1.
Charles Dickens
–
Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
Charles Dickens
–
Dickens in New York, 1867
Charles Dickens
–
Charles Dickens's birthplace, 393 Commercial Road, Portsmouth
Charles Dickens
–
2 Ordnance Terrace,
Chatham, Dickens's home 1817 – May 1821
Charles Dickens
–
Illustration by Fred Bernard of Dickens at work in a shoe-blacking factory after his father had been sent to the
Marshalsea, published in the 1892 edition of Forster's Life of Dickens
2.
A Christmas Carol
–
A Christmas Carol in Prose, Being a Ghost-Story of Christmas, commonly known as A Christmas Carol, is a novella by Charles Dickens, first published in London by Chapman & Hall in 1843. A Christmas Carol tells the story of Ebenezer Scrooge, an old miser who is visited by the ghost of his business partner Jacob Marley. After their visits Scrooge is transformed into a kinder, gentler man, Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol at a time when the British were examining and exploring Christmas traditions from the past, such as carols, as well as new customs such as Christmas trees. He was influenced by experiences from his own past, and from the Christmas stories of other authors, including Washington Irving, the treatment of the poor and the ability of self-interested man redeeming himself by transforming into a more sympathetic character are the key themes of the story. There is discussion among academics as to whether this was a fully secular story, published on 19 December, the first edition sold out by Christmas Eve, by the end of 1844 thirteen editions had been released. Most critics reviewed the novella positively, the story was illicitly copied in January 1844, Dickens took action against the publishers, who went bankrupt, reducing further Dickenss small profits from the publication. He went on to four other Christmas stories in subsequent years. In 1849 he began public readings of the story proved so successful he undertook 127 further performances until 1870. A Christmas Carol has never been out of print and has translated into several languages. With A Christmas Carol, Dickens captured the zeitgeist of the revival of the Christmas holiday. Dickens divided the book into five chapters, which he labelled staves, the story begins on a cold and bleak Christmas Eve in London, seven years after the death of Ebenezer Scrooges business partner, Jacob Marley. Scrooge, an old miser, hates Christmas and refuses an invitation to Christmas dinner from his nephew Fred. At home that night, Scrooge is visited by Marleys ghost, the first of the spirits, the Ghost of Christmas Past, takes Scrooge to Christmas scenes of Scrooges boyhood and youth, reminding him of a time when he was more innocent. The boyhood scenes portray Scrooges lonely childhood, his relationship with his beloved sister Fan, and a Christmas party hosted by his first employer, Mr. Fezziwig, who treated Scrooge like a son. They also portray Scrooges neglected fiancée Belle, who ends their relationship after she realises that Scrooge will never love her as much as he loves money, finally, they visit a now-married Belle with her large, happy family on a recent Christmas Eve. Scrooge and the ghost also visit Freds Christmas party, a major part of this stave is taken up with Bob Cratchits family feast and introduces his youngest son, Tiny Tim, a happy boy who is seriously ill. The spirit informs Scrooge that Tiny Tim will die unless the course of events changes. Before disappearing, the spirit shows Scrooge two hideous, emaciated children named Ignorance and Want and he tells Scrooge to beware the former above all and mocks Scrooges concern for their welfare
A Christmas Carol
–
First edition cover (1843)
A Christmas Carol
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Artist's impression of Charles Dickens at the blacking warehouse, 1904
A Christmas Carol
–
Charles Dickens in 1842, the year before the publication of A Christmas Carol
A Christmas Carol
–
Washington Irving in 1820
3.
Brass band
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A brass band is a musical ensemble generally consisting entirely of brass instruments, most often with a percussion section. Ensembles that include brass and woodwind instruments can in certain traditions also be termed brass bands, balkan-style Brass Bands play a distinctive style of music originating in 19th-century Balkans when Roma trumpeters influenced by Turkish marching bands transposed Folk music into brass. It is popular throughout the Balkans, especially Serbia, Albania, Macedonia, Romania and Bulgaria, the beats are usually fast and accompanied by kolo. The performers each have their instrument of the orchestra and are called trubači, the best known examples of acclaimed music in this style are from Goran Bregović and Boban Marković Orkestar. The Serbian film maker Emir Kusturica has, through his films, all parts apart from the Bass Trombone and percussion are now written in Treble Clef. Note that despite its musical range, the horn in E♭ is traditionally called the tenor horn in British bands. Brass bands have a tradition of competition between bands, often based around local industry and communities. Annual competitions are held in countries to select champion bands at various levels of musical competence. The Salvation Army, part of the Christian church, has deployed brass bands since 1878, the most well-known Salvation Army brass band is The International Staff Band which is based in London. Salvation Army bands vary considerably in size and complement as they are based on the personnel available. The cornet section of a Salvation Army band does not include a Repiano, a Salvation Army band may have 3-6 tenor horns, 2-4 baritones and 2-6 tenor trombones. Salvation Army bands have a tradition of training children in brass playing from an early age. In larger Salvation Army churches there will often be a Junior Band for children as well as a Senior Band for adults, fanfare orchestras are a type of brass band mainly found in Belgium and the Netherlands, while several ensembles exist in Germany, France and Luxembourg. Unlike British bands, they also sport saxophones, there are fanfares affiliated to the military and civil fanfare orchestras which are an important element of cultural tradition in some areas. The tradition of bands in New Orleans, Louisiana dates to the late 19th. Traditionally, New Orleans brass bands could feature various instrumentations, often including trumpets, trombones, clarinets, saxophones, sousaphones and percussion. The Treme Brass Band, while not as old, has members who have been influential throughout New Orleans Brass Band music, a well-known use of these bands is for the New Orleans jazz funeral. Also, a number of groups outside the United States have begun playing this style of music, the style of the music is often characterized by the use of the sousaphone in place of a Double bass to play the bass-line
Brass band
–
Tanzanian Police Force brass band
Brass band
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Soprano cornet
Brass band
–
Cornet
Brass band
–
Flugelhorn
4.
