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Christian culture
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Christian culture is a term primarily used in academia to describe the cultural practices common to Christianity. Christian culture has influenced and assimilated much from the Greco-Roman Byzantine, Western culture, Middle Eastern, Slavic, Caucasian, until the Age of Enlightenment, Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science. Christian disciplines of the arts have subsequently developed into Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian music. Many clerics throughout history have made significant contributions to science and Jesuits in particular have made significant contributions to the development of science. The cultural influence of Christianity includes social welfare, founding hospitals, economics, politics, architecture, literature and family life. Christianity it also had a impact on all other aspects of life, marriage and family, education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy. Eastern Christians contributed to the Arab Islamic Civilization during the Ummayad and they also excelled in philosophy, science, theology and medicine. Christians have made a myriad contributions in a broad and diverse range of fields, including the sciences, arts, politics, literatures, another frequent application of the term is to distinguish political groups in areas of mixed religious backgrounds. Cathedrals in particular, as well as abbey churches and basilicas, have certain complex structural forms that are found less often in parish churches. Such a cathedral or great church is one of the finest buildings within its region and is a focus of local pride. Many cathedrals and basilicas, and a number of churches are among the worlds most renowned works of architecture. The earliest large churches date from Late Antiquity, as Christianity and the construction of churches and cathedrals spread throughout the world, their manner of building was dependent upon local materials and local techniques. Overlaid on each of the styles are the regional characteristics. Some of these characteristics are so typical of a country or region that they appear, regardless of style. Christian art is sacred art which uses themes and imagery from Christianity, images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are the most common subjects, and scenes from the Old Testament play a part in the art of most denominations. Images of the Virgin Mary and saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism, Christianity makes far wider use of images than related religions, in which figurative representations are forbidden, such as Islam and Judaism. However, there is also a history of aniconism in Christianity from various periods. An illuminated manuscript is a manuscript in which the text is supplemented by the addition of decoration, the earliest surviving substantive illuminated manuscripts are from the period AD400 to 600, primarily produced in Ireland, Constantinople and Italy
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Byzantine Empire
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It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
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Protestant culture
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All Protestant churches allow their clergy to marry, in contrast to the Roman Catholic church. Historically, the role of women in church life, the Protestant clergy, the role of women expanded over time and was closely associated with the movements for universal education and womens suffrage. Since about 1990, many women have assumed senior leadership roles in several Protestant churches, including the Anglican Communion. Since the 1990s Protestant churches have encountered controversy regarding the Churchs response to persons of minority sexual orientations, compulsory education for both boys and girls was introduced. For example, the Puritans who established Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1628 founded Harvard College only eight years later, about a dozen other American colleges followed in the 18th century, including Yale University. Pennsylvania also became a centre of learning, by initiating translations of the Bible into various national languages, Protestantism supported the development of national literatures. The Protestant concept of God and man allows believers to use all their God-given faculties and that means that Protestant believers are encouraged to explore Gods creation and, according to Genesis 2,15, make use of it in a responsible and sustainable way. Thus a cultural climate was created that greatly enhanced the development of the humanities, another consequence of the Protestant understanding of man is that the believers, in gratitude for their election and redemption in Christ, are to follow Gods commandments. Industry, frugality, calling, discipline, and a sense of responsibility are at the heart of their moral code. In particular, John Calvin rejected luxury, as a result, productivity grew, which led to increased profits and enabled employers to pay higher wages. In this way, the economy, the sciences, and technology reinforced each other, the chance to participate in the economic success of technological inventions was a strong incentive to both inventors and investors. The Protestant work ethic was an important force behind the unplanned and uncoordinated mass action that influenced the development of capitalism and this idea is also known as the Protestant ethic thesis. Protestants are disproportionately represented in the reaches of American