death of Hutin in 1776, Johann Eleazar Zeissig, referred to as Schenau, the Academy was the successor institution of the first “Zeichen- und Malerschule” founded in 1680. It was one of the oldest academies of art in the German-speaking area, today it is one of the academies of art in Germany that are especially attractive for a degree in art due to their unmistakable profile and optimum general conditions. The students are provided with spacious studies and well equipped workshops, the reorganisation of the Academy started in 1990 offered the chance for innovative and organic development of an academy with a long and successful history and distinct traditions. Well-known artists from the world of art are teaching at the Academy. The different courses available for the study of painting and graphics as well as sculpture are very diverse, the rules for study allow for changes within and between the specialized courses and for using the courses in the best possible way for one’s own artistic ambitions and projects. The degree course of Bildende Kunst consists of 10 semesters and leads to the Diplom degree, the degree course Kunsttechnologie, Konservierung und Restaurierung von Kunst- und Kulturgut is one of the oldest and most renowned education courses on university level in Germany. The new postgraduate course Kunst-Therapie that was established just a few years ago does only exist a second time at one other art academy in Germany, after their academy studies, artists and art teachers are given attractive new chances for qualification in the artistic-social field. Currently Eberhard Bosslet teaches sculpture and concepts of space, one of its most illustrious teachers was Bernardo Bellotto, the painter of the world-famous town scapes of Dresden. At the beginning of the 19th century, painters such as Anton Graff, ernst Rietschel, Gottfried Semper and Ludwig Richter consolidated the reputation of the academy, which experienced a further zenith around the turn of the century. List of universities in Germany Hochschule für Bildende Künste Dresden Website of Students and Masters of the Fine Arts Department
14.
Hermann Ernst Freund
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Hermann Ernst Freund was a German-born Danish sculptor. He is remembered in particular for his figures from Nordic mythology, born near Bremen, Germany, Freund was trained as a smith before studying at the Art Academy in Copenhagen where he was awarded all four silver and gold medals. After graduating, he spent 10 years in Rome where he became Bertel Thorvaldsens closest assistant as can be seen in his marble bust of Bernhard Severin Ingemann. On returning to Copenhagen, he organized the decoration of Church of Our Lady, preparing models for the figures of the 12 apostles but in the end Thorvaldsen received the commission. His masterpiece, the Ragnarok Frieze, which occupied him for years, was completed by Herman Wilhelm Bissen after his death but was later destroyed by the Christianborg fire in 1884. There is a plaster cast of part of the frieze in Statens Museum for Kunst, the largest collection of his works is to be found at the Glyptotek in Copenhagen. In 1829, Freund became a professor at the Academy, inspired by time he spent in the south of Italy, Freund had his official home, Materialgaard, decorated in Pompeiian style. Young artists such as Georg Hilker, Heinrich Eddelien, Constantin Hansen and Christen Købke completed the work using Freunds designs, Danish sculpture Images of The Ragnarok Freize
15.
Rome
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Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
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Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
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Venice
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Venice is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is situated across a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and these are located in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay that lies between the mouths of the Po and the Piave Rivers. Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, the lagoon and a part of the city are listed as a World Heritage Site. In 2014,264,579 people resided in Comune di Venezia, together with Padua and Treviso, the city is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area, with a total population of 2.6 million. PATREVE is a metropolitan area without any degree of autonomy. The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC, the city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice. Venice has been known as the La Dominante, Serenissima, Queen of the Adriatic, City of Water, City of Masks, City of Bridges, The Floating City, and City of Canals. The City State of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial center which gradually emerged from the 9th century to its peak in the 14th century and this made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history. It is also known for its several important artistic movements, especially the Renaissance period, Venice has played an important role in the history of symphonic and operatic music, and it is the birthplace of Antonio Vivaldi. Venice has been ranked the most beautiful city in the world as of 2016, the name Venetia, however, derives from the Roman name for the people known as the Veneti, and called by the Greeks Eneti. The meaning of the word is uncertain, although there are other Indo-European tribes with similar-sounding names, such as the Celtic Veneti, Baltic Veneti, and the Slavic Wends. Linguists suggest that the name is based on an Indo-European root *wen, so that *wenetoi would mean beloved, lovable, a connection with the Latin word venetus, meaning the color sea-blue, is also possible. The alternative obsolete form is Vinegia, some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen on the islands in the original marshy lagoons. They were referred to as incolae lacunae, the traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto — said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421. Beginning as early as AD166 to 168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the center in the area. The Roman defences were again overthrown in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores, the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the Lagoon, the traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto, was actually Exarch Paul, and his successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Pauls magister militum. In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the Exarchate rose in a rebellion over the controversy at the urging of Pope Gregory II
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Bologna
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Bologna is the largest city of the Emilia-Romagna Region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy, located in the heart of an area of about one million. The first settlements back to at least 1000 BC. The city has been a centre, first under the Etruscans. Home to the oldest university in the world, University of Bologna, founded in 1088, Bologna is also an important transportation crossroad for the roads and trains of Northern Italy, where many important mechanical, electronic and nutritional industries have their headquarters. According to the most recent data gathered by the European Regional Economic Growth Index of 2009, Bologna is the first Italian city, Bologna is home to numerous prestigious cultural, economic and political institutions as well as one of the most impressive trade fair districts in Europe. In 2000 it was declared European capital of culture and in 2006, the city of Bologna was selected to participate in the Universal Exposition of Shanghai 2010 together with 45 other cities from around the world. Bologna is also one of the wealthiest cities in Italy, often ranking as one of the top cities in terms of quality of life in the country, after a long decline, Bologna was reborn in the 5th century under Bishop Petronius. According to legend, St. Petronius built the church of S. Stefano. After the fall of Rome, Bologna was a stronghold of the Exarchate of Ravenna in the Po plain. In 728, the city was captured by the Lombard king Liutprand, the Germanic conquerors formed a district called addizione longobarda near the complex of S. Stefano. Charlemagne stayed in this district in 786, traditionally said to be founded in 1088, the University of Bologna is widely considered to be the first university. The university originated as a centre of study of medieval Roman law under major glossators. It numbered Dante, Boccaccio and Petrarca among its students, the medical school is especially famous. In the 12th century, the families engaged in continual internecine fighting. Troops of Pope Julius II besieged Bologna and sacked the artistic treasures of his palace, in 1530, in front of Saint Petronio Church, Charles V was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Clement VII. Then a plague at the end of the 16th century reduced the population from 72,000 to 59,000, the population later recovered to a stable 60, 000–65,000. However, there was also great progress during this era, in 1564, the Piazza del Nettuno and the Palazzo dei Banchi were built, along with the Archiginnasio, the centre of the University
19.