Belgorod Oblast
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Belgorod Oblast is a federal subject of Russia. Its administrative center is the city of Belgorod, at the turn of the 17th century, a solid line of military fortifications was built in the area, stretching for almost 800 kilometers. Ukrainian Cossacks, who moved here because of the nobility and the tax burden, were in charge of the line defenses, even more Cossacks moved to the area during the Khmelnytsky Uprising and the internecine wars in the Cossack Hetmanate. Belgorod became the military and administrative center, after originating as an outpost on the borders of Russia. Following the Battle of Poltava, Peter I granted to soldiers of Greater Belgorod the regiment flag, from 1708 to 1727, the territory of the modern Belgorod Oblast was part of Kiev and Azov Governorates. In 1727, Belgorod Governorate was established from parts of Kiev Governorate and this territory was much greater than that of today, and the governorate incorporated territories of modern Kursk, Oryol, and parts of Bryansk and Kharkiv Oblasts. The coat of arms of the then-Governorate is still used by the modern Belgorod Oblast, in 1775–1779, the territory of Belgorod Governorate was abolished and divided between the newly formed governorates and vice-royalties. The city of Belgorod and the area around it became a part of Kursk Vice-Royalty, during the 19th century and up until 1928 the territory of modern Belgorod Oblast remained part of Kursk and Voronezh Governorates. After the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in April 1918, the current administrative-territorial boundaries of Belgorod Oblast were formed by the Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR on January 6,1954. The oblast was formed from several districts of Kursk and Voronezh Oblasts, in 2007, the city of Belgorod received the honorary title of the City of Military Glory. Belgorod Oblast is part of the Central Black Earth economic region and it borders with Luhansk, Kharkiv, and Sumy Oblasts of Ukraine in the south and west, Kursk Oblast in the north and northwest, and Voronezh Oblast in the east. The total length of its borders is about 1,150 kilometers, the area of the oblast is 27,100 square kilometers, the oblast stretches for about 190 kilometers from north to south and for about 270 kilometers from east to west. The highest point is 277 meters above sea level, in Prokhorovsky District, the lowest point is located at the bottom of the Oskol and Seversky Donets River valleys. The climate of Belgorod Oblast is temperate continental with a mild winter with some snowfall. Average annual air temperature varies from +5.4 °C to +6.7 °C, the coldest month is January and the frost-free period is 155–160 days, with an average of 1800 hours of sunshine. Over 40% of known iron ore reserves of Russia are concentrated in the oblast, deposits are confined to the Kursk Magnetic Anomaly area. There are also occurrences of gold, graphite, and other rare metals. Geographical features make the oblast likely to have deposits of platinum, hydrocarbons, rivers, lakes, and marshes occupy about 1% of the oblasts territory
Belgorod Oblast
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Map of Belgorod Governorate (1745)
Belgorod Oblast
Belgorod Oblast
–
Nikolo-Tikhvinsky Monastery in 1900
Belgorod Oblast
–
Left: Valuy River. Right:
Nezhegol River.
5.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
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Regions where French is the main language
French language
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Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
6.
Carol (music)
–
A carol is in modern parlance a festive song, generally religious but not necessarily connected with church worship, and often with a dance-like or popular character. The word carol is derived from the Old French word carole, carols were traditionally sung in Latin by clergy of the Catholic church. Following the Protestant Reformation, reformers believed that carols were for everyone to sing, to enable the common person to sing church music, great efforts were made to translate musical texts from Latin into the native languages that people spoke. Composers such as William Byrd composed motet-like works for Christmas that they termed carols, nonetheless, some famous carols were written in this period, and they were more strongly revived from the nineteenth century and began to be written and adapted by eminent composers. Some composers have written extended works based on carols, examples include Benjamin Britten, Ralph Vaughan Williams and Victor Hely-Hutchinson
Carol (music)
7.
Hymn
–
A hymn is a type of song, usually religious, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word hymn derives from Greek ὕμνος, which means a song of praise, a writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist. The singing of hymns is called hymnody, collections of hymns are known as hymnals or hymn books. Hymns may or may not include instrumental accompaniment, although most familiar to speakers of English in the context of Christianity, hymns are also a fixture of other world religions, especially on the Indian subcontinent. Hymns also survive from antiquity, especially from Egyptian and Greek cultures, some of the oldest surviving examples of notated music are hymns with Greek texts. Surviving from the 3rd century BC is a collection of six literary hymns by the Alexandrian poet Callimachus, patristic writers began applying the term ὕμνος, or hymnus in Latin, to Christian songs of praise, and frequently used the word as a synonym for psalm. Originally modeled on the Psalms and other passages in the Scriptures. Many refer to Jesus Christ either directly or indirectly, since the earliest times, Christians have sung psalms and hymns and spiritual songs, both in private devotions and in corporate worship. One definition of a hymn is. a lyric poem, reverently and devotionally conceived, which is designed to be sung, others are used to encourage reverence for the Holy Bible or to celebrate Christian practices such as the eucharist or baptism. A writer of hymns is known as a hymnodist, and the practice of singing hymns is called hymnody, a collection of hymns is called a hymnal or hymnary. These may or may not include music, a student of hymnody is called a hymnologist, and the scholarly study of hymns, hymnists and hymnody is hymnology. The music to which a hymn may be sung is a hymn tune, in many Evangelical churches, traditional songs are classified as hymns while more contemporary worship songs are not considered hymns. The reason for this distinction is unclear, but according to some it is due to the shift of style and devotional thinking that began with the Jesus movement. In ancient and medieval times, stringed instruments such as the harp, lyre and lute were used with psalms, since there is a lack of musical notation in early writings, the actual musical forms in the early church can only be surmised. During the Middle Ages a rich hymnody developed in the form of Gregorian chant or plainsong and this type was sung in unison, in one of eight church modes, and most often by monastic choirs. While they were originally in Latin, many have been translated. Later hymnody in the Western church introduced four-part vocal harmony as the norm, adopting major and minor keys and it shares many elements with classical music. Today, except for choirs, more musically inclined congregations and a cappella congregations, hymns are sung in unison
Hymn
8.
Christmas
–
In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day
Christmas
–
A
depiction of the
Nativity of Jesus with a
Christmas tree backdrop
Christmas
–
Adoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst depicts the nativity of
Jesus
Christmas
–
Eastern Orthodox icon of the birth of Christ by
St. Andrei Rublev, 15th century
Christmas
–
Nativity of Christ – medieval illustration from the
Hortus deliciarum of
Herrad of Landsberg (12th century)
9.
Christmas and holiday season
–
It incorporates a period of shopping which comprises a peak season for the retail sector, and a period of sales at the end of the season. Christmas window displays and Christmas tree lighting ceremonies when trees decorated with ornaments, the term Advent calendar survives in secular Western parlance as a term referring to a countdown to Christmas Day from the beginning of December. Saturnalia was an ancient Roman festival in honor of the deity Saturn, held on December 17 of the Julian calendar, the poet Catullus called it the best of days. The tradition of celebrating the birth of Christ on December 25 appears to date from the 4th century when Christianity was adopted as the religion of the Roman Empire. In the Christian tradition the Christmas season is a beginning on Christmas Day. In some churches the season continues until the day before the Epiphany, If the Epiphany is kept on January 6, the Church of Englands use of the term Christmas season corresponds to the Twelve Days of Christmas, and ends on Twelfth Night. This short Christmas season is preceded by Advent, which begins on the fourth Sunday before Christmas Day, the Anglican Communion and some Protestant churches follow the Christmas season with an Epiphany season which lasts until Shrove Tuesday which is also known as Mardi Gras or Fat Tuesday. Other European cultures have their own carnival festivities between new year and Lent, according to Yanovski et al. in the United States the holiday season is generally considered to begin with the day after Thanksgiving and end after New Years Day. According to Axelrad, the season in the United States encompasses at least Christmas and New Years Day, fire Administration defines the Winter Holiday Season as the period from December 1 to January 7. According to Chen et al. in China the Christmas and holiday season is considered to begin with the winter solstice. Some stores and shopping malls advertise their Christmas merchandise beginning after Halloween or even in late October, the precise definition of feasts and festival days that are encompassed by the Christmas and holiday season has become controversial in the United States over recent decades. The exchange of gifts is central to the Christmas and holiday season, and this comprises a peak time for the retail sector at the start of the holiday season and a period of sales at the end of the season, the January sales. Although once dedicated mostly to white sales and clearance sales, the January sales now comprise both winter close-out sales and sales comprising the redemption of gift cards given as presents. Young-Bean Song, director of analytics at the Atlas Institute in Seattle, states that it is a myth that the shopping season starts with Thanksgiving. January is a key part of the holiday season, stating that for the U. S. e-commerce sector January sales volumes matched December sales volumes in the 2004/2005 Christmas and holiday season. Many people find this time particularly stressful, as a remedy, and as a return to what they perceive as the root of Christmas, some practice alternative giving. During the 2014 holiday shopping season, retail sales in the United States are forecast to increase to a total of over $616 billion, the average US holiday shopper is expected to spend over $800, of which close to 73 percent will be in gifts. In 2015, retail sales in the United States increased to a total of over $630 billion, the average US holiday shopper spent on average $805
Christmas and holiday season
–
Christmas tree in Japan. Christmas is celebrated by an increasing number of non-Christians
around the world.