business, law and politics. According to the study there is correlation between education and income, about 59% of American Anglican have a graduate and post-graduate degree. Protestantism had an important influence on science, according to the Merton Thesis, there was a positive correlation between the rise of Puritanism and Protestant Pietism on the one hand and early experimental science on the other. In his theory, Robert K. Merton focused on English Puritanism, Merton explained that the connection between religious affiliation and interest in science was the result of a significant synergy between the ascetic Protestant values and those of modern science. Protestant values encouraged scientific research by allowing science to study Gods influence on the world, according to Harriet Zuckermans review of American Nobel prize laureates from 1901 to 1972, 72% were of Protestant background. According to Zuckerman, Protestants featured among the American laureates in a greater proportion than their prevalence within the general population
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Christian art
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Christian art is sacred art which uses themes and imagery from Christianity. Images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are the most common subjects, images of the Virgin Mary and saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. Christianity makes far wider use of images than related religions, in which representations are forbidden, such as Islam. However, there is also a history of aniconism in Christianity from various periods. Early Christian art survives from dates near the origins of Christianity, the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the 2nd century. The Orthodox Church of Constantinople, which enjoyed greater stability within the surviving Eastern Empire was key in commissioning imagery there and glorifying Christianity. As a stable Western European society emerged during the Middle Ages, during the development of Christian art in the Byzantine Empire, a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in Hellenistic art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects, realistic perspective, proportions, light and color were ignored in favor of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 brought an end to the highest quality Byzantine art, artists were commissioned more secular genres like portraits, landscape paintings and because of the revival of Neoplatonism, subjects from classical mythology. Occasionally, secular artists treated Christian themes — but only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon. However many modern artists such as Eric Gill, Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Jacob Epstein, Elizabeth Frink, salvador Dali is an artist who had also produced notable and popular artworks with Christian themes. Artists such as Makoto Fujimura have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts, other notable artists include Larry D. Alexander and John August Swanson. Some writers, such as Gregory Wolfe, see this as part of a rebirth of Christian humanism, since the advent of printing, the sale of reproductions of pious works has been a major element of popular Christian culture. In the nineteenth century, this included genre painters such as Mihály Munkácsy, the invention of color lithography led to broad circulation of holy cards. Subjects often seen in Christian art include the following, see Life of Christ and Life of the Virgin for fuller lists of narrative scenes included in cycles, Grabar, André. Christian iconography, a study of its origins, the glory of Byzantium, art and culture of the Middle Byzantine era, A. D. 843-1261. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Living Church, May 4,2014, 8–11
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Christian symbolism
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Christian symbolism is the use of symbols, including archetypes, acts, artwork or events, by Christianity. It invests objects or actions with an inner meaning expressing Christian ideas, the symbolism of the early Church was characterized by being understood by initiates only, while after the legalization of Christianity in the 4th-century more recognizable symbols entered in use. Christianity has borrowed from the stock of significant symbols known to most periods. The shape of the cross, as represented by the letter T, at the end of the 2nd century, it is mentioned in the Octavius of Minucius Felix, rejecting the claim by detractors that Christians worship the cross. In his book De Corona, written in 204, Tertullian tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace repeatedly on their foreheads the sign of the cross. An early example of the halo, used to identify Christ in paintings, is found in the Miracles of the Loaves and Fishes mosaic of SantApollinare Nuovo. Instances of the St Thomas cross, a Greek cross with clover leaf edges, popular in southern India, the Patriarchal cross, a Latin cross with an additional horizontal bar, first appears in the 10th century. Although the cross was used as a symbol by early Christians, the purported discovery of the True Cross by Constantines mother, Helena, and the development of Golgotha as a site for pilgrimage led to a change of attitude. In the early period, the plain cross became depicted as the crux gemmata, covered with jewels. The first depictions of crucifixion displaying suffering are believed to have arisen in Byzantine art, Early Western examples include the Gero Cross and the reverse of the Cross of Lothair, both from the end of the 10th