Florence
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Florence is the capital city of the Italian region of Tuscany and of the Metropolitan City of Florence. It is the most populous city in Tuscany, with 383,083 inhabitants, Florence was a centre of medieval European trade and finance and one of the wealthiest cities of the time. It is considered the birthplace of the Renaissance, and has called the Athens of the Middle Ages. A turbulent political history includes periods of rule by the powerful Medici family, from 1865 to 1871 the city was the capital of the recently established Kingdom of Italy. The Historic Centre of Florence attracts 13 million tourists each year and it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1982. The city is noted for its culture, Renaissance art and architecture, the city also contains numerous museums and art galleries, such as the Uffizi Gallery and the Palazzo Pitti, and still exerts an influence in the fields of art, culture and politics. Due to Florences artistic and architectural heritage, it has been ranked by Forbes as one of the most beautiful cities in the world, in 2008, the city had the 17th highest average income in Italy. Florence originated as a Roman city, and later, after a period as a flourishing trading and banking medieval commune. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, it was politically, economically, and culturally one of the most important cities in Europe, the language spoken in the city during the 14th century was, and still is, accepted as the Italian language. Starting from the late Middle Ages, Florentine money—in the form of the gold florin—financed the development of all over Europe, from Britain to Bruges, to Lyon. Florentine bankers financed the English kings during the Hundred Years War and they similarly financed the papacy, including the construction of their provisional capital of Avignon and, after their return to Rome, the reconstruction and Renaissance embellishment of Rome. Florence was home to the Medici, one of European historys most important noble families, Lorenzo de Medici was considered a political and cultural mastermind of Italy in the late 15th century. Two members of the family were popes in the early 16th century, Leo X, catherine de Medici married king Henry II of France and, after his death in 1559, reigned as regent in France. Marie de Medici married Henry IV of France and gave birth to the future king Louis XIII, the Medici reigned as Grand Dukes of Tuscany, starting with Cosimo I de Medici in 1569 and ending with the death of Gian Gastone de Medici in 1737. The Etruscans initially formed in 200 BC the small settlement of Fiesole and it was built in the style of an army camp with the main streets, the cardo and the decumanus, intersecting at the present Piazza della Repubblica. Situated along the Via Cassia, the route between Rome and the north, and within the fertile valley of the Arno, the settlement quickly became an important commercial centre. Peace returned under Lombard rule in the 6th century, Florence was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 and became part of the Duchy of Tuscany, with Lucca as capital. The population began to again and commerce prospered
20.
Bernhard Severin Ingemann
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Bernhard Severin Ingemann was a Danish novelist and poet. Ingemann was born in Torkilstrup, on the island of Falster, the son of a vicar, he was left fatherless in his youth. While a student at the University of Copenhagen he published his first collection of poems, critics describe their sickly sentimentality as reflecting the unhealthy condition of the poets body and mind at this time. These works were followed by an allegorical poem, De sorte Riddere. Then followed six plays, of which the best is considered to be Reinald Underbarnet, in 1817 he published his first prose work, De Underjordiske, et bornholmsk Eventyr, which was followed in 1820 by Eventyr og Fortællinger, many of them imitations of Hoffmann. During 1818–19 he traveled on the Continent, in 1822 was appointed instructor of the Danish Language and Literature at the Academy of Sorø. During his next period, inspired by Scotts Waverley novels, Ingemann produced his series of historical romances, andersen the title of the childrens writer of Denmark. Their subjects are all taken from Danish history, the first, and perhaps the best, is Valdemar Sejr, which was followed by Erik Menveds Barndom, Kong Erik og de Fredløse, and Prins Otto af Danmark og Hans Samtid. While his historical romances show a lack of accuracy, their strong nationality gives them a special interest to the student of Danish culture, in reality they mean the introduction of the historical novel in Danish literature. A later artistic novel Landsbybørnene from 1852 is now almost forgotten, known as the fourth great Danish hymn writer, Ingemann is considered less rooted in Biblical dogma and more borne up by a general spiritual and religious interest. A simple naivete runs through them, especially popular were his Morgen og Aftensange, a collection of religious poems of great beauty and spirituality written during 1837–39. They were set to music by the composer Weyse, many of them have been classics in Danish schools. Also his Christmas hymns are popular and he also wrote poems of historic and mythological content in the heroic saga Holger Danske. He was a friend of Grundtvig who was in some degrees his mentor. Often they have been regarded almost mental twins in spite of clear differences, andersen must be mentioned among his friends. Ingemann was in his elder years much respected and after the death of Oehlenschläger he was regarded the unofficial poet-king of Denmark, critics cite Ingemanns grace and delicacy, rather than strength, of style, both in prose and poetry. Ingemann was married to Lucie Marie Mandix, a painter, whose works hang in Danish churches. Samlede Skrifter (Collected Works, xli. vols, nils Holger Petersen, B. S. Ingemann, Danish Medievalism in the Nineteenth Century, in, Cahier Calin, Makers of the Middle Ages
21.
Hamburg
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Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast
22.
Carl Friedrich Gauss
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Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss was born on 30 April 1777 in Brunswick, in the Duchy of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, as the son of poor working-class parents. Gauss later solved this puzzle about his birthdate in the context of finding the date of Easter and he was christened and confirmed in a church near the school he attended as a child. A contested story relates that, when he was eight, he figured out how to add up all the numbers from 1 to 100, there are many other anecdotes about his precocity while a toddler, and he made his first ground-breaking mathematical discoveries while still a teenager. He completed Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, his opus, in 1798 at the age of 21. This work was fundamental in consolidating number theory as a discipline and has shaped the field to the present day, while at university, Gauss independently rediscovered several important theorems. Gauss was so pleased by this result that he requested that a regular heptadecagon be inscribed on his tombstone, the stonemason declined, stating that the difficult construction would essentially look like a circle. The year 1796 was most productive for both Gauss and number theory and he discovered a construction of the heptadecagon on 30 March. He further advanced modular arithmetic, greatly simplifying manipulations in number theory, on 8 April he became the first to prove the quadratic reciprocity law. This remarkably general law allows mathematicians to determine the solvability of any quadratic equation in modular arithmetic, the prime number theorem, conjectured on 31 May, gives a good understanding of how the prime numbers are distributed among the integers. Gauss also discovered that every integer is representable as a sum of at most three triangular numbers on 10 July and then jotted down in his diary the note, ΕΥΡΗΚΑ. On October 1 he published a result on the number of solutions of polynomials with coefficients in finite fields, in 1831 Gauss developed a fruitful collaboration with the physics professor Wilhelm Weber, leading to new knowledge in magnetism and the discovery of Kirchhoffs circuit laws in electricity. It was during this time that he formulated his namesake law and they constructed the first electromechanical telegraph in 1833, which connected the observatory with the institute for physics in Göttingen. In 1840, Gauss published his influential Dioptrische Untersuchungen, in which he gave the first systematic analysis on the formation of images under a paraxial approximation. Among his results, Gauss showed that under a paraxial approximation an optical system can be characterized by its cardinal points and he derived the Gaussian lens formula. In 1845, he became associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands, in 1854, Gauss selected the topic for Bernhard Riemanns Habilitationvortrag, Über die Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen. On the way home from Riemanns lecture, Weber reported that Gauss was full of praise, Gauss died in Göttingen, on 23 February 1855 and is interred in the Albani Cemetery there. Two individuals gave eulogies at his funeral, Gausss son-in-law Heinrich Ewald and Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen and his brain was preserved and was studied by Rudolf Wagner who found its mass to be 1,492 grams and the cerebral area equal to 219,588 square millimeters. Highly developed convolutions were also found, which in the early 20th century were suggested as the explanation of his genius, Gauss was a Lutheran Protestant, a member of the St. Albans Evangelical Lutheran church in Göttingen
23.