Christmas and holiday season
–
Holiday shopping
Christmas and holiday season
–
Public, secular celebration in seasonal costume
Christmas and holiday season
–
A Christmas tree inside a home
10.
Christmas music
–
Christmas music comprises a variety of genres of music normally performed or heard around the Christmas season. Music was a feature of the Christmas season and its celebrations. The earliest examples are hymnographic works intended for use in observance of both the Feast of the Nativity and Theophany, many of which are still in use by the Eastern Orthodox Church. The 13th century saw the rise of the written in the vernacular. In the Middle Ages, the English combined circle dances with singing, later, the word carol came to mean a song in which a religious topic is treated in a style that is familiar or festive. From Italy, it passed to France and Germany, and later to England, Music in itself soon became one of the greatest tributes to Christmas, and Christmas music includes some of the noblest compositions of the great musicians. During the Commonwealth of England government under Cromwell, the Rump Parliament prohibited the practice of singing Christmas carols as Pagan, like other customs associated with popular Catholic Christianity, it earned the disapproval of Protestant Puritans. Famously, Cromwells interregnum prohibited all celebrations of the Christmas holiday and this attempt to ban the public celebration of Christmas can also be seen in the early history of Father Christmas. The Westminster Assembly of Divines established Sunday as the holy day in the calendar in 1644. The new liturgy produced for the English church recognised this in 1645 and its celebration was declared an offence by Parliament in 1647. There is some debate as to the effectiveness of this ban, Puritans generally disapproved of the celebration of Christmas—a trend which continually resurfaced in Europe and the USA through the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. William Sandyss Christmas Carols Ancient and Modern, contained the first appearance in print of many now-classic English carols, singing carols in church was instituted on Christmas Eve 1880 in Truro Cathedral, Cornwall, England, which is now seen in churches all over the world. Christmas festivities, including music, are celebrated in a more secular fashion by such institutions as the Santa Claus Village, in Rovaniemi. The tradition of singing Christmas carols in return for alms or charity began in England in the century after the Restoration. Also from the century, there was the English custom, predominantly involving women, of taking a wassail bowl to their neighbours to solicit gifts. The status of Christmas as an important feast within the year also means there is a long tradition of music specially composed for celebrating the season. S. This is in due to the efforts of amateur choral societies during the nineteenth century. When it was composed, it was performed during Passiontide, jakub Jan Ryba, Czech Christmas Mass Hey, Master
Christmas music
–
Child Christmas carolers in Bucharest, Romania 1929
Christmas music
–
A Christmas minstrel playing pipe and tabor.
Christmas music
–
A Christmas tree inside a home
Christmas music
–
Blandfordia nobilis, or Christmas Bells, of eastern Australia
11.
Personent hodie
–
A melody found in a 1360 manuscript from the nearby Bavarian city of Moosburg in Germany is highly similar, and it is from this manuscript that the song is usually dated. Hugh Keyte and Andrew Parrott note that two of the verses have an unusual double repeat, in intonent hodie, these were used to illustrate the three boys and three girls saved by St Nicholas from drowning and prostitution, respectively. The text was probably re-written for the Feast of the Holy Innocents when choristers, the carol is still often associated with Holy Innocents Day. Songs from Piae Cantiones continued to be performed in Finland until the 19th century, the book became well known in Britain after a rare copy of Piae Cantiones owned by Peter of Nyland was given as a gift to the British Minister in Stockholm. He subsequently gave it to John Mason Neale in 1852, and it was from this copy that Neale, the most common English translation of the text is by James M. Joseph, a pseudonym of the composer Jane M. Joseph. She translates the title as On this day earth shall ring, aidan Olivers non-verse translation renders the text as Today let the voices of children resound in joyful praise of Him who is born for us. This arrangement is referred to as Theodoric in reference to the composers middle name. The Retrover Ensembles performance for Naxos Records pairs the piece with Gaudete, the female a cappella quartet Anonymous 4 have also recorded the song with its original Intonent hodie text on their CD Legends of St. Nicholas. This appears on their 2008 album Birds, jazz musician Wayne Shorter recorded his arrangement of melody under the name 12th Century Carol on his 2003 album Alegria. Robert Cummings, writing in the Allmusic guide, states that the melody is glorious and ebullient in its lively and it largely consists of bright, resolute three-note phrases whose overall structure gradually rises, then descends. In several versions, such as the Holst arrangement, the verse has parvulum inquirunt, Bethlehem adeunt in place in place of munera offerunt. Personent hodie arranged by Gustav Holst at the Choral Public Domain Library
Personent hodie
–
Personent hodie in the 1582 edition of Piae Cantiones, image combined from two pages of the source text.
12.
Veni redemptor gentium
–
Veni redemptor gentium is a Latin Advent or Christmas hymn by Ambrose in 8888 iambic dimeter. The hymn is assigned to the Office of Readings for Advent, from December 17 through December 24, the later hymn Veni Creator Spiritus borrows two lines from the hymn. Luther adapted the chant tune separately for each of three other hymns, Verleih uns Frieden gnädiglich, Erhalt uns, Herr, bei deinem Wort. In the mid-nineteenth century, John Mason Neale translated Veni redemptor gentium into English as Come and it is often sung to the tune Puer nobis nascitur by Michael Praetorius. Latin, Veni, redemptor gentium, ostende partum Virginis, miretur omne saeculum, English translation, Come, Redeemer of the nations, show forth the Virgin birth, let every age marvel, such a birth befits God. Metrical English translation, Come, thou Redeemer of the earth, and manifest thy virgin-birth, let every age adoring fall, such birth befits the God of all
Veni redemptor gentium
–
Veni, redemptor gentium, text and Gregorian notation
13.