century. Marie-Madeleine Davy described in great detail Romanesque Symbolism as it developed in the Middle Ages in Western Europe, among the symbols employed by the early Christians, that of the fish seems to have ranked first in importance. The Staurogram ⳨, also Monogrammatic Cross or Tau-Rho symbol, is composed by a tau superimposed on a rho, in such a way the symbol expresses the idea that the Cross saves. The two letters tau and rho can also be found separately as symbols on early Christian ossuaries, the Monogrammatic Cross was later seen also as a variation of the Chi Rho symbol, and it spread over Western Europe in the 5th and 6th centuries. The Chi Rho is formed by superimposing the first two letters chi and rho of the Greek word ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ =Christ in such a way to produce the monogram, widespread in ancient Christianity, it was the symbol used by the Roman emperor Constantine I as vexillum. This symbol was explained in the Epistle of Barnabas and by Clement of Alexandria. For other christograms such as IHS, see Article Christogram, initially it was also understood as a symbol like others used in Early Christian art. By about the 5th century the more often took on the appearance of the conventional depiction of Christ, as it had developed by this time. The dove as a Christian symbol is of frequent occurrence in ancient ecclesiastical art
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Early Christian art and architecture
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In practice identifiably Christian art only survives from the 2nd century onwards. After 550 at the latest, Christian art is classified as Byzantine and it is hard to know when distinctly Christian art began. Prior to 100, Christians may have been constrained by their position as a group from producing durable works of art. Since Christianity was largely a religion of the classes in this period, the lack of surviving art may reflect a lack of funds for patronage. The Old Testament restrictions against the production of images may also have constrained Christians from producing art. Christians may have made or purchased art with pagan iconography, but given it Christian meanings, if this happened, Christian art would not be immediately recognizable as such. Early Christianity used the artistic media as the surrounding pagan culture. These media included fresco, mosaics, sculpture, and manuscript illumination, Early Christian art not only used Roman forms, it also used Roman styles. Late classical style included a portrayal of the human body. Late classical style is seen in early Christian frescos, such as those in the Catacombs of Rome, Early Christians adapted Roman motifs and gave new meanings to what had been pagan symbols. Among the motifs adopted were the peacock, grapevines, and the Good Shepherd, Early Christians also developed their own iconography, for example, such symbols as the fish, were not borrowed from pagan iconography. The earlier period being called the Pre-Constantinian or Ante-Nicene Period and after being the period of the First seven Ecumenical Councils, the earliest surviving Christian art comes from the late 2nd to early 4th centuries on the walls of Christian tombs in the catacombs of Rome. From literary evidence, there may well have been panel icons which, initially Jesus was represented indirectly by pictogram symbols such as the Ichthys, peacock, Lamb of God, or an anchor. The image of The Good Shepherd, a youth in pastoral scenes collecting sheep, was the most common of these images. These images bear some resemblance to depictions of figures in Greco-Roman art. The almost total absence from Christian monuments of the period of persecutions of the plain, the dove is a symbol of peace and purity. It can be found with a halo or celestial light, in one of the earliest known Trinitarian images, the Throne of God as a Trinitarian image, the dove represents the Spirit. It is flying above an empty throne representing God, in the throne are a chlamys, the Chi-Rho monogram, XP, apparently first used by Constantine I, consists of the first two characters of the name Christos in Greek
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Church architecture
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Church architecture refers to the architecture of buildings of Christian churches. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant features of the towns, however, far more numerous were the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as steel, the history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation. The simplest church building comprises a single meeting space, built of locally available material, such churches are generally rectangular, but in African countries where circular dwellings are the norm, vernacular churches may be circular as well. A simple church may be built of mud brick, wattle and daub and it may be roofed with thatch, shingles, corrugated iron or banana leaves. However, church congregations, from the 4th century onwards, have sought to construct buildings that were both permanent and aesthetically pleasing. This had led to a tradition in which congregations and local leaders have invested time, money and personal prestige into the building, within any parish, the local church is often the oldest building, and is larger than any pre-19th-century structure except perhaps a barn. The church is built of the most durable material available. To the two-room structure is often added aisles, a tower, chapels, in the first three centuries of the Early Christian Church, the practice of Christianity was illegal and few