Frederiksborg Castle
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Frederiksborg Castle is a palatial complex in Hillerød, Denmark. Situated on three islets in the Slotssøen, it is adjoined by a formal garden in the Baroque style. After a serious fire in 1859, the castle was rebuilt on the basis of old plans, thanks to public support and the brewer J. C. Jacobsen, the building and its apartments were fully restored by 1882 when it was reopened to the public as the Danish Museum of National History, open throughout the year, the museum contains the largest collection of portrait paintings in Denmark. The estate originally known as Hillerødsholm near Hillerød had traditionally belonged to the Gøyes, in the 1520s and 1530s, Mogens Gøye, Steward of the Realm, had been instrumental in introducing the Danish Reformation. He lived in a building on the most northerly of three adjoining islets on the estates lake. The property was known as Hillerødsholm, after his daughter, Birgitte, married the courtier and naval hero Herluf Trolle in 1544, the couple became its proprietors. In the 1540s, Trolle replaced the old building with a manor house. As the old building with towers was too small for the king. At the kings request, Trolle remained on the premises until the work was completed, the king then renamed the estate Frederiksborg. Interested in deer hunting, he used the castle with the neighbouring Bath House as a hunting lodge, centred as it was in the fields. The additions included a wall to the south, separating the estate from the town. Still standing today is the quadrangular red-brick, tip-roofed house on Staldgade known as Herluf Trolles Tower, adjoining this are two long, narrow red-brick stable buildings, the Kings Stables to the west and the Hussars Stables to the east. These in turn lead to a wall along the lake with two round towers completed in 1562 bearing the arms of Frederick II and his motto Mein Hoffnung zu Gott allein, on the central islet, the long pantry house with stepped gables can also be seen today. The most important building from Frederick IIs times is the Bath House in the park northwest of the islets, completed in 1581 in the Renaissance style with three protruding step-gabled wings, it served the king as a hunting lodge during the summer months. Frederiksborg Castle was the first Danish castle to be built inland, all previous castles had been on the coast or close to ports as the sea had traditionally been the principal means of travel. It was also the first to be built for recreational purposes rather than for defence. Its location in Hillerød led to the development of improved roads
24.
Pulkovo Observatory
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The Pulkovo Astronomical Observatory, the principal astronomical observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences, located 19 km south of Saint Petersburg on Pulkovo Heights 75 metres above sea level. It is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg, the observatory was opened in 1839. Originally, it was a brainchild of the German/Russian astronomer Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, the observatory was equipped with state-of-the-art devices, one of them being the a 15-inch aperture refractor, one of the largest refractors in the world at that time. In 1885, the observatory was equipped with 30-inch refractor, which was the biggest usable refractor in the world, both were built by Alvan Clark & Sons in Massachusetts. The observatory’s activities have also connected to the geographical study of the territory of Russia. The star catalogues, containing the most precise positions of 374, by the 50th anniversary of the Observatory, they had built an astrophysical laboratory with a mechanical workshop and installed the Europe’s largest refractor. In 1923, they installed a big Littrow spectrograph, and in 1940 – a horizontal solar telescope, after having received an astrograph in 1894, the observatory began its work on astrophotography. In 1927, the Observatory received an astrograph and with its help the Russian astronomers catalogued the stars of the near-polar areas of the sky. Regular observation of movements of celestial poles began with the construction of the telescope in 1904. In 1920, the Observatory started transmitting the time by radio signals. The observatory participated in the basic work, namely in measuring degrees of the arc of the meridian from the Danube to the Arctic Ocean. Military geodesists and hydrographers used to work at the Observatory as interns, in order to observe the southern stars that could not be seen on the observatory’s latitude, the scientists organized two affiliated observing locations. The other was a station in Nikolaev – a former observatory of the Department of the Navy. The observatory staff was very affected by the Great Purge and many Pulkovo astronomers. During the siege of Leningrad, the Observatory became the target of fierce German air raids, all of the buildings were completely destroyed. On February 5,1997, nearly 1,500 of the 3,852 books were destroyed by malicious arson, even before the end of the war, the Soviet government made a decision to restore the Observatory. In 1946, it began the construction after having cleared the territory, in May 1954, the Observatory was re-opened, not only having been restored but considerably expanded in terms of instruments, employees and research subjects. New departments had created, such as the Department of Radio Astronomy
25.
Saint Petersburg
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Saint Petersburg is Russias second-largest city after Moscow, with five million inhabitants in 2012, and an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea. It is politically incorporated as a federal subject, situated on the Neva River, at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea, it was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 271703. In 1914, the name was changed from Saint Petersburg to Petrograd, in 1924 to Leningrad, between 1713 and 1728 and 1732–1918, Saint Petersburg was the capital of imperial Russia. In 1918, the government bodies moved to Moscow. Saint Petersburg is one of the cities of Russia, as well as its cultural capital. The Historic Centre of Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments constitute a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Saint Petersburg is home to The Hermitage, one of the largest art museums in the world. A large number of consulates, international corporations, banks. Swedish colonists built Nyenskans, a fortress, at the mouth of the Neva River in 1611, in a then called Ingermanland. A small town called Nyen grew up around it, Peter the Great was interested in seafaring and maritime affairs, and he intended to have Russia gain a seaport in order to be able to trade with other maritime nations. He needed a better seaport than Arkhangelsk, which was on the White Sea to the north, on May 1703121703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great captured Nyenskans, and soon replaced the fortress. On May 271703, closer to the estuary 5 km inland from the gulf), on Zayachy Island, he laid down the Peter and Paul Fortress, which became the first brick and stone building of the new city. The city was built by conscripted peasants from all over Russia, tens of thousands of serfs died building the city. Later, the city became the centre of the Saint Petersburg Governorate, Peter moved the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg in 1712,9 years before the Treaty of Nystad of 1721 ended the war, he referred to Saint Petersburg as the capital as early as 1704. During its first few years, the city developed around Trinity Square on the bank of the Neva, near the Peter. However, Saint Petersburg soon started to be built out according to a plan, by 1716 the Swiss Italian Domenico Trezzini had elaborated a project whereby the city centre would be located on Vasilyevsky Island and shaped by a rectangular grid of canals. The project was not completed, but is evident in the layout of the streets, in 1716, Peter the Great appointed French Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond as the chief architect of Saint Petersburg. In 1724 the Academy of Sciences, University and Academic Gymnasium were established in Saint Petersburg by Peter the Great, in 1725, Peter died at the age of fifty-two. His endeavours to modernize Russia had met opposition from the Russian nobility—resulting in several attempts on his life
26.
Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve
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Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve was a German, Russian astronomer from a famous dynasty. He was born at Altona, Duchy of Holstein, the son of Jacob Struve, Struves father moved the family away from the French occupation to Dorpat in Imperial Russia to avoid military service, equipped with Danish passports. In 1808 he entered the Imperial University of Dorpat, where he first studied philology, from 1813 to 1820, he taught at the university and collected data at the Dorpat Observatory, and in 1820 became a full professor and director of the observatory. His teachings have had strong effect that is felt in at the university. Struve was occupied with research on stars and geodesy in Dorpat until 1839. Among other honors, he won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1826 and he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in March,1827 and was awarded their Royal Medal the same year. Struve was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1833, in 1843 he formally adopted Russian nationality. He retired in 1862 due to failing health, Struves name is best known for his observations of double stars, which he carried on for many years. Although double stars had been studied earlier by William Herschel and John Herschel and Sir James South and he discovered a very large number of double stars and in 1827 published his double star catalogue Catalogus novus stellarum duplicium. Since most double stars are binary stars rather than mere optical doubles, they orbit around one anothers barycenter. Thus Struve made micrometric measurements of 2714 double stars from 1824 to 1837, Struve carefully measured the constant of aberration in 1843. He was also the first to measure the parallax of Vega, in an 1847 work, Etudes dAstronomie Stellaire, Sur la voie lactee et sur la distance des etoiles fixes, Struve was one of the first astronomers to identify the effects of interstellar extinction. His estimate of the rate of visual extinction,1 mag per kpc, is remarkably close to modern estimates. He was also interested in surveying, and in 1831 published Beschreibung der Breitengradmessung in den Ostseeprovinzen Russlands. UNESCO listed the chain on its List of World Heritage Sites in Europe in 2005, Struve was the second of a dynasty of astronomers through five generations. He was the great-grandfather of Otto Struve and the father of Otto Wilhelm von Struve and he was also the grandfather of Hermann Struve, who was Otto Struves uncle. In 1815 he married Emilie Wall in Altona, who bore 12 children,8 of which survived early childhood, after his first wife died, he remarried to Johanna Henriette Francisca Bartels, a daughter of the mathematician Martin Bartels, who bore him six more children. The most well-known was Karl de Struve, who served successively as Russian ambassador to Japan, the United States, bernhards son Peter Berngardovich Struve is probably the best known member of the family in Russia
27.
Nationalism
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Nationalism is a complex, multidimensional concept involving a shared communal identification with ones nation. It is contrasted by Anti-nationalism as a political ideology oriented towards gaining and maintaining self-governance, or full sovereignty, Nationalism therefore holds that a nation should govern itself, free from unwanted outside interference, and is linked to the concept of self-determination. Nationalism therefore seeks to preserve the nations culture and it often also involves a sense of pride in the nations achievements, and is closely linked to the concept of patriotism. In these terms, nationalism can be considered positive or negative, from a political or sociological outlook, there are three main paradigms for understanding the origins and basis of nationalism. The first, known as Primordialism or Perennialism, sees nationalism as a natural phenomenon and it holds that although the concept nationhood may be recent, nations have always existed. The third, and most dominant paradigm is Modernism, which sees nationalism as a recent phenomenon that needs the structural conditions of society in order to exist. There are various definitions for what constitutes a nation, however and this anomie results in a society or societies reinterpreting identity, retaining elements that are deemed acceptable and removing elements deemed unacceptable, in order to create a unified community. Nationalism means devotion for the nation and it is a sentiment that binds the people together. National symbols and flags, national anthems, national languages, national myths, Nationalism is a newer word, in English the term dates from 1844, although the concept is older. It became important in the 19th century, the term increasingly became negative in its connotations after 1914. Glenda Sluga notes that The twentieth century, a time of disillusionment with nationalism, was also the great age of globalism. Nationalism is the term used to characterize the modern sense of national political autonomy. For example, German nationalism emerged as a reaction against Napoleonic control of Germany as the Confederation of the Rhine around 1805–14, linda Colley in Britons, Forging the Nation 1707–1837 explores how the role of nationalism emerged about 1700 and developed in Britain reaching full form in the 1830s. The early emergence of a popular patriotic nationalism took place in the mid-18th century, National symbols, anthems, myths, flags and narratives were assiduously constructed by nationalists and widely adopted. The Union Jack was adopted in 1801 as the national one, Thomas Arne composed the patriotic song Rule, Britannia. in 1740, and the cartoonist John Arbuthnot invented the character of John Bull as the personification of the English national spirit in 1712. The political convulsions of the late 18th century associated with the American, the Prussian scholar Johann Gottfried Herder originated the term in 1772 in his Essay on the Origins of Language. Stressing the role of a common language, the political development of nationalism and the push for popular sovereignty culminated with the ethnic/national revolutions of Europe. During the 19th century nationalism became one of the most significant political and social forces in history, napoleons conquests of the German and Italian states around 1800–06 played a major role in stimulating nationalism and the demands for national unity
28.
Andreas Gottlob Rudelbach
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Andreas Gottlob Rudelbach was a Dano-German neo-Lutheran theologian, born at Copenhagen 29 September 1792, died at Slagelse, Zealand,3 March 1862. He was educated at the university of his city, where he became privatdozent. During this period he edited, in collaboration with N. F. S and he accordingly accepted a call to the pastorate of Slagelse, where he passed the remainder of his life. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Jackson, Samuel Macauley. New Schaff–Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, london and New York, Funk and Wagnalls
29.
Art of Denmark
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Danish art is the visual arts produced in Denmark or by Danish artists. It goes back thousands of years with significant artifacts from the 2nd millennium BC, for many early periods, it is usually considered as part of the wider Nordic art of Scandinavia. Art from what is today Denmark forms part of the art of the Nordic Bronze Age, Danish medieval painting is almost entirely known from church frescos such as those from the 16th-century artist known as the Elmelunde Master. The Reformation greatly disrupted Danish artistic traditions, and left the body of painters and sculptors without large markets. Thereafter for an extended period art in Denmark was either imported from Germany, from the late 18th century on, the situation changed radically and beginning with the Danish Golden Age, a distinct tradition of Danish art has continued to flourish until today. Due to generous art subsidies, contemporary Danish art has a big production per capita, lurs are a distinctive type of giant curving Bronze Age horn, of which 35 of the 53 known examples have been found in bogs in Denmark, very often in pairs. They are normally made of bronze, and often decorated, a possibly alien find in Denmark is the Gundestrup cauldron, a richly decorated silver vessel, thought to date to the 1st century BC. It was found in 1891 in a bog near the hamlet of Gundestrup in north-eastern Jutland. The silversmithing of the plates is very skilled, the bowl,70 cm across, was beaten from a single ingot. Now in the National Museum of Denmark, it is the largest known example of European silver work from the period, the style and workmanship suggest Thracian origin, while the imagery seems Celtic, so it may not reflect local styles. Danish sites have given their names to two of the six main styles of Viking or Norse art, Jelling style and its successor Mammen style, only one Danish ship burial is known, from Ladbyskibet. The images on the runestones at Jelling are probably the best known Danish works of the period, church wall paintings are to be found in some 600 churches across Denmark, probably representing the highest concentration of surviving church murals anywhere in the world. Most of them back to the Middle Ages. They lay hidden for centuries as after the Reformation in Denmark, of most interest to Danish art are the Gothic paintings from the 15th and 16th centuries as they were painted in a style typical of native Danish painters. Adopting the Biblia pauperum approach, they present many of the most popular stories from the Old, albrecht Dürers portrait of her father Christian II of Denmark, painted in Brussels in 1521, has not survived, though portraits of him by other foreign artists have. After a period of development its pupils were indeed to lead the creation of a distinct Danish style, leading Danish artists teaching at the Academy included Christian August Lorentzen and Jens Juel, also later Director. Among his works are the series of statues of Christ. Motifs for his works were mostly from Greek mythology, but he also created portraits of important personalities, as in his tomb monument for Pope Pius VII in St Peters Basilica
30.
History of Copenhagen
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The history of Copenhagen dates back to the first settlement at the site in the 11th century. From the middle of the 12th century it grew in importance after coming into the possession of Bishop Absalon, the harbour and the excellent possibilities for herring fishing contributed to Copenhagens growth and development into an important trading centre. It was repeatedly attacked by the Hanseatic League as the Germans became aware of its expansion, in 1254, it received its charter as a city under Bishop Jakob Erlandsen. The town was enlarged under Christian IV of Denmark after his coronation in 1596 by the addition of new city districts and modern fortifications with earthworks. The king commissioned German and Dutch architects and craftsmen to construct magnificent edifices designed to enhance his prestige, during 1658-59 it withstood a severe siege by the Swedes under Charles X and successfully repelled a major assault. In 1728 and again in 1795, the city was ravaged by large fires, in 1801, a British fleet under Admiral Parker fought a major battle, the Battle of Copenhagen, with the Danish navy in Copenhagen harbour. It was during this battle Lord Nelson put the telescope to the eye in order not to see Admiral Parkers signal to cease fire. But not until the 1850s were the ramparts of the city opened to new housing to be built around the lakes which bordered the old defence system to the west. This dramatic increase of space was long overdue, not only because the old ramparts were out of date as a defence system, but also because of bad sanitation in the old city. Before this relaxation, the centre of Copenhagen was inhabited by approximately 125,000 people, peaking in the census of 1870. In 1901, Copenhagen expanded further, incorporating communities with 40,000 people, since the summer 2000, the cities of Copenhagen and Malmö have been connected by a toll bridge/tunnel for both rail and road traffic. As a result, Copenhagen has become the centre of a metropolitan area which spans both nations. The construction of the bridge has led to a number of changes to the public transportation system. Signs of human activity dating back to about 4000 BCE have been found, the surrounding area consisted of moist beach meadows and signs of cattle grazing have been found. The city probably had a located at present day Højbro Plads. Details of the existence of a town as early as the 11th century have recently been published by Videnskab. dk with a series of articles documenting new archeological finds. These provide evidence of an estate at todays Kongens Nytorv, a church close to the later St Clemens. In the 12th century Copenhagen assumed increasing importance and the town was reinforced with earthworks, the Roman Catholic Church erected cathedrals in Roskilde and in Lund, which laid the basis for further development in those regional centres
31.
Architecture of Denmark
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The architecture of Denmark has its origins in the Viking period, richly revealed by archaeological finds. It became firmly established in the Middle Ages when first Romanesque, then Gothic churches and it was during this period that, in a country with little access to stone, brick became the construction material of choice, not just for churches but also for fortifications and castles. In parallel, the style became popular for ordinary dwellings in towns. Late in his reign, Christian IV also became a proponent of Baroque which was to continue for a considerable time with many impressive buildings both in the capital and the provinces. Neoclassicism came initially from France but was adopted by native Danish architects who increasingly participated in defining architectural style. A productive period of Historicism ultimately merged into the 19th century National Romantic style and it was not, however, until the 1960s that Danish architects entered the world scene with their highly successful Functionalism. Archaeological excavations in parts of Denmark have revealed much about the way the Vikings lived. One of the most notable sites is Hedeby, located some 45 km south of the Danish border near the German town of Schleswig, it probably dates back to the end of the 8th century. The houses are deemed to be among the most sophisticated dwellings of their time, oak frames were used for the walls, and the roofs were probably thatched. Viking ring houses, such as those at Trelleborg, near Slagelse on the Danish island of Zealand, have a different, ship-like shape. Each house consisted of a central hall,18 m ×8 m. Those at Fyrkat in the north of Jutland were 28.5 m long,5 m wide at the ends and 7.5 m in the middle, the walls consisted of double rows of posts with planks wedged horizontally between them. A series of posts slanted towards the wall were possibly used to support the building like buttresses. Denmarks first churches from the 9th century were built of timber and have not survived, hundreds of stone churches in the Romanesque style were built in the 12th and 13th centuries. They had a nave and chancel with small rounded windows. Among the finest examples of brick Romanesque buildings are St. Bendts Church in Ringsted, the church at Østerlars on the island of Bornholm was built around 1150. Like three other churches on the island, it is a round church, the three-storeyed building is supported by a circular outer wall and an exceptionally wide, hollow central column. Construction of Lund Cathedral in Scania started in about 1103 when the region was part of the Kingdom of Denmark and it was the first of great Danish Romanesque cathedrals in the shape of a three-aisled basilica with transepts
32.
Andreas Hallander
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Andreas Hallander was a Danish master carpenter and architect who made a significant contribution to the city of Copenhagen. Hallander was the son of Jens Nielsen Hallander, a miller, trained as a carpenter, he studied architecture at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts under the influential C. F. Harsdorff, winning the silver medal in 1780. His buildings are in the style favoured by Harsdorff. He was one of the group of Harsdorffs students from the Academy who were largely responsible for the rebuilding of Copenhagen after the fires. These builders formed a group, reinforced by their membership of the civil guard. They married each others daughters and widows and acted as godfathers at christenings, huge fortunes were made as they bought plots of land, built them up and sold them again. Hallander was an enormously productive speculator and builder and he was one of the main contributors to the classical architecture of Copenhagen, predominant in large sections of the city centre. Most of his buildings are now listed and he married Emilie Tønnesen, daughter of skipper Jan Jansen Tønnesen and Bodil Hansdatter. He is buried in Assistens Cemetery
33.
