Papyrus 45
Papyrus 45 is an early New Testament manuscript which is a part of the Chester Beatty Papyri. It was probably created around 250 in Egypt and it contains the texts of Matthew 20-21 and 25-26, Mark 4-9 and 11-12, Luke 6-7 and 9-14, John 4-5 and 10-11, and Acts 4-17. The manuscript is housed at the Chester Beatty Library, Ireland. 25, 41-26,39 which is at the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek, the manuscript is heavily damaged and fragmented. The papyrus was bound in a codex, which may have consisted of 220 pages, all of the pages have lacunae, with very few lines complete. The leaves of Matthew and John are the smallest, the original pages were roughly 10 inches by 8 inches. This hypothesis is attributed to the use of gatherings of two leaves, a single-quire that most other codices had, because of the extent of the damage, determining the texts type has been difficult for scholars. In this work, Kenyon identified the text of the Gospel of Mark in P45 as Caesarean, P45 has a great number of singular readings.
On the origin of these readings, E. C. Colwell comments, As an editor the scribe of P45 wielded a sharp axe, the most striking aspect of his style is its conciseness. The dispensable word is dispensed with and he omits adverbs, nouns, verbs, personal pronouns—without any compensating habit of addition. He frequently omits phrases and clauses and he prefers the simple to the compound word. He shortens the text in at least fifty places in singular readings alone, but he does not drop syllables or letters. P45 has a relatively close relationship with Codex Washingtonianus in Mark, however. There is not a connection to the Neutral text of Codex Vaticanus, the Western text of Codex Bezae. Another hypothesis is that P45 comes from the Alexandrian tradition, but has many readings intended to improve the text stylistically, while still difficult to place historically in a category of texts, most scholars today agree that the text is not Caesarean, contrary to Kenyon. The textual character of the manuscript varies from book to book and this group corresponds to what Streeter called an Eastern type of the text.
In Luke, an eleven-way PAM partition based on Greek manuscript data associated with the INTFs Parallel Pericopes volume places the manuscript in a group with C, L, Ξ,33,892, in Acts it is closest to the Alexandrian text
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament.
However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established.
Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
Mount Royal
Mount Royal is a large volcanic-related hill or small mountain in the city of Montreal, immediately west of downtown Montreal, the city to which it gave its name. The hill is part of the Monteregian Hills situated between the Laurentians and the Appalachian Mountains and it gave its Latin name, Mons Regius, to the Monteregian chain. The hill consists of three peaks, Colline de la Croix at 233 m, Colline dOutremont at 211 m, some tourist guidebooks, such as the Michelin Guide to Montreal, state that Mount Royal is an extinct volcano. The mountain is the extension of a vastly eroded ancient volcanic complex. The main rock type is a composed of pyroxene, olivine. During and after the stage of intrusion, the gabbros and surrounding rocks were intruded by a series of volcanic dikes. Subsequently, the softer sedimentary rock was eroded, leaving behind the resistant igneous rock that forms the mountain. The mineral montroyalite, discovered in Montreal, is named after the mountain that provided the definition sample, the first European to scale the mountain was Jacques Cartier, guided there in 1535 by the people of the village of Hochelega.
He named it in honour of his patron, Francis I of France and he wrote in his journal, And among these fields is situated and seated the said town of Hochelaga, near to and adjoining a mountain. We named this mountain, Mount Royal, on one theory, the name of the Island of Montreal derives from mont Réal, as it was spelled in Middle French. And yet, Cartiers 1535 diary entry refers to le mont Royal, the name was first applied to the island and was unofficially applied to the city, formerly Ville-Marie, by the 18th century. In 1643, De Maisonneuve made a pilgrimage to the top, in 1876, land owner and farmer James Swail began residential subdivisions on the western slope of Mount Murray, in what is now the Cote-des-Neiges district. In 1906, a housing development was started in the area, called Northmount Heights. Much of this area has been expropriated by the Université de Montréal, in 1914–1918, a railway tunnel was dug under the mountain by the Canadian Northern Railway, a predecessor of the Canadian National.