Ambrose
–
Aurelius Ambrosius, better known in English as Saint Ambrose, was a bishop of Milan who became one of the most influential ecclesiastical figures of the 4th century. He was the Roman governor of Liguria and Emilia, headquartered in Milan, Ambrose was a staunch opponent of Arianism, and has been accused of fostering persecutions of Arians, Jews, and pagans. Ambrose was one of the four original Doctors of the Church and he is notable for his influence on Augustine of Hippo. Ambrose was born into a Roman Christian family about 340 and was raised in Gallia Belgica and his mother was a woman of intellect and piety. Ambroses siblings, Satyrus and Marcellina, are venerated as saints. There is a legend that as an infant, a swarm of bees settled on his face while he lay in his cradle and his father considered this a sign of his future eloquence and honeyed tongue. For this reason, bees and beehives often appear in the saints symbology, after the early death of his father, Ambrose followed his fathers career. He was educated in Rome, studying literature, law, Ambrose was the Governor of Aemilia-Liguria in northern Italy until 374, when he became the Bishop of Milan. He was a popular political figure, and since he was the Governor in the effective capital in the Roman West. In the late 4th century there was a conflict in the diocese of Milan between the Nicene Church and Arians. In 374 the bishop of Milan, Auxentius, an Arian, died, Ambrose went to the church where the election was to take place, to prevent an uproar, which was probable in this crisis. His address was interrupted by a call Ambrose, bishop, which was taken up by the whole assembly. Ambrose was known to be Nicene Christian in belief, but also acceptable to Arians due to the charity shown in matters in this regard. At first he refused the office, for which he was in no way prepared. Upon his appointment, Ambrose fled to a colleagues home seeking to hide, upon receiving a letter from the Emperor Gratian praising the appropriateness of Rome appointing individuals evidently worthy of holy positions, Ambroses host gave him up. Within a week, he was baptized, ordained and duly consecrated bishop of Milan and this raised his popularity even further, giving him considerable political leverage over even the emperor. Ambrose also wrote a treatise by the name of The Goodness of Death, according to legend, Ambrose immediately and forcefully stopped Arianism in Milan. He studied theology with Simplician, a presbyter of Rome, in the confrontation with Arians, Ambrose sought to theologically refute their propositions, which were contrary to the Nicene creed and thus to the officially defined orthodoxy
Ambrose
–
Early mosaic of Ambrose that might be an actual portrait.
Ambrose
–
The body of Ambrose (with white vestments) in the crypt of Sant'Ambrogio basilica.
Ambrose
–
Saint Ambrose barring Theodosius from Milan Cathedral by
Anthony van Dyck
Ambrose
–
Saint Ambrose with
scourge and book, a painting in the church of San Giuseppe alla Lungara, Rome
14.
Archbishop of Milan
–
The Archdiocese of Milan is a metropolitan see of the Catholic Church in Italy which covers the areas of Milan, Monza, Lecco and Varese. It has long maintained its own Latin liturgical rite, the Ambrosian rite, among its past archbishops, the better known are Saint Ambrose, Saint Charles Borromeo, Pope Pius XI and blessed Pope Paul VI. Milans Archdiocese is the largest in Europe, according to the legend, the Gospel was brought to Milan by St. Barnabas, and the first Bishop of Milan, St. Anathalon, was a disciple of that apostle. The persecutions ended in 313 when the Emperors Constantine I and Licinius issued the Edict of Milan which proclaimed the religious toleration in the Roman Empire, historically the Milanese church has been in full communion with the Papacy. Among its bishops should be named Eustorgius I and Dionysius, who firmly opposed apostasy imposed by the Roman Emperor Constantius II, dionysus was exiled to Cappadocia, while the Romans put Auxentius on the episcopal throne of Milan. At the death of Auxentius, the great Saint Ambrose was elected bishop by the people of Milan, among his successors, Simplicianus, Senator and Dacius, who lived almost always in exile at Constantinople on account of the Gothic War. During the Lombards invasion many things happened to the church in Milan, the Schism of the Three Chapters guaranteed autonomy of the Milanese Church for 38 years, since the Lombards were enemies of the Byzantines. At the siege of Milan by the Lombard Alboin, the Bishop Honoratus sought refuge in Genoa, with a number of his clergy. In the 10th-century the archbishops of Milan became feudatory of the Emperor extending his jurisdiction to all North-West Italy, the most distinguished of these was Ariberto da Intimiano. His pastoral efforts were followed also by his successors, such as Federico Borromeo, the church of Milan was governed from 1979 to 2002 by Cardinal Carlo Maria Martini, S. J. who had been a favorite of the Catholic left. Cardinal Scola had succeeded the retiring Cardinal Dionigi Tettamanzi, who had been in office since 2002 and had been a possible papabile, Cardinal Scola is assisted by a Vicar General, the Auxiliary Bishop Mario Delpini, and two other Auxiliary Bishops, Erminio De Scalzi and Luigi Stucchi. The Seminary of the archdiocese has the see in Venegono Inferiore. The minor seminary were located in Seveso, a list of the bishops and archbishops of Milan is engraved in plaque in the South nave of the Cathedral of Milan, but such list contains some historical errors. The data here below follow the work of Eugenio Cazzani and they are divided between the Province of Bergamo, the Province of Como, the Province of Lecco, the Province of Milan, the Province of Pavia, and the Province of Varese. Ambrosian chant Ambrosian Rite Cathedral of Milan Angelo Scola Catholic Hierarchy Profile of the Archdiocese of Milan Herbermann, Charles, List of archbishops, part one List of archbishops, part two News from the Archdiocese of Milan
Archbishop of Milan
–
The Cathedral of
Milan
Archbishop of Milan
–
Inside view of the
Duomo di Milano.
15.
Milan
–
Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
Milan
–
Milan Cathedral,
La Scala opera house and
Porta Nuova business district
Milan
Milan
Milan
16.
Arianism
–
Arian teachings were first attributed to Arius, a Christian presbyter in Alexandria, Egypt. The teachings of Arius and his supporters were opposed to the views held by Homoousian Christians, regarding the nature of the Trinity. The Arian concept of Christ is that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten by God the Father, there was a dispute between two interpretations based upon the theological orthodoxy of the time, both of them attempted to solve its theological dilemmas. So there were, initially, two equally orthodox interpretations which initiated a conflict in order to attract adepts and define the new orthodoxy, homoousianism was formally affirmed by the first two Ecumenical Councils. All mainstream branches of Christianity now consider Arianism to be heterodox, the Ecumenical First Council of Nicaea of 325 deemed it to be a heresy. According to Everett Ferguson, The great majority of Christians had no clear views on the Trinity, at the regional First Synod of Tyre in 335, Arius was exonerated. Constantine the Great was baptized by the Arian bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, after the deaths of both Arius and Constantine, Arius was again anathemised and pronounced a heretic again at the Ecumenical First Council of Constantinople of 381. The Roman Emperors Constantius II and Valens were Arians or Semi-Arians, as was the first King of Italy, Odoacer, and the Lombards till the 7th century. Arius had been a pupil of Lucian of Antioch at Lucians private academy in Antioch and he taught that God the Father and the Son of God did not always exist together eternally. A verse from Proverbs was also used, The Lord created me at the beginning of his work, therefore, the Son was rather the very first and the most perfect of Gods creatures, and he was made God only by the Fathers permission and power. Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century and it involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Romes imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens, became Arians or Semi-Arians, as did prominent Gothic, Vandal, such a deep controversy within the Church during this period of its development could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for the Arian doctrines. Of the roughly three hundred bishops in attendance at the Council of Nicea, two bishops did not sign the Nicene Creed, which condemned Arianism, Arians do not believe in the traditional doctrine of the Trinity. The letter of Arian Auxentius regarding the Arian missionary Ulfilas gives a picture of Arian beliefs. Arian Ulfilas, who was ordained a bishop by Arian Eusebius of Nicomedia and returned to his people to work as a missionary, believed, God, the Father, always existing, the Son of God, Jesus Christ, begotten before time began and who is Lord/Master. By the 8th century it had ceased to be the tribes mainstream belief as the tribal rulers gradually came to adopt Nicene orthodoxy. This trend began in 496 with Clovis I of the Franks, then Reccared I of the Visigoths in 587, the remaining tribes – the Vandals and the Ostrogoths – did not convert as a people nor did they maintain territorial cohesion. Having been militarily defeated by the armies of Emperor Justinian I, the Vandalic War of 533–534 dispersed the defeated Vandals
Arianism
–
Constantine burning Arian books, illustration from a compendium of
canon law, c. 825
Arianism
–
Once the Orthodox Trinitarians succeeded in defeating Arianism, they censored any signs that the perceived heresy left behind. This mosaic in
Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna has had images of the Arian king, Theoderic, and his court removed. However, on some columns their hands remain.