Christian Frederik Hansen
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Christian Frederik Hansen, known as C. F. He was known as Denmark’s Palladio on account of the style he promoted. His buildings are known for their simplicity, strength and scale and he was born in Copenhagen into the poor household of shoemaker and leatherworker Matthias Hansen and his wife Anna Marie, who had been nursemaid for Prince Christian VII. He was the youngest son in the family, and there was not much money to spend on his upbringing and his parents sent him to train in business, but he wanted to draw. His mother used her connections at the court, and found some influential people who interested themselves in his education. He was brought into training as a bricklayer, and at the time he attended classes at the Academy of Art starting in 1766. He studied at the Academy under architect Caspar Frederik Harsdorff, and he won the Academy’s small silver medallion in 1772-1773, the large silver medallion in 1774-1775, and the large gold medallion in 1779. He was taken into Harsdorffs private studio where he worked on the construction of Frederik Vs chapel at Roskilde Cathedral in 1780 and he received no travel grant from the Academy, in spite of his receiving the gold medallion. His student drawings from the trip are kept in the Academy’s Library to this day and he returned home September 1784, and became a member of the Academy in 1785. Shortly afterwards he was named to the position of Regional Architect for the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, with residence in Altona and he held this position from 24 November 1784 until his retirement on 31 October 1844. He was named titular Professor at the Academy in 1791, in 1792 he married Anne Margrethe Rahbek. He prospered during his 18 years in Altona and Hamburg, with a practice that made up for the meager earnings he made in his official position. He built fine houses for the well-to-do, both in town and out in the country, estates on Elbchaussee, and small churches. He designed many houses along Altonas elegant boulevard Palmaille, including some investment houses at his own expense. He used a simple Roman Palladio-style in his work, when Harsdorff died in 1799 a number of public building projects were transferred to Hansen, among these the completion of Frederiks Church, also known as The Marble Church in Copenhagen. He returned to Copenhagen in 1804, where he lived until his death and he had a large, social household in a fabulously appointed apartment in Copenhagen. In 1808 he was named Professor of Architecture, Chief Building Director and he held the title of Chief Building Director until his retirement. He overtook Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaards leading position at the Academy, and was eight times as Director of the Academy, 1811–1818, 1821–1827
34.
Gustav Friedrich Hetsch
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Gustav Friedrich Hetsch was a German-born, Danish architect. Hetsch was born in Stuttgart and studied at the University of Tübingen and in Paris, after finishing his studies, he worked for Jean-Baptiste Rondelet on the Church of Sainte-Geneviève. In 1812 he was recalled to Stuttgart, but soon left for Italy and it was Malling who in 1815 inspired Hetsch to come to Copenhagen, where he taught at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, eventually advancing to Professor of Architecture. One of Hetschs first major projects was the decoration of the rebuilt Christiansborg Palace. Though most of his accomplishments were in the area of art, Hetsch also designed the Great Synagogue. In parallel with his duties at the academy he held other positions
35.
Johan Martin Quist
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Johan Martin Quist or Qvist was a Danish architect who made a significant contribution to the city of Copenhagen. Johan Martin Quist was born in Copenhagen on 3 September 1755, the son of Nicolaj Mathiessen Quist, a shoemaker, after being trained as a mason, he studied at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts under the influential C. F. Harsdorff, winning the silver medal in 1775 and the small gold medal in 1781. Quist was one of the Copenhagen builders who so quickly and effectively helped to reconstruct the areas of the old town which had destroyed by fire in June 1795. His imposing apartment buildings are inspired by Harsdorffs neoclassical style and he and his fellow builders formed a close-knit group, reinforced by their membership of the civil guard and fire corps. They married each others daughters and widows and acted as godfathers at christenings, huge fortunes were made as they bought plots of land, built them up and sold them again. After the great fire, building called for buildings on street corners to be set back to provide more room for fire engines. Quist took advantage of the new rules by designing bow-shaped corners, two years later he built an even more effective corner house at 47 Vimmelskaftet where both facades boasted pilasters on three floors. Quist, who died in Copenhagen on 25 April 1818, is buried in Assistens Cemetery and his most important work is Gustmeyer House opposite Christiansborg Palace on Ved Stranden. Completed in 1797 for the merchant, F. L. Gustmeyer, it is one of Copenhagens first bourgeois residences with free-standing columns, all Quists surviving works are now listed buildings
36.
Wilhelm Bendz
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Wilhelm Ferdinand Bendz was a Danish painter mainly known for genre works and portraits which often portray his artist colleagues and their daily lives. He was one of the most talented artists in the generation of painters who studied under Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg. Wilhelm Bendz was born on 20 March 1804 in Odense on the island of Funen and he was sent to Copenhagen where he attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts from 1820 to 1825, where he studied under Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg. He may also have acquired some knowledge of contemporary German painting, the Munich School, after his graduation from the Academy, Bendz contributed successfully with a number of works to the annual exhibitions at Charlottenborg in 1826,1827 and 1828. Another important work from this phase is A Tobacco Party from 1828, in late 1830 Bendz finally received a travel scholarship which enabled him to leave for southern Europe. After shorter visits to Dresden and Berlin, he went to Munich, which had developed into a vibrant centre for the arts. His most important work from the stay is the thoroughly composed group portrait Artist in the Evening at Fincks Coffee House in Munich and they continued together but shortly after, in Vicenza, Bendz who had felt ill since Venice died from a lung infection. Today he is remembered for his many technically accomplished portraits, though his ambition most of all ran towards a refined fusion of portrait, genre scene. His technical virtuosity is particularly visible in his depictions of the play of light cast from an obscured source, Wilhelm Bendzs works Mortensen, Klaus P. Wilhelm Bendz. Rooms with a View The Open Window in the 19th Century, Bendz, Wilhelm, Saabye, Marianne, Johannesson, Birgitte. Wilhelm Bendz 1804-1832 et ungt kunstnerliv
37.
Ditlev Blunck
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Ditlev Conrad Blunck was a Danish painter associated with the Danish Golden Age during the first half of the 19th century. He was born in Holsten in 1798, in 1814 he began his studies at the Royal Danish Academy of Art in Copenhagen as a student of C. A. Concurrently he received teaching from C. W. Eckersberg together with Wilhelm Bendz, Ernst Meyer, in 1818 Blunck moved to Munich, presumably dissatisfied with the teaching he received, and enrolled in the Academy as a student. He stayed there until 1820, then returned to Copenhagen, back in Denmark, Blunck became a student of the new professor, historical painter J. L. Lund, who was to become a major influence on his painting. Thus, it was also mostly history painting, that marked Bluncks early work, later, through genre painting, it became representative of the kind of everyday realism, that was to appear in Danish art in the mid-1820s. The influence from J. L. Lund grew particularly clear during his stay in Germany beginning in 1828, in Berlin, Munich and Dresden he became acquainted with J. L. Lunds artist-friends, including the famed romantic painter Caspar David Friedrich. He was, however, more influenced by the works of Johann Friedrich Overbeck in changing his artistic direction and he began to devote himself to the religious motif and developed like few other Danes a painting style, that was strongly influenced by the Nazarene movement. Bluncks stay abroad also brought him to Rome, here, he joined the group around Bertel Thorvaldsen and produced several of his major paintings including Danish artists in the inn La Gensola. Katalog der Gemäldesammlung des Städtischen Museums Flensburg, Boyens, Heide 1989, ISBN 3-8042-0467-8 Art of Denmark
38.
Carl Dahl
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Niels Carl Michaelius Flindt Dahl, usually known as Carl Dahl, was a Danish marine painter during the Golden Age of Danish Painting. In addition to a tour of Italy and the Mediterranean, he travelled to Lisbon, Germany and France, Norway and to London. As a result of his interest in painting, he became one of Eckersbergs closest friends in the 1840s as they helped each other to complete their paintings. In 1849, he won the Neuhausen prize for his Skibe, despite his mastery of perspecitive, he lacked the freedom of artistic expression which would have contributed to the value of his paintings. His most important work is considered to be Søtræfningen ved Helgoland now in Frederiksberg Museum, other notable works include Parti fra Larsens Plads ved havnen i København, Lissabons rhed and Fregat i en storm med rebede undersejl
39.
Dankvart Dreyer
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Dankvart Dreyer was a Danish landscape painter of the Copenhagen School of painters who was educated under the guidance of Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg. After being widely criticized, he turned his back on the artistic establishment, in 1852, when only 36 years old, he died from typhus. As the youngest of 15 children, Dankvart Dreyer was born on 13 June 1816 in Assens on the Danish island of Funen. His parents were Jørgen Christian Dreyer, a merchant who had been the richest man in town until the national bankruptcy in 1813. Dankvart soon showed a gift for drawing, another boy in Assens at that time, born the same year as Dankvart, was Jens Adolf Jerichau, who also was to become a prominent artist. Dreyers godfarther therefore saw to it that in 1831, at the age of 15 and he was talented and successful, winning several awards before he turned 21. Dreyer also had lessons with Christen Købke, another professor at the Academy. He also met a group of fellow Academy students who were studying landscape painting, Skovgaard and Johan Lundbye who became his close friends and inspired him to take still more interest in landscaping. Alone or together with them, he made frequent excursions to the north of Copenhagen. There he made detailed sketches and studies of nature, unlike most of his contemporaries, Dreyer never went abroad to further his studies, although he applied for travel scholarships on three occasions. Instead, he travelled widely in Denmark and his native island of Funen remained a focal point for his artistic attention throughout his career, particularly the area around Assens where he had grown up. A place of importance to him was the small manor house of Rugaard which he visited almost every summer from 1837 to 1847 to paint. Dreyers appetite for exploring the provinces also brought him to Jutland and he was the first to paint the gentle landscapes along the east coast or the moors of central Jutland. However, he had found the landscape unsuitable for painting due to the lack of trees and this did not bother Dreyer who had been struck by the short stories of Steen Steensen Blicher, a distant relative of his. Blichers descriptions of the beauty of the vast, brown-colored heaths of mid Jutland, of its people. Dreyer first visited the east coast around Aarhus in 1838 and later year he was present when Blicher arranged his first National Awakening Meeting at Himmelbjerget. He went on to paint the heath and, when he returned in 1843, in the years around 1840, the influential art historian and critic Niels Laurits Høyen campaigned for nationalistic art, reflecting a tendency which was seen all over Europe. In Denmark, people enthusiastically read Bernhard Severin Ingemanns historic novels, according to Høyen, painters, too, should contribute to this national awakening
40.
Frederik Theodor Kloss
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Frederik Theodor Kloss was a German-Danish painter who specialized in marine painting. Kloss attended the Berlin Academy where he studied under Carl Schumann and he travelled to Prague, Breslau and Dresden, North Sea, Iceland, the Mediterranean and the Faroe Islands. On seeing one of Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersbergs marine paintings in Dresden, Kloss decided to go to Copenhagen, over the years, the two became great friends not only in art but also as members of the Free Masons. Kloss became fully integrated into Danish cultural life, after becoming a member of the Academy in 1840, he received a professorship in 1853 and was treasurer from 1867. I forgrunded kutteren Neptun Media related to Frederik Theodor Kloss at Wikimedia Commons
41.
Johan Vilhelm Gertner
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Johan Vilhelm Gertner was a Danish painter, best known for his portraiture. Gertner was born to a craftsman at the Holmen naval base and he attended the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts from 1831 to 1837 where he was one of the pupils of Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, known as the father of the Golden Age of Danish Painting. Eckersberg taught him an approach to painting, but Gertner went much further with inspiration from French art. He was a professor at the Academy from 1858, Gertner painted many of the leading artists of his time, including Bertel Thorvaldsen in Thorvaldsen in his studio and C. W. Eckersberg. Occasionally he also painted works, history painting or architecture pieces. Nivaagaard Painting Collection, Johan Vilhelm Gertner,2 September –18 November 2001 List of Danish painters Art of Denmark ArtNet, More works by Gertner
42.
Louis Gurlitt
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Heinrich Louis Theodor Gurlitt, also called Louis Gurlitt, was a Danish-German painter of landscapes. His brother was the composer Cornelius Gurlitt, and his son was the architect, Louis Gurlitt was a Danish painter, born in Altona in Holstein to Johan August Wilhem Gurlitt and Helene Eberstein. Altona was then one of the largest Danish towns, due to royal privileges allowing among other things freedom of religion and he received his first degree from Siegfried Detlev Bendixens studio in Hamburg. Gurlitt studied in Copenhagen 1832 and won a medal in 1833. The academy recommended him as one of the most mature and talented students and he married Elise Saxild in 1837. After her death in 1839 he married Julie Bürger, with whom he had a son, after his second wifes death in 1844 he married Elisabeth Lewald in 1847. After the marriage he lived in Austria and Germany, being from Holsten, he chose the German side in the conflicts in 1848 and 1864, when Prussia won the war and Schleswig-Holstein which was under the reign of the Danish king. He was known for his oil paintings, Gurlitt stayed well connected to Danish painters. But he was born Danish and then became German, the Royal collection of paintings owns six of his famous works. His painting titled Norwegian Landscape was auctioned at $22,174 in 2012 at Sothebys London European Paintings
43.
Constantin Hansen
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Carl Christian Constantin Hansen was one of the painters associated with the Golden Age of Danish Painting. He was deeply interested in literature and mythology, and inspired by art historian Niels Lauritz Høyen and he painted also many altarpieces and portraits, including the historical The Constitutional Assembly between 1861 and 1865. He was born in Rome, the son of portrait painter Hans Hansen, the family soon relocated to Vienna, where the widow of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart became godmother at his christening. Within his first year, the moved to Copenhagen, where he was raised. He entered the school of the Royal Danish Academy of Art at 12 years of age. He began his training under Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg in 1828 and he lost both his parents at about this time to typhus, and became the sole supporter of his younger sisters. He took over several commissions that had belonged to his father, including some copies to the Portrait Collection at Frederiksborg Palace, in 1835 he received a two-year stipend to travel abroad, which was followed up by an additional years stipend. His travels took him through Berlin, Dresden, Prague, Nuremberg and Munich on his way to Italy, in Italy he met fellow Dane, the sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen. He travelled with other Danish artists, including Jørgen Roed, Christen Købke, the Copenhagen Art Union commissioned a painting from Hansen in 1837. He provided them with A Company of Danish Artists in Rome, in addition he painted Italian folk scenes, and studies of Roman antiquities and architecture that reflect Eckersbergs spirit. This work continued from 1844 until 1853, Hansen painted the mythological figures, while Hilker painted the decorations and frameworks. He married Magdalene Barbara Købke in 1846, and they had thirteen children, however, four children died within one year after being born and one of their sons, Hans Christian, was killed at the age of nineteen in a shipwreck. In 1854 he was named professor at the Academy, but first became member of the Academy in 1864, one of his daughters, Elise Konstantin-Hansen, became a recognized painter, and another Kristiane Konstantin-Hansen, became a tapestry weaver. List of Danish painters KID Kunst Index Danmark Danish Biographical Encyclopedia Images of the Old Norse Gods Wikimedia Commons Monrad, the Golden Age of Danish Painting
44.