It is currently used by the AMTs Montreal/Deux-Montagnes commuter rail line, the area was briefly considered as the site for Expo 67, before the exposition grounds were ultimately built on islands in the St. Lawrence River. For the 1976 Summer Olympics, the park hosted the individual road race cycling event. Today, the mountain is crowned by a 31.4 m -high illuminated cross, installed in 1924 by the Société Saint-Jean-Baptiste and it was converted to fibre-optic light in 1992, and to LEDs in 2009. The cross is lit in white, but can now be changed to any colour
Chi Rho
The Chi-Rho symbol was used by the Roman emperor Constantine I as part of a military standard. Constantines standard was known as the Labarum, Early symbols similar to the Chi Rho were the Staurogram and the IX monogram. In pre-Christian times, the Chi-Rho symbol was to mark a particularly valuable or relevant passage in the margin of a page, some coins of Ptolemy III Euergetes were marked with a Chi-Rho. The Chi Rho symbol has two Unicode codepoints, U+2627 ☧ Chi Rho in the Miscellaneous symbols block and U+2CE9 ⳩ Coptic symbol Khi Ro in the Coptic block and that very day Constantines army fought the forces of Maxentius and won the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, outside Rome. Eusebius of Caesarea gave two different accounts of the events, in a memoir of the Roman emperor that Eusebius wrote after Constantines death, a miraculous appearance is said to have come in Gaul long before the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. At noon, Constantine saw a cross of light imposed over the sun, attached to it, in Greek characters, was the saying Τούτῳ Νίκα.
Not only Constantine, but the army saw the miracle. That night, Christ appeared to the Roman emperor in a dream and told him to make a replica of the sign he had seen in the sky, which would be a sure defence in battle. Eusebius wrote in the Vita that Constantine himself had told him this story and confirmed it with oaths late in life when I was deemed worthy of his acquaintance, says Eusebius, had anyone else told this story, it would not have been easy to accept it. Eusebius left a description of the labarum, the standard which incorporated the Chi-Rho sign. After Constantine, the Chi-Rho became part of the imperial insignia. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence demonstrating that the Chi-Rho was emblazoned on the helmets of some Late Roman soldiers and medallions minted during Emperor Constantines reign bore the Chi-Rho. By the year 350, the Chi-Rho began to be used on Christian sarcophagi, the usurper Magnentius appears to have been the first to use the Chi-Rho monogram flanked by Alpha and Omega, on the reverse of some coins minted in 353.
In Roman Britannia, a mosaic pavement was uncovered at Hinton St. Mary, Dorset. Another Romano-British Chi-Rho, in fresco, was found at the site of a villa at Lullingstone, the symbol was found on Late Roman Christian signet rings in Britain. Though the letters are one after the other and the X and P not combined in a monogram. Famous examples are in the Book of Kells and Book of Lindisfarne, the X was regarded as the crux decussata, a symbol of the cross, this idea is found in the works of Isidore of Seville and other patristic and Early Medieval writers. In some other works like the Carolingian Godescalc Evangelistary, XPS in sequential letters and Omega Chi Rho Christian symbolism Christogram Ichthys Labarum Merchants mark Media related to Chi Rho at Wikimedia Commons
Papal cross
The papal cross is an emblem for the office of the Pope in ecclesiastical heraldry. It is depicted as a staff with three horizontal bars near the top, in diminishing order of length as the top is approached, in the past, this design of the cross was often used in ecclesiastical heraldry as a distinctive mark of his office. It was often merely a device, as use of a staff or crosier was not part of the traditional papal insignia. However, at least one staff surmounted with a papal cross does exist, symbolism connected with the papal powers have been attached to the three crossbars, similar to the symbolism attached to the three bands on the papal tiara. The term papal cross may refer to the ferula, which is the pastoral staff or crosier used by the Pope. It is a rod with a knob on top surmounted by a single-barred cross and this is in contrast to other bishops, who use a crosier which is shaped like a shepherds crook, bent or crooked at the top and pointed at the lower end. Various physical crosses have been called papal crosses because of their association with a pope, an example is the Papal Cross, a large white cross situated in the Phoenix Park, Ireland.