Arianism
–
Ceiling Mosaic of the
Arian Baptistry
17.
Northern Europe
–
Northern Europe is the northern part or region of Europe. However, narrower definitions may also be used based on geographical factors, such as climate. Greenland, geographically a part of North America, is politically a part of the Kingdom of Denmark, while Northern Europe overlaps with most of Northwestern Europe, north-Central Europe, and Northeastern Europe, it does not border Southern Europe. Countries which are central-western, central-central, or central-eastern are generally considered part of neither Northern Europe or Southern Europe. Historically, when Europe was dominated by the Mediterranean region, everything not near this sea was termed Northern Europe, including southern Germany, all of the Low Countries and this meaning is still used today in some contexts, such as in discussions of the Northern Renaissance. In medieval times, the term Thule was used to mean a place in the extreme northern reaches of the continent. The region has a south west extreme of around 50 degrees north, the entire regions climate is mildly affected by the Gulf Stream. From the west climates vary from maritime and maritime subarctic climates, in the north and central climates are generally subarctic or Arctic and to the east climates are mostly subarctic and temperate/continental. With the exception of the United Kingdom and Ireland, Northern European countries are known for harsh winters with temperatures reaching as low as minus 50 degrees Celsius in some parts. Countries in Northern Europe have large, developed economies and some of the highest standards of living in the world and they often score highly on surveys measuring quality of life, such as the Human Development Index
Northern Europe
–
A map of northern Europe after
Ptolemy
Northern Europe
–
A satellite photograph of northern Europe
Northern Europe
–
A Dutch map of northern Europe, 1601
Northern Europe
–
Typical landscape of Northern Europe
18.
Bernard of Clairvaux
–
Bernard of Clairvaux, O. Cist was a French abbot and the primary reformer of the Cistercian order. After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order, three years later, he was sent to found a new abbey at an isolated clearing in a glen known as the Val dAbsinthe, about 15 kilometres southeast of Bar-sur-Aube. According to tradition, Bernard founded the monastery on 25 June 1115, naming it Claire Vallée, there Bernard would preach an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. In the year 1128, Bernard attended the Council of Troyes, at which he traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar, on the death of Pope Honorius II on 13 February 1130, a schism broke out in the Church. King Louis VI of France convened a council of the French bishops at Étampes in 1130. After the council of Étampes, Bernard spoke with King Henry I of England, also known as Henry Beauclerc, Henry I was sceptical because most of the bishops of England supported Antipope Anacletus II, Bernard persuaded him to support Innocent. Germany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten, who was a friend of Bernards, however, Innocent insisted on Bernards company when he met with Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor. Lothair III became Innocents strongest ally among the nobility, although the councils of Étampes, Wurzburg, Clermont, and Rheims all supported Innocent, large portions of the Christian world still supported Anacletus. Bernard set out to convince these other regions to rally behind Innocent, the first person he went to was Gerard of Angoulême. He proceeded to write a letter, known as Letter 126, Bernard would later comment that Gerard was his most formidable opponent during the whole schism. After persuading Gerard, Bernard traveled to visit William X, Duke of Aquitaine and he was the hardest for Bernard to convince. He did not pledge allegiance to Innocent until 1135, after that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy persuading the Italians to pledge allegiance to Innocent. He traveled to Sicily in 1137 to convince the king of Sicily to follow Innocent, the whole conflict ended when Anacletus died on 25 January 1138. In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, Bernard denounced the teachings of Peter Abelard to the pope, who called a council at Sens in 1141 to settle the matter. Bernard soon saw one of his disciples elected Pope Eugene III, having previously helped end the schism within the church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. In June 1145, Bernard traveled in southern France and his preaching there helped strengthen support against heresy, after the Christian defeat at the Siege of Edessa, the pope commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade. The last years of Bernards life were saddened by the failure of the crusaders, Bernard died at the age of 63, after 40 years as a monk. He was the first Cistercian placed on the calendar of saints, in 1830 Pope Pius VIII bestowed upon Bernard the title Doctor of the Church
Bernard of Clairvaux
–
St Bernard in "A Short History of Monks and Monasteries" by Alfred Wesley Wishart (1900).
Bernard of Clairvaux
–
The Vision of St Bernard, by
Fra Bartolommeo, c. 1504 (
Uffizi).
Bernard of Clairvaux
–
Bernard exorcising a possession, altarpiece by
Jörg Breu the Elder, c. 1500.
19.
Francis of Assisi
–
Saint Francis of Assisi, born Giovanni di Pietro di Bernardone, informally named as Francesco, was an Italian Roman Catholic friar and preacher. He founded the mens Order of Friars Minor, the women’s Order of Saint Clare, the Third Order of Saint Francis, Francis is one of the most venerated religious figures in history. Pope Gregory IX canonized Francis on 16 July 1228, along with Saint Catherine of Siena, he was designated Patron saint of Italy. In 1219, he went to Egypt in an attempt to convert the Sultan to put an end to the conflict of the Crusades, by this point, the Franciscan Order had grown to such an extent that its primitive organizational structure was no longer sufficient. He returned to Italy to organize the Order, once his community was authorized by the Pope, he withdrew increasingly from external affairs. Francis is also known for his love of the Eucharist, in 1223, Francis arranged for the first Christmas live nativity scene. He died during the hours of 3 October 1226, while listening to a reading he had requested of Psalm 142. Pietro was in France on business when Francis was born in Assisi, upon his return to Assisi, Pietro took to calling his son Francesco, possibly in honor of his commercial success and enthusiasm for all things French. Since the child was renamed in infancy, the change can hardly have had anything to do with his aptitude for learning French, as some have thought. While going off to war in 1202, Francis had a vision that directed him back to Assisi, in 1205, Francis left for Apulia to enlist in the army of Walter III, Count of Brienne. Francis lived the high-spirited life typical of a young man. In 1201, he joined an expedition against Perugia and was taken as a prisoner at Collestrada. It is possible that his conversion was a gradual process rooted in this experience. Upon his return to Assisi in 1203, Francis returned to his carefree life, in 1204, a serious illness led him to a spiritual crisis. A strange vision made him return to Assisi, deepening his ecclesiastical awakening, on a pilgrimage to Rome, he joined the poor in begging at St. Peters Basilica, an experience that moved him to live in poverty. Francis returned home, began preaching on the streets, and soon gathered followers and his Order was authorized by Pope Innocent III in 1210. He then founded the Order of Poor Clares, which became a religious order for women. As a youth, Francesco became a devotee of troubadours and was fascinated with all things Transalpine, in this account, he was selling cloth and velvet in the marketplace on behalf of his father when a beggar came to him and asked for alms
Francis of Assisi
–
The Stigmata of Saint Francis by
Bartolomeo della Gatta, tempera on wood circa 1487
Francis of Assisi
–
The house where Francis of Assisi lived when young
Francis of Assisi
–
Francis of Assisi by
Cimabue
Francis of Assisi
–
Francis considered his
stigmata part of the
Imitation of Christ.