churches were constructed. In the beginning Christians worshipped along with Jews in synagogues and in private houses, after the separation of Jews and Christians the latter continued to worship in peoples houses, known as house churches. These were often the homes of the members of the faith. Saint Paul, in his first letter to the Corinthians writes, aquila and Prisca, together with the church in their house, greet you warmly in the Lord. Some domestic buildings were adapted to function as churches, one of the earliest of adapted residences is at Dura Europos church, built shortly after 200 AD, where two rooms were made into one, by removing a wall, and a dais was set up. To the right of the entrance a small room was made into a baptistry, some church buildings were specifically built as church assemblies, such as that opposite the emperor Diocletians palace in Nicomedia. The books of the Holy Scriptures were found, and they were committed to the flames, the utensils and furniture of the church were abandoned to pillage, all was rapine, confusion, tumult. That church, situated on rising ground, was within view of the palace, and Diocletian and Galerius stood, as if on a watchtower, disputing long whether it ought to be set on fire. The sentiment of Diocletian prevailed, who dreaded lest, so great a fire being once kindled, some part of the city might he burnt, for there were many and large buildings that surrounded the church. Then the Pretorian Guards came in battle array, with axes and other iron instruments, from the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private homes, often secretly
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Icon
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An icon is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Christianity and certain Eastern Catholic churches. The most common subjects include Christ, Mary, saints and/or angels, icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, painted on wood, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Comparable images from Western Christianity are generally not described as icons, Eastern Orthodox tradition holds that the creation of Christian images dates back to the very early days of Christianity, and there is has been a continuous tradition since then. The icons of later centuries can be linked, often closely, to images from the 5th century onwards, there was enormous destruction of images during the Byzantine Iconoclasm of 726-842, although this did settle for good the question of the appropriateness of images. Since then icons have had a continuity of style and subject. At the same time there has been change and development, Christian tradition dating from the 8th century identifies Luke the Evangelist as the first icon painter. Aside from the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ and he relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image, further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the 10th century, when it was taken to Constantinople. It went missing in 1204 when Crusaders sacked Constantinople, but by then numerous copies had firmly established its iconic type. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the manner of the Gentiles. And he called him and said, Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait, can it be one of thy gods that is painted here. For I see that you are living in heathen fashion. Later in the passage John says, But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect, at least some of the hierarchy of the Christian churches still strictly opposed icons in the early 4th century. At the Spanish non-ecumenical Synod of Elvira bishops concluded, Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration. to our religion. After the emperor Constantine I extended official toleration of Christianity within the Roman Empire in 313 and this period of Christianization probably saw the use of Christian images became very widespread among the faithful, though with great differences from pagan habits. Robin Lane Fox states By the early century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saints shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, when Constantine himself apparently converted to Christianity, the majority of his subjects remained pagans
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Church music
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Church music is music written for performance in church, or any musical setting of ecclesiastical liturgy, or music set to words expressing propositions of a sacred nature, such as a hymn. Christianity began as a small, persecuted Jewish sect, the only record of communal song in the Gospels is the last meeting of the disciples before the Crucifixion. Outside the Gospels, there is a reference to St. Paul encouraging the Ephesians and Colossians to use psalms, hymns, antiphonal psalmody is the singing or musical playing of psalms by alternating groups of performers. The peculiar mirror structure of the Hebrew psalms makes it likely that the method originated in the services of the ancient Israelites. According to the historian Socrates of Constantinople, its introduction into Christian worship was due to Ignatius of Antioch, the use of instruments in early Christian music seems to have been frowned upon. In the late 4th or early 5th century St. Jerome wrote that a Christian maiden ought not even to know what a lyre or flute is like, or to what use it is put. The introduction of church music is traditionally believed to date from the time of the papacy of Pope Vitalian in the 7th century. Gregorian chant is the tradition of Western plainchant, a