It was erected for the visit of Pope John Paul II on 29 September 1979, a congregation of over one million people attended an open-air mass at the cross during that visit. The white cross, created by Paschal Clarke, is 35 metres high and was built with steel girders, when he died on 2 April 2005, people gathered in tribute to Pope John Paul II at the Papal Cross, leaving flowers and other tokens of remembrance of him. Bühren, Ralf van, Kunst und Kirche im 20, die Rezeption des Zweiten Vatikanischen Konzils, Ferdinand Schöningh 2008 Pope John Paul II carrying a ferula from the time of Leo XIII, with three horizontal bars near the top
Christian culture
Christian culture is a term primarily used in academia to describe the cultural practices common to Christianity. Christian culture has influenced and assimilated much from the Greco-Roman Byzantine, Western culture, Middle Eastern, Caucasian, until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, art and science. Christian disciplines of the arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made significant contributions to the development of science. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, politics, architecture and family life. Christianity it had a impact on all other aspects of life and family, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy. Eastern Christians contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Ummayad and they excelled in philosophy, science and medicine.
Christians have made a myriad contributions in a broad and diverse range of fields, including the sciences, politics, another frequent application of the term is to distinguish political groups in areas of mixed religious backgrounds. Cathedrals in particular, as well as abbey churches and basilicas, have certain complex structural forms that are found less often in parish churches. Such a cathedral or great church is one of the finest buildings within its region and is a focus of local pride. Many cathedrals and basilicas, and a number of churches are among the worlds most renowned works of architecture. The earliest large churches date from Late Antiquity, as Christianity and the construction of churches and cathedrals spread throughout the world, their manner of building was dependent upon local materials and local techniques. Overlaid on each of the styles are the regional characteristics. Some of these characteristics are so typical of a country or region that they appear, regardless of style.
Christian art is sacred art which uses themes and imagery from Christianity, images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are the most common subjects, and scenes from the Old Testament play a part in the art of most denominations. Images of the Virgin Mary and saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism, Christianity makes far wider use of images than related religions, in which figurative representations are forbidden, such as Islam and Judaism. However, there is a history of aniconism in Christianity from various periods. An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period AD400 to 600, primarily produced in Ireland and Italy
Christ Pantocrator
In Christian iconography, Christ Pantocrator refers to a specific depiction of Christ. Pantocrator or Pantokrator is, used in context, a translation of one of many names of God in Judaism. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek as the Septuagint, in the New Testament, Pantokrator is used once by Paul. Aside from that one occurrence, John of Patmos is the only New Testament author to use the word Pantokrator, the most common translation of Pantocrator is Almighty or All-powerful. In this understanding, Pantokrator is a word formed from the Greek words πᾶς, pas, i. e. all and κράτος, kratos, i. e. strength, might. This is often understood in terms of power, i. e. ability to do anything. Another, more literal translation is Ruler of All or, less literally, in this understanding, Pantokrator is a compound word formed from the Greek for all and the verb meaning To accomplish something or to sustain something. This translation speaks more to Gods actual power, i. e, the Pantokrator, largely an Eastern Orthodox or Eastern Catholic theological conception, is less common by that name in Western Catholicism and largely unknown to most Protestants.
In the West the equivalent image in art is known as Christ in Majesty, Christ Pantocrator has come to suggest Christ as a mild but stern, all-powerful judge of humanity. The icon of Christ Pantokrator is one of the most widely used images of Orthodox Christianity. Some scholars consider the Pantocrator a Christian adaptation of images of Zeus, the development of the earliest stages of the icon from Roman Imperial imagery is easier to trace. The image of Christ Pantocrator was one of the first images of Christ developed in the Early Christian Church, in the half-length image, Christ holds the New Testament in his left hand and makes the gesture of teaching or of blessing with his right. The gessoed panel, finely painted using a wax medium on a panel, had been coarsely overpainted around the face. It was only when the overpainting was cleaned in 1962 that the ancient image was revealed to be a high quality icon. The left hand holds a book with a richly decorated cover featuring the Cross. An icon where Christ has a book is called Christ the Teacher.