Cigoli, 1699
20.
John Audelay
–
John Audelay was an English priest and poet from Haughmond Abbey, in Shropshire, he is one of the few English poets of the period whose name is known to us. Some of the first Christmas carols recorded in English appear among his works, the little that is known to us about Audelays life comes mainly from Oxford, Bodleian Library MS Douce 302. The manuscript contains the text of all sixty-two of his surviving poems, the dialect of Middle English used in MS Douce 302 is local to Staffordshire, and it has been suggested that Audelay may therefore have come from the Staffordshire village of Audley. However, the earliest biographical record of Audelay places him in London in 1417, according to a date noted in MS. Douce 302, by 1426 Audelay was in retirement as a chantry priest at Haughmond Abbey. In lines repeated several times throughout the manuscript, Audelay states that he was by that time old, infirm, deaf. Much of Audelays work as contained in MS, Douce 302 consists of devotional carols, Audelay is recognised as a significant figure in the history of the English carol. Fore pride in herte he hatis all one, Worchip ne reuerens kepis he non, Ne he is wroþ with no mon, In charete is alle his chere. The two most remarkable and accomplished poems in the manuscript are both long exercises in a form of alliterative verse with a superimposed rhyme-scheme, Pater Noster. Until recently, the complete edition of Audelays poems was The Poems of John Audelay. A recent edition has been produced by Susanna Fein for the Consortium for the Teaching of the Middle Ages, POEMS AND CAROLS by John the Blind Audelay edited by Susanna Greer Fein
John Audelay
–
The ruins of Haughmond Abbey.
21.
Shropshire
–
Shropshire Council was created in 2009, a unitary authority taking over from the previous county council and five district councils. The borough of Telford and Wrekin has been a unitary authority since 1998. The county has many towns, including Whitchurch in the north, Newport north-east of Telford. The Ironbridge Gorge area is a UNESCO World Heritage Site, covering Ironbridge, Coalbrookdale, there are other historic industrial sites in the county, such as at Shrewsbury, Broseley, Snailbeach and Highley, as well as the Shropshire Union Canal. The Shropshire Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty covers about a quarter of the county, Shropshire is one of Englands most rural and sparsely populated counties, with a population density of 136/km2. The Wrekin is one of the most famous landmarks in the county, though the highest hills are the Clee Hills, Stiperstones. Wenlock Edge is another significant geographical and geological landmark, the River Severn, Great Britains longest river, runs through the county, exiting into Worcestershire via the Severn Valley. Shropshire is landlocked and with an area of 3,487 square kilometres is Englands largest inland county, the county flower is the round-leaved sundew. The area was part of the lands of the Cornovii. This was a tribal Celtic iron age kingdom and their capital in pre-Roman times was probably a hill fort on the Wrekin. Ptolemys 2nd century Geography names one of their towns as being Viroconium Cornoviorum, after the Roman occupation of Britain ended in the 5th century, the Shropshire area was in the eastern part of the Welsh Kingdom of Powys, known in Welsh poetry as the Paradise of Powys. It was annexed to the Angle kingdom of Mercia by King Offa in the 8th century, in subsequent centuries, the area suffered repeated Danish invasion, and fortresses were built at Bridgnorth and Chirbury. Many defensive castles were built at this time across the county to defend against the Welsh and enable effective control of the region, including Ludlow Castle, the western frontier with Wales was not finally determined until the 14th century. Also in this period, a number of foundations were formed, the county largely falling at this time under the Diocese of Hereford. The county contains a number of historically significant towns, including Shrewsbury, Bridgnorth, additionally, the area around Coalbrookdale in the county is seen as highly significant, as it is regarded as one of the birthplaces of the Industrial Revolution. The village of Edgmond, near Newport, is the location of the lowest recorded temperature in England, the origin of the name Shropshire is the Old English Scrobbesbyrigscīr, which means Shrewsburyshire. The name may, therefore, be derived indirectly from a name such as Scrope. Salop is an old name for Shropshire, historically used as a form for post or telegrams
Shropshire
–
Section of
Offa's Dyke near the Shropshire town of
Clun, constructed after the Saxon annexation of the area in the 8th century AD.
Shropshire
–
Flag
Shropshire
–
The Iron Bridge at
Ironbridge.
Shropshire
–
The
River Severn, seen here in
Shrewsbury, is the primary watercourse in the county.
22.
Wassailing
–
The tradition of wassailing falls into two distinct categories, The house-visiting wassail and the orchard-visiting wassail. The house-visiting wassail is the practice of people going door-to-door, singing and offering a drink from the bowl in exchange for gifts. This practice still exists, but has largely displaced by caroling. The word wassail comes from the Anglo-Saxon greeting Wæs þu hæl, the correct response to the greeting is Drinc hæl. According to the Oxford English Dictionary waes hael is the Middle English spelling parallel to OE hál wes þú, the American Heritage Dictionary, fifth edition, gives Old Norse ves heill as the source of Middle English waeshaeil. In recent times, the toast has come to be synonymous with Christmas, traditionally, the wassail is celebrated on Twelfth Night. Some people still wassail on Old Twelvey Night, January 17, in the middle ages, the wassail was a reciprocal exchange between the feudal lords and their peasants as a form of recipient-initiated charitable giving, to be distinguished from begging. e. This would be given in the form of the song being sung, wassailing is the background practice against which an English carol such as We Wish You a Merry Christmas dating back to sixteenth century England, can be made sense of. The carol lies in the English tradition where people of the community gave Christmas treats to the carolers on Christmas Eve such as figgy puddings. Similar traditions have also traced to Greece and the country of Georgia. Wassailing was associated with bands of young men who would enter the homes of wealthy neighbours and demand free food. If the householder refused, he was cursed, and occasionally his house was vandalized. In the cider-producing West of England wassailing also refers to drinking the health of trees in the hopes that they might better thrive. An old rhyme goes, The purpose of wassailing is to awake the cider apple trees, the ceremonies of each wassail vary from village to village but they generally all have the same core elements. Perhaps unbeknown to the public, this ancient English tradition is still very much thriving today. In the tale a man offers his last mug of mulled cider to the trees in his orchard and is rewarded by the Apple Tree Man who reveals to him the location of buried treasure, Wassail bowls, generally in the shape of goblets, have been preserved. The Worshipful Company of Grocers made a very elaborate one in the seventeenth century and it is so large that it must have passed around as a loving cup so that many members of the guild could drink from it. In the British Christmas carol Wassail, Wassail, All Over the Town, white maple is a completely flavorless wood, commonly used even today to make some kitchen utensils, and likely was what many simple peasant wassail bowls were made from
Wassailing
–
An apple sapling, hung with toast, placed in a handcart and pushed around the streets during the
Chepstow Mari Lwyd, 2014
Wassailing
–
Sharing the Wassail Bowl
23.