Georg Hilker
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Georg Hilker was a Danish decorative painter active during the Danish Golden Age in the first half of the 19th century. Hilker was born to navigator Christian Hilker and Marie Margrethe née Vest, when 13 years old, he began his studies at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. After first training to become a painter and winning both silver medals at the model school, Hilker turned to decorative painting. Still a student, he participated in the decoration of the residence of sculptor Hermann Ernst Freund in the former Supply Building on Slotsholmen. There he was introduced to the Pompeian Styles which was to much of his later work. He also worked on other prominent projects, including the decoration of Christiansborg and Amalienborg Palaces, in 1838, Hilker traveled to Rome. This gave him the opportunity to study Pompeian art and Raphaels works at the Vatican and he also went to Naples and Capri where he lived and worked with fellow Danish painters Christen Købke, Constantin Hansen and Jørgen Roed. Back in Denmark in 1841, Hilker commenced a collaboration with Constantin Hansen, one of their most important assignments was the decoration of the vestibule of the new main building for the University of Copenhagen from 1844 to 1853. Among his many works are the decoration of rooms in Thorvaldsens Museum, Sorø Academy
45.
Heinrich Gustav Ferdinand Holm
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Heinrich Gustav Ferdinand Holm, often referred to as H. G. F. Holm, was a Danish artist and engraver who is remembered for his finely detailed topographical paintings and drawings of Copenhagen, Holm initially followed in the footsteps of his father as an engraver and illustrator. He had almost certainly been a pupil of C. J. Thomsen who insisted on accuracy and detail, as a result, Holm quickly became a master of his genre, not only as an illustrator but in the difficult technique of watercolour painting. He began to specialize in illustrating prospectuses, often sketching areas and buildings of interest before making multiple copies at home and he sometimes produced skeleton drawings which he later coloured with watercolour. In addition, he produced a series of works covering the surrounding countryside, many of his plates appeared in magazines such as Magazin for Ungdommen, its successor Cosmorama, and Nyt Magazin for Natur og Menneskekundskab. He also illustrated prospectuses for the Royal Procelain Factory, especially in regard to designs for tea, despite Holms high rate of productivity, he constantly suffered from lack of money, which frequently drove him to drink. The resulting vicious circle encouraged him to sell his works at low prices which explains how he was given the nickname, Holms many small works continue to be of considerable value. In addition, thanks to their technical quality and his sense of colour
46.
Vilhelm Kyhn
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Peter Vilhelm Carl Kyhn, was a Danish landscape painter who belonged to the generation of national romantic painters immediately after the Danish Golden Age and before the Modern Breakthrough. Even though he outlived many of his peers by several decades, he remained a traditionalist. Kyhn also played a role as an educator, establishing several alternative art schools, Kyhn was born in Copenhagen to Carl Gottlieb Kyhn and his wife Sara Marie. His father was against his becoming an artist, and he was first put to train in an office, then as a compromise he was allowed to train with copperplate engraver. Here he learned to make vignettes, a skill which became useful to him later when he learned to make etchings and he also got the opportunity to begin his training at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in 1836. He was also influenced by Niels Lauritz Høyen, another teacher at the Academy as well as an important art critic and art historian, N. F. S. Grundtvig was also a source of inspiration in his turn towards national romanticism. He won the silver medallion in 1843 for a figure drawing. At about this time Danish landscapes started to become a domain for Danish artists. Kyhn became part of the movement and was able to exhibit his first landscape, Et bornholmsk Strandparti and this painting was purchased by the Danish Royal Painting Collection, now the Danish National Gallery, and later loaned to Aarhus Art Museum. In 1845, Kyhn won a prize in the Neuhausen Competition for Landskab, after a few years of diligent work painting landscapes in Jutland and the north of Zealand, he began to seek out a travel stipend, he was awarded one in 1848. He traveled over the Netherlands and Belgium to Paris in the spring of 1850, the following year he received an extension to his stipend. He painted few landscapes of the countries he visited, and only during his travels abroad, back in Denmark in June 1851, he returned to painting direct studies from nature. The paintings which Niels Lauritz Høyen bought from Kyhn show good development in his style, the flat prairies of Jutland in this picture were not a popular subject at the time. He helped open the way for artists to interpret this quintessential Danish landscape. After 1863, he painted scenes in the special light of Denmark’s late summer evenings. These include the atmospheric Efter solnedgang i udkanten af en landsby painted in 1863, both of these paintings are in the collection of the National Museum of Art. He painted many landscapes in the area near Silkeborg, and spent his summers starting in 1873 at Himmelbjerg, one of Denmark’s highest points. It was likely in this area that Kyhn began to experiment with painting in the open air and he was one of the driving forces behind the establishment of The Danish Etchers Union in 1853
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Emanuel Larsen
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Carl Frederik Emanuel Larsen usually known as Emanuel Larsen was a Danish painter who specialized in marine painting. Larsen was admitted to the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts in January 1839 where he was a student of Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg, under Eckersberg, he specialized in marine painting. In 1845, he exhibited his Morgen ved Sjællands Kyst which was purchased by the Statens Museum for Kunst. The same year, he travelled on a ship to the Faroe Islands and Iceland and from 1852–54 to England, Holland, Belgium, Paris. He was awarded the Neuhausen Prize in 1851 for Udsigt fra Langelinie mod Nyholm med Mastekranen, despite his interest in Dutch marine art, Larsen was probably the Danish artist who was least influenced by foreign works. The influential C. J. Thomsen praised Larssens work, commenting that his paintings showed he had an eye for the fresh, open life at sea, Larsen died in September 1859 after a short illness
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Johan Lundbye
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Johan Thomas Lundbye was a promising young Danish painter and graphic artist, known for his animal and landscape paintings who died at the age of 29. He became one of his generation’s national romantic painters, along with P. C, skovgaard and Lorenz Frølich, to regularly depict the landscape of Zealand. He was born in Kalundborg to Joachim Theodor Lundbye and wife Catherine Bonnevie and he was sickly as a child. He studied privately under animal painter Christian Holm and at the age of 14 he came into J. L. Lund’s drawing school and the Royal Danish Academy of Art in Copenhagen, in the years to come he would focus his painting on depicting landscapes. His large Kystparti ved Isefjord was exhibited in 1843 and purchased by the Royal Painting Collection and he illustrated Hans Vilhelm Kaalunds Fabler for børn, a book of poetry for young children published in 1845. He received a grant from the Academy in 1845, which was renewed a year later. He returned to Denmark on 18 July 1846 after a year and he surprised his circle of friends and announced that he was going to live in the country for a year, and took a little farm near Helsingør. The First War of Schleswig, known in Denmark as the Three Years War, however broke out and he died eight days later on 26 April 1848. There is some question as to whether he died from an accidental shot, list of Danish painters KID—Kunst Index Danmark Dansk biografisk Leksikion
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