Christ is bearded, his brown hair centrally parted, and his head is surrounded by a halo, the icon is usually shown against a gold background comparable to the gilded grounds of mosaic depictions of the Christian emperors. Often, the name of Christ is written on each side of the halo, as IC, christs fingers are depicted in a pose that represents the letters IC, X and C, thereby making the Christogram ICXC
Christian cross variants
This is a list of Christian cross variants. The Christian cross, with or without a figure of Christ included, is the religious symbol of Christianity. A cross with figure of Christ affixed to it is termed a crucifix, the term Greek cross designates a cross with arms of equal length, as in a plus sign, while the term Latin cross designates a cross with an elongated descending arm. Numerous other variants have developed during the medieval period. Christian crosses are used widely in churches, on top of buildings, on bibles, in heraldry, in personal jewelry, on hilltops. Crosses are a prominent feature of Christian cemeteries, either carved on gravestones or as sculpted stelae, roman Catholic and Lutheran depictions of the cross are often crucifixes, in order to emphasize that it is Jesus that is important, rather than the cross in isolation. Large crucifixes are a prominent feature of some Lutheran churches, as illustrated in the article Rood, several Christian cross variants are available in computer-displayed text.
The Latin cross symbol is included in the character set as 271D. For others, see Religious and political symbols in Unicode, basic variants, or early variants widespread since antiquity
Zugspitze
The Zugspitze, at 2,962 m above sea level, is the highest peak of the Wetterstein Mountains as well as the highest mountain in Germany. It lies south of the town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, and the border between Germany and Austria runs over its western summit, south of the mountain is the Zugspitzplatt, a high karst plateau with numerous caves. On the flanks of the Zugspitze are three glaciers, including the two largest in Germany, the Northern Schneeferner with an area of 30.7 hectares, the third is the Southern Schneeferner which covers 8.4 hectares. The Zugspitze was first climbed on 27 August 1820 by Josef Naus, his assistant, Maier. One of the best known ridge routes in the Eastern Alps runs along the knife-edged Jubilee Ridge to the summit, linking the Zugspitze, the Hochblassen, for mountaineers there is plenty of nearby accommodation. On the western summit of the Zugspitze itself is the Münchner Haus, three cable cars run to the top of the Zugspitze. A rack railway, the Bavarian Zugspitze Railway, runs inside the northern flank of the mountain and ends on the Zugspitzplatt, the rack railway and the Eibsee Cable Car, the third cableway, transport an average of 500,000 people to the summit each year.
In winter, nine ski lifts cover the ski area on the Zugspitzplatt, the weather station, opened in 1900, and the research station in the Schneefernerhaus are mainly used to conduct climate research. The Zugspitze belongs to the Wetterstein range of the Northern Limestone Alps, the border between Germany and Austria goes right over the mountain. There used to be a border checkpoint at the summit but, since Germany, the exact height of the Zugspitze was a matter of debate for quite a while. Given figures ranged from 2, 690–2,970 metres, the lounge at the new café is named 2962 for this reason. At 2,962 metres the Zugspitze is the highest mountain of the Zugspitze massif and this height is referenced to the Amsterdam Gauge and is given by the Bavarian State Office for Survey and Geoinformation. The same height is recorded against the Trieste Gauge used in Austria, originally the Zugspitze had three peaks, the east and west summits. The only one that has remained in its form is the east summit. The middle summit fell victim to one of the cable car summit stations in 1930, in 1938 the west summit was blown up to create a building site for a planned flight control room for the Wehrmacht.
Originally the height of the west summit was given as 2,964 m, the Zugspitze rises eleven kilometres southwest of Garmisch-Partenkirchen and just under six kilometres east of Ehrwald. The border between Germany and Austria runs over the west summit, thus the Zugspitze massif belongs to the German state of Bavaria, the municipalities responsible for it are Grainau and Ehrwald. To the south the Gaistal valley and its river, the Leutascher Ache, to the north at the foot of the Zugspitze is the lake of Eibsee
Halo (religious iconography)
A halo is a ring of light that surrounds a person in art. They have been used in the iconography of many religions to indicate holy or sacred figures, halos may be shown as almost any colour or combination of colours, but are most often depicted as golden, yellow or white when representing light or red when representing flames. Homer describes a light around the heads of heroes in battle. 450-30 BC, in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Colossus of Rhodes was a statue of the sun-god Helios and had his usual radiate crown. Hellenistic rulers are shown wearing radiate crowns that seem clearly to imitate this effect. The rulers of the Kushan Empire were perhaps the earliest to give themselves haloes on their coins, in Chinese and Japanese Buddhist art the halo has been used since the earliest periods in depicting the image of Amitabha Buddha and others. Thin lines of gold often radiate outwards or inwards from the rim of the halo, elaborate haloes and especially aureoles appear in Hindu sculpture, where they tend to develop into architectural frames in which the original idea can be hard to recognise.