Good Christian Men, Rejoice
–
In dulci jubilo is a traditional Christmas carol. In its original setting, the carol is a text of German. Bachs chorale prelude based on the tune is also a traditional postlude for Christmas services, the original song text, a macaronic alternation of Medieval German and Latin, is thought to have been written by the German mystic Heinrich Seuse circa 1328. According to folklore, Seuse heard angels sing these words and joined them in a dance of worship, then they drew the Servant by the hand into the dance, and the youth began a joyous song about the infant Jesus. The tune first appears in Codex 1305, a manuscript in Leipzig University Library dating from c,1400, although it has been suggested that the melody may have existed in Europe prior to this date. In print, the tune was included in Geistliche Lieder, a 1533 Lutheran hymnal by Joseph Klug and it also appears in Michael Vehes Gesangbuch of 1537. In 1545, another verse was added, possibly by Martin Luther and this was included in Valentin Babsts Geistliche Lieder, printed in Leipzig. The melody was popular elsewhere in Europe, and appears in a Swedish/Latin version in the 1582 Finnish songbook Piae Cantiones. The tune appears in collections by Michael Praetorius, for voices only. 5, a motet à8 for double choir, Musae Sionae V nos. 80–82,32,33 all for 4 voices, and 5 part setting from Musae Sionae VI. And a vocal–instrumental version from his collection Polyhymnia Caduceatrix et Panegyrica, No 34 and it can be executed by 7,12,16 or 20 voices in 5 choirs and general bass. The Praetorius settings where widely adapted in Protestant continental Europe, a polyphonic arrangement for 8 voices was made by Robert Lucas de Pearsall, this being later adapted for 4 voices, the most commonly performed version, by W. J. Westbrook. There have been a number of translations of the Latin/German poem into English, the most popular that keeps the macaronic structure is R. L. de Pearsalls 1837 translation, which retains the Latin phrases and substitutes English for German. A2008 survey by BBC Music Magazine found this to be the second most popular choral Christmas carol with British cathedral organists, alternatively, a looser translation produced in 1853 by John Mason Neale titles the work Good Christian Men, Rejoice. This translation is often criticised, Thomas Helmore made a mistake when transcribing the mensural notation of Piae Cantiones which led to the repeated News, news, in 1921, H. J. Massé wrote that it was an example of musical wrong doing. Involving the mutilation of the rhythm of that grand tune In dulci jubilo to the English words Good Christian Men Rejoice. It is inconceivable that anyone of any real musical culture should have lent himself to this tinkering with a tune for the sake of fitting it perforce to works of inferior merit. He goes on to cite a more appropriate English translation from 1567 by John Wedderburn as a worthy effort
Good Christian Men, Rejoice
–
The melody as published in the 1582 Finnish music collection
Piae Cantiones, which alternates the Latin with Swedish.
Good Christian Men, Rejoice
–
Autograph manuscript of "In Dulci Jubilo", BWV 608, from the
Orgelbüchlein of
J. S. Bach
24.
Good King Wenceslas
–
Good King Wenceslas is a popular Christmas carol that tells a story of a Bohemian king going on a journey and braving harsh winter weather to give alms to a poor peasant on the Feast of Stephen. During the journey, his page is about to give up the struggle against the cold weather, the legend is based on the life of the historical Saint Wenceslaus I, Duke of Bohemia or Svatý Václav in Czech. The name Wenceslas is a Latinised version of the modern Czech language “Václav”, in 1853, English hymnwriter John Mason Neale wrote the Wenceslas lyrics, in collaboration with his music editor Thomas Helmore, and the carol first appeared in Carols for Christmas-Tide,1853. Neales lyrics were set to the melody of a 13th-century spring carol Tempus adest floridum first published in the 1582 Finnish song collection Piae Cantiones. Wenceslas was considered a martyr and a saint immediately after his death in the 10th century, within a few decades of Wenceslas death, four biographies of him were in circulation. Several centuries later the legend was claimed as fact by Pope Pius II, the usual English spelling of Duke Wenceslass name, Wenceslaus, is occasionally encountered in later textual variants of the carol, although it was not used by Neale in his version. Wenceslas is not to be confused with King Wenceslaus I of Bohemia, the tune is that of Tempus adest floridum, a 13th-century spring carol in 7676 Doubled Trochaic metre first published in the Finnish song book Piae Cantiones in 1582. Piae Cantiones is a collection of songs compiled by Jaakko Suomalainen, the Protestant headmaster of Turku Cathedral School, and published by Theodoric Petri. The book is a document of European songs intended not only for use in church. The text of Neales carol bears no relationship to the words of Tempus Adest Floridum, in or around 1853, G. J. R. The book was unknown in England at that time. Neale translated some of the carols and hymns, and in 1853, he, in 1854, they published a dozen more in Carols for Easter-tide and it was in these collections that Neales original hymn was first published. The tune has also used for the Christmas hymn Mary Gently Laid Her Child, by Joseph S. Cook, GIAs hymnal. John Mason Neale published the carol Good King Wenceslas in 1853, although he may have written his carol some time earlier, Neale was known for his devotion to High Church traditions. According to older Czech sources, Neales lyrics are a translation of a poem by Czech poet Václav Alois Svoboda, written in Czech, German, the hymns lyrics take the form of five eight-line stanzas in four-stress lines. Each stanza has an ABABCDCD rhyme scheme, lines 1,3,5, and 7 end in single-syllable rhymes, and lines 2,4,6, and 8 with two-syllable rhymes. Thus, unusually, the musical line differs from all the others in having not two but three measures of 4/4 time. Neales words are now in the public domain, academics tend to be critical of Neales textual substitution
Good King Wenceslas
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"Tempus adest floridum" in the 1582 Finnish song collection
Piae Cantiones. The plainsong formed the basis for the carol.
Good King Wenceslas
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Good King Wenceslas, illustrated in Christmas Carols, New and Old
25.
Adeste Fideles
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The original four verses of the hymn were extended to a total of eight, and these have been translated into many languages. The English translation of O Come, All Ye Faithful by the English Catholic priest Frederick Oakeley, the present harmonisation is from the English Hymnal. An original manuscript of the oldest known version, dating from 1751, is held by Stonyhurst College in Lancashire, thomas Arne, whom Wade knew, is another possible composer. Wade included it in his own publication of Cantus Diversi and it was published again in the 1760 edition of Evening Offices of the Church. It also appeared in Samuel Webbes An Essay on the Church Plain Chant, there are additional Latin verses in various sources
Adeste Fideles
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Start of "Adeste fideles" Play (
help ·
info)
26.