form of monophonic liturgical chant of Western Christianity that accompanied the celebration of Mass. This musical form originated in Monastic life, in singing the Divine Service nine times a day at the proper hours was upheld according to the Rule of Saint Benedict. Singing psalms made up a part of the life in a monastic community, while a smaller group. In its long history Gregorian Chant has been subjected to many gradual changes and this practice continued into the lifetime of François Couperin, whose Organ Masses were meant to be performed with alternating homophonic Chant. Although it had fallen into disuse after the Baroque period, Chant experienced a revival in the 19th century in the Roman Catholic Church. The mass is a form of music that sets out the parts of the Eucharistic liturgy to music, for example, there are many Masses written in English for the Church of England. Music is an part of mass, it accompanies various rituals acts. Many Masses, especially later ones, were never intended to be performed during the celebration of an actual mass, generally, for a composition to be a full Mass, it must contain the following invariable five sections, which together constitute the Ordinary of the Mass. Kyrie Gloria Credo, the Nicene Creed Sanctus, the part of which, beginning with the word Benedictus, was often sung separately after the consecration. Agnus Dei The Requiem Mass is a version of the ordinary mass. Musical settings of the Requiem mass have a tradition in Western music
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Christian attitudes towards science
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Most sources of knowledge available to early Christians were connected to pagan world-views. There were various opinions on how Christianity should regard pagan learning, historically, Christianity has often been a patron of sciences. It has been prolific in the foundation of schools, universities and hospitals, historians of science such as Pierre Duhem credit medieval Catholic mathematicians and philosophers such as John Buridan, Nicole Oresme and Roger Bacon as the founders of modern science. Earlier attempts at reconciliation of Christianity with Newtonian mechanics appear quite different from later attempts at reconciliation with the scientific ideas of evolution or relativity. Many early interpretations of evolution polarized themselves around a struggle for existence and these ideas were significantly countered by later findings of universal patterns of biological cooperation. According to John Habgood, all man really knows here is that the universe seems to be a mix of good and evil, beauty and pain, and that suffering may somehow be part of the process of creation. Habgood holds that Christians should not be surprised that suffering may be used creatively by God, Robert John Russell has examined consonance and dissonance between modern physics, evolutionary biology, and Christian theology. Also the sense that God created the world as an operating system is what motivated many Christians throughout the Middle Ages to investigate nature. Modern historians of science such as J. L and he was not unlike other medieval theologians who sought out reason in the effort to defend his faith. Some of todays scholars, such as Stanley Jaki, have claimed that Christianity with its particular worldview, was a factor for the emergence of modern science. Lindberg states that the popular belief that the Middle Ages was a time of ignorance. According to Lindberg, while there are portions of the classical tradition which suggest this view. It was common to tolerate and encourage critical thinking about the nature of the world, the relation between Christianity and science is complex and cannot be simplified to either harmony or conflict, according to Lindberg. Lindberg reports that the medieval scholar rarely experienced the coercive power of the church. There was no warfare between science and the church, in 1992, the Catholic Churchs seeming vindication of Galileo attracted much comment in the media. A degree of concord between science and religion can be seen in religious belief and empirical science, the belief that God created the world and therefore humans, can lead to the view that he arranged for humans to know the world. This is underwritten by the doctrine of imago dei, many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton and Boyle. Isaac Newton, for example, believed that gravity caused the planets to revolve about the Sun, other famous founders of science who adhered to Christian beliefs include Galileo, Johannes Kepler, and Blaise Pascal
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Role of Christianity in civilization
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The role of Christianity in civilization has been intricately intertwined with the history and formation of Western society. In various ways it has sought to affect Western attitudes to vice and it has, over many centuries, promulgated the teachings of Jesus within the Western world as well as throughout other third-world nations. The cultural influence of the Church has been vast, Church scholars preserved literacy in Western Europe following the Fall of the Western Roman Empire. During the Middle Ages, the Church rose to replace the Roman Empire as the force in Europe. The cathedrals of that age remain among the most iconic feats of architecture produced by Western civilization, many of Europes universities were also founded by the church at that time. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The Bible and Christian theology have also strongly influenced Western philosophers, long held Christian teachings on sexuality and marriage and family life have also been both influential and controversial. Christianity played a role in ending practices such as sacrifice, slavery, infanticide. Christianity in general affected the status of women by condemning marital infidelity, divorce, incest, polygamy, birth control, infanticide, and abortion. Nevertheless, women have played prominent roles in Western history through as part of the church, particularly in education and healthcare, some of the things that Christianity is commonly criticized for include the oppression of women, condemnation of homosexuality, colonialism, and various other violence. Christian ideas have been used both to support and to end slavery as an institution, the criticism of Christianity has come from the various religious and non-religious groups around the world, some of whom were themselves Christians. Christianity began as a Jewish sect in the mid-1st century arising out of the life, the life of Jesus is recounted in the New Testament of the Bible, one of the bedrock texts of Western Civilization and inspiration for countless works of Western art. Jesus birth is commemorated in the festival of Christmas, his death during the Paschal Triduum, Christmas and Easter remain holidays in many Western nations. Jesus learned the texts of the Hebrew Bible, with its Ten Commandments and he was a persuasive teller of parables and moral philosopher who urged followers to worship God, act without violence or prejudice and care for the sick, hungry and poor. These teachings have been influential in Western culture. In Jerusalem, around 30AD, Jesus was crucified, Catholicism, as we know it, emerged slowly. Christians often faced persecution during these centuries, particularly for their refusal to join in worshiping the emperors. Nevertheless, carried through the synagogues, merchants and missionaries across the known world, Emperor Constantines Edict of Milan in 313 AD ended the persecutions and his own conversion to Christianity was a significant turning point in history
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History of the Eastern Orthodox Church
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The history of the Orthodox Church is traced back to Jesus Christ and the Apostles. The Apostles appointed successors, known as bishops, and they in turn appointed other bishops in a known as Apostolic succession. Over time, five Patriarchates were established to organize the Christian world, in the early Middle Ages, Orthodox missionaries spread Christianity towards the north, to the Bulgarians, Serbs, Russians and others. In the Late Middle Ages, the Fall of Constantinople brought a part of the worlds Orthodox Christians under Ottoman Turkish rule. Nevertheless, Orthodoxy continued to flourish in Russia, as well as within the Ottoman Empire among the latters Christian subject peoples, four stages of development can be distinguished in the history of the Orthodox Church. Early Christianity, which represents the first three centuries through the age of Constantine the Great, constitutes the Apostolic and ancient period. The Byzantine period, beginning with the time of the Ecumenical Councils, the last stage is the modern period. The Orthodox jurisdictions with the largest number of adherents in modern times are the Russian, the Ethiopian, the most ancient of the Orthodox communities existing today are the churches of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, Constantinople, Armenia, Georgia, and Ethiopia. Christianity first spread in the predominantly Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire, early growth also occurred in the two political centers of Rome and Greece, as well as in Byzantium. Historically the word church did not mean a building or housing structure, the earliest Ecclesiology would posit that the Eucharistic assembly, under the authority and permission of a Bishop, is what constitutes a Church. As St. Ignatius of Antioch said, Let no man do anything connected with the Church without the bishop, Let that be deemed a proper Eucharist, which is either by the bishop, or by one to whom he has entrusted it. Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude also be, even as, wherever Jesus Christ is and it is not lawful without the bishop either to baptize or to celebrate a love-feast. The church of Rome by tradition was founded by both Saint Peter and Saint Paul, systematic persecution of the early Christian church caused it to become an underground movement. The first above-ground legal churches were built in Armenia, Armenia became the first country to legalize Christianity under King Tiridates III and also embrace it as the state religion in 310 AD. However, illegal churches before Christian legalization are mentioned throughout history, for example. Also noteworthy are the Church of St Peter in Antioch and the Cenacle in Jerusalem, much of the official organizing of the ecclesiastical structure, clarifying true from false teachings was done by the bishops of the church. Their works are referred to as Patristics and this tradition of clarification can be seen as established in the saints of the Orthodox Church referred to as the Apostolic Fathers, bishops themselves established by apostolic succession. This also continued into the age when the practice of the religion of Christianity became legal, the Biblical canon began with the officially accepted books of the Koine Greek Old Testament
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Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Ecclesiastical Music". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