Theravada Buddhism and Jainism did not use the halo for many centuries, in Asian art, the nimbus is often imagined as consisting not just of light, but of flames. This type seems to first appear in Chinese bronzes of which the earliest surviving examples date from before 450 and this type is very rarely found, and on a smaller scale, in medieval Christian art. Sometimes a thin line of flames rise up from the edges of a halo in Buddhist examples. In Tibetan paintings the flames are shown as blown by a wind. Halos are found in Islamic art from various places and periods, especially in Persian miniatures and Moghul, flaming halos derived from Buddhist art surround angels, and similar ones are often seen around Muhammad and other sacred human figures. The halo represents an aura or glow of sanctity which was conventionally drawn encircling the head, though Roman paintings have largely disappeared, save some fresco decorations, the haloed figure remains fresh in Roman mosaics. In a 2nd-century AD Roman floor mosaic preserved at Bardo, significantly, the triton and nereid who accompany the sea-god are not haloed.
In a late 2nd century AD floor mosaic from Thysdrus, El Djem, another haloed Apollo in mosaic, from Hadrumentum, is in the museum at Sousse. The conventions of representation, head tilted, lips slightly parted, large-eyed. The halo was incorporated into Early Christian art sometime in the 4th century with the earliest iconic images of Christ, initially the only figure shown with one. At least in Orthodox images, each bar of cross is composed of three lines, symbolising the dogmas of the Trinity, the oneness of God and the two natures of Christ
Manuscript
A manuscript is any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to being mechanically printed or reproduced in some automated way. More recently, it is understood to be a written, typed, or word-processed copy of a work. Before the arrival of printing, all documents and books were manuscripts, manuscripts are not defined by their contents, which may combine writing with mathematical calculations, explanatory figures or illustrations. Manuscripts may be in form, scrolls or in codex format. Illuminated manuscripts are enriched with pictures, border decorations, elaborately embossed initial letters or full-page illustrations. The traditional abbreviations are MS for manuscript and MSS for manuscripts, while the forms MS. ms or ms. for singular, and MSS. mss or mss. for plural are accepted. The second s is not simply the plural, by an old convention, it doubles the last letter of the abbreviation to express the plural, just as pp. means pages. Before the invention of printing in China or by moveable type in a printing press in Europe.
Historically, manuscripts were produced in form of scrolls or books, manuscripts were produced on vellum and other parchment, on papyrus, and on paper. In Russia birch bark documents as old as from the 11th century have survived, in India, the palm leaf manuscript, with a distinctive long rectangular shape, was used from ancient times until the 19th century. Paper spread from China via the Islamic world to Europe by the 14th century, when Greek or Latin works were published, numerous professional copies were made simultaneously by scribes in a scriptorium, each making a single copy from an original that was declaimed aloud. Manuscripts in Tocharian languages, written on leaves, survived in desert burials in the Tarim Basin of Central Asia. Volcanic ash preserved some of the Roman library of the Villa of the Papyri in Herculaneum, the manuscripts that were being most carefully preserved in the libraries of antiquity are virtually all lost. Originally, all books were in manuscript form, in China, and other parts of East Asia, woodblock printing was used for books from about the 7th century.
The earliest dated example is the Diamond Sutra of 868, in the Islamic world and the West, all books were in manuscript until the introduction of movable type printing in about 1450. Manuscript copying of books continued for a least a century, as printing remained expensive, private or government documents remained hand-written until the invention of the typewriter in the late 19th century. In the Philippines, for example, as early as 900AD, specimen documents were not inscribed by stylus and this type of document was rare compared to the usual leaves and bamboo staves that were inscribed. However, neither the leaves nor paper were as durable as the document in the hot
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