Protestant Reformation
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The period is usually considered to have begun with the publication of the Ninety-five Theses by Luther in 1517 to the Thirty Years War and ended with the Peace of Westphalia in 1648. The Protestant position, however, would come to incorporate doctrinal changes such as sola scriptura, the initial movement within Germany diversified, and other reform impulses arose independently of Luther. The spread of Gutenbergs printing press provided the means for the dissemination of religious materials in the vernacular. The largest groups were the Lutherans and Calvinists, Lutheran churches were founded mostly in Germany, the Baltics and Scandinavia, while the Reformed ones were founded in Switzerland, Hungary, France, the Netherlands and Scotland. The new movement influenced the Church of England decisively after 1547 under Edward VI and Elizabeth I, there were also reformation movements throughout continental Europe known as the Radical Reformation, which gave rise to the Anabaptist, Moravian and other Pietistic movements. The Roman Catholic Church responded with a Counter-Reformation initiated by the Council of Trent, much work in battling Protestantism was done by the well-organised new order of the Jesuits. In general, Northern Europe, with the exception of most of Ireland, southern Europe remained Roman Catholic, while Central Europe was a site of a fierce conflict, culminating in the Thirty Years War, which left it devastated. The oldest Protestant churches, such as the Unitas Fratrum and Moravian Church, the later Protestant Churches generally date their doctrinal separation from the Roman Catholic Church to the 16th century. The Reformation began as an attempt to reform the Roman Catholic Church, by priests who opposed what they perceived as false doctrines and ecclesiastic malpractice. They especially objected to the teaching and the sale of indulgences, and the abuses thereof, and to simony, the reformers saw these practices as evidence of the systemic corruption of the Churchs hierarchy, which included the pope. Unrest due to the Great Schism of Western Christianity excited wars between princes, uprisings among the peasants, and widespread concern over corruption in the Church, New perspectives came from John Wycliffe at Oxford University and from Jan Hus at the Charles University in Prague. Hus rejected indulgences and adopted a doctrine of justification by grace through faith alone, the Roman Catholic Church officially concluded this debate at the Council of Constance by condemning Hus, who was executed by burning despite a promise of safe-conduct. Wycliffe was posthumously condemned as a heretic and his corpse exhumed and burned in 1428, the Council of Constance confirmed and strengthened the traditional medieval conception of church and empire. The council did not address the national tensions or the theological tensions stirred up during the century and could not prevent schism. Pope Sixtus IV established the practice of selling indulgences to be applied to the dead, Pope Alexander VI was one of the most controversial of the Renaissance popes. He was the father of seven children, including Lucrezia and Cesare Borgia, in response to papal corruption, particularly the sale of indulgences, Luther wrote The Ninety-Five Theses. The Reformation was born of Luthers dual declaration – first, the discovering of Jesus and salvation by faith alone, the Protestant reformers were unanimous in agreement and this understanding of prophecy furnished importance to their deeds. It was the point and the battle cry that made the Reformation nearly unassailable
Protestant Reformation
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Protestant Reformation
Protestant Reformation
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Execution of
Jan Hus, an important Reformation precursor, in 1415.
Protestant Reformation
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Martin Luther, shown in a portrait by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, initiated the Protestant Reformation in 1517.
Protestant Reformation
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Martin Luther's 1534
Bible translated into German. Luther's translation influenced the development of the current Standard German.
27.
Protestant
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
Protestant
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(
The Ninety-Five Theses)
Protestant
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The Memorial Church in
Speyer, Germany
Protestant
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Key figures of the Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther and John Calvin depicted on a church
pulpit. These reformers emphasised preaching and made it a centerpiece of worship.
Protestant
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The Bible translated into
vernacular by Martin Luther. The supreme authority of
scripture is a fundamental principle of Protestantism.
28.
Sheet music
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Sheet music is a handwritten or printed form of music notation that uses modern musical symbols to indicate the pitches, rhythms and/or chords of a song or instrumental musical piece. The first printed sheet music made with a press was made in 1473. Sheet music is the form in which Western classical music is notated so that it can be learned and performed by solo singers or instrumentalists or musical ensembles. Many forms of traditional and popular Western music are commonly learned by singers and musicians by ear, Score is a common alternative term for sheet music, and there are several types of scores, as discussed below. Sheet music from the 20th and 21st century typically indicates the title of the song or composition on a page or cover, or on the top of the first page. If the song or piece is from a movie, Broadway musical, or opera, if the songwriter or composer is known, her or his name is typically indicated along with the title. Black market sheet music, such as illegal jazz fake books may or may not indicate the songwriter or composer, the type of musical notation varies a great deal by genre or style of music. In most classical music, the melody and accompaniment parts are notated on the lines of a staff using round note heads, the lyrics, if present, are written near the melody notes. However, music from the Baroque music era or earlier eras may have neither a tempo marking nor a dynamic indication. The singers and musicians of that era were expected to know what tempo and loudness to play or sing a song or piece due to their musical experience. In the contemporary music era, and in some cases before, composers often used their native language for tempo indications. These conventions of music notation, and in particular the use of English tempo instructions, are also used for sheet music versions of 20th. Popular music songs often indicate both the tempo and genre, slow blues or uptempo rock, pop songs often contain chord names above the staff using letter names, so that an acoustic guitarist or piano player can improvise a chordal accompaniment. In other styles of music, different musical notation methods may be used, in jazz, while most professional performers can read classical-style notation, many jazz tunes are notated using chord charts, which indicate the chord progression of a song and its form. Like popular music songs, jazz tunes often indicate both the tempo and genre, slow blues or fast bop, professional country music session musicians typically use music notated in the Nashville Number System, which indicates the chord progression using numbers. Chord charts using letter names, numbers, or Roman numerals are widely used for notating music by blues, R&B, rock music. Many guitar players and electric bass players learn songs and note tunes using tablature, tab is widely used rock music and heavy metal guitarists. Singers in many music styles learn a song using only a lyrics sheet
Sheet music
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Tibetan musical score from the 19th century.
Sheet music
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A conductor's score
Sheet music
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Excerpt from a 13th-century Dominican missal (parchment manuscript)
Sheet music
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Frontispiece to Petrucci's Odhecaton
29.
Arthur Sullivan
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Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan MVO was an English composer. He is best known for his series of 14 operatic collaborations with the dramatist W. S. Gilbert, Pinafore, The Pirates of Penzance and The Mikado. The best known of his hymns and songs include Onward Christian Soldiers, the son of a military bandmaster, Sullivan composed his first anthem at age eight. He was selected as soloist in the choir of the Chapel Royal. His graduation piece was a suite of music to Shakespeares The Tempest. When it was performed in London in 1862, it was an immediate sensation, Sullivan began his composing career with a series of ambitious works, interspersed with hymns, parlour ballads and other light pieces. Among his best received early pieces were a ballet, LÎle Enchantée, from 1861 to 1872, he supplemented his income by working as a church organist and music teacher, and writing hymns and songs. In 1866, Sullivan composed a comic opera, Cox and Box. His most successful work, the Overture di Ballo, premiered in 1870. Sullivans talent and native charm earned him friends in musical and social circles, including Queen Victorias son Alfred. In 1871, Sullivan wrote his first opera with W. S. Gilbert, Sullivan then produced his Festival Te Deum, an oratorio, The Light of the World, and incidental music for West End productions of several Shakespeare plays. He also had conducting and academic appointments, in 1875, producer Richard DOyly Carte reunited Gilbert and Sullivan to create a one-act piece, Trial by Jury, which was a surprise hit. Pinafore became a sensation, as did The Pirates of Penzance and Patience. Sullivan never married but had a love affair with an American socialite. After the death of his brother Fred in 1877, Sullivan supported Freds large family financially for the rest of his life, effectively adopting his nephew Bertie. Carte used his profits from the Gilbert and Sullivan partnership to build the Savoy Theatre in 1881, later hits in the series were Iolanthe, The Mikado, The Yeomen of the Guard and The Gondoliers. Sullivan was knighted for his contributions to music in 1883 and his infrequent serious pieces during the 1880s included two cantatas, The Martyr of Antioch and The Golden Legend, his most popular choral work. Sullivans only serious opera, Ivanhoe, though successful in 1891, was little-heard after that
Arthur Sullivan
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Arthur Sullivan
Arthur Sullivan
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Sullivan as a chorister of the
Chapel Royal, circa 1855
Arthur Sullivan
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Sullivan at age 16, studying at
Leipzig
Arthur Sullivan
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Colleagues and collaborators: clockwise from top left,
George Grove,
F. C. Burnand,
Richard D'Oyly Carte,
W. S. Gilbert
Media related to Christmas carols at Wikimedia Commons
