1.
Christmas
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In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day
2.
Faroe Islands
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The Faroe Islands, also spelled the Faeroes, is an archipelago between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic, about halfway between Norway and Iceland,320 kilometres north-northwest of Scotland. Its area is about 1,400 square kilometres with a population of 49,188 in 2016, the Faeroe Islands is an autonomous country within the Danish Realm. The land of the Faeroes is rugged, and these islands have an oceanic climate, windy, wet, cloudy. Despite this island groups northerly latitude, temperatures average above freezing throughout the year because of the Gulf Stream, between 1035 and 1814, the Faeroes were part of the Hereditary Kingdom of Norway. In 1814, the Treaty of Kiel granted Denmark control over the islands, the Faroe Islands have been a self-governing country within the Kingdom of Denmark since 1948. The Faroese have control of most domestic matters, areas that remain the responsibility of Denmark include military defence, the police department, the justice department, currency, and foreign affairs. However, as they are not part of the customs area as Denmark, the Faroe Islands have an independent trade policy. The islands also have representation in the Nordic Council as members of the Danish delegation, the people of the Faroe Islands also compete as national team in certain sports. In Danish, the name Færøerne may reflect an Old Norse word fær, the morpheme øerne represents a plural of ø in Danish. The Danish name thus translates as the islands of sheep, in Faroese, the name appears as Føroyar. Oyar represents the plural of oy, older Faroese for island, the modern Faeroese word for island is oyggj. In the English language, their name is sometimes spelled Faeroe, archaeological evidence shows settlers living on the Faroe Islands in two successive periods prior to the arrival of the Norse, the first between 400 and 600 and the second between 600 and 800. Scientists from the University of Aberdeen have also found early cereal pollen from domesticated plants, archaeologist Mike Church noted that Dicuil mentioned what may have been the Faroes. He also suggested that the living there might have been from Ireland, Scotland or Scandinavia. A Latin account of a made by Brendan, an Irish monastic saint who lived around 484–578. This association, however, is far from conclusive in its description, Dicuil, an Irish monk of the early 9th century, wrote a more definite account. 800, bringing Old West Norse, which evolved into the modern Faroese language, according to Icelandic sagas such as Færeyjar Saga, one of the best known men in the island was Tróndur í Gøtu, a descendant of Scandinavian chiefs who had settled in Dublin, Ireland. Tróndur led the battle against Sigmund Brestursson, the Norwegian monarchy, a traditional name for the islands in Irish, Na Scigirí, possibly refers to the Skeggjar Beards, a nickname given to island dwellers
3.
Old Norse
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Old Norse was a North Germanic language that was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and inhabitants of their overseas settlements during about the 9th to 13th centuries. These dates, however, are not absolute, since written Old Norse is found well into the 15th century, Old Norse was divided into three dialects, Old West Norse, Old East Norse and Old Gutnish. Old West and East Norse formed a continuum, with no clear geographical boundary between them. For example, Old East Norse traits were found in eastern Norway, although Old Norwegian is classified as Old West Norse, most speakers spoke Old East Norse in what is present day Denmark and Sweden. Old Gutnish, the more obscure dialectal branch, is included in the Old East Norse dialect due to geographical associations. It developed its own features and shared in changes to both other branches. The 12th century Icelandic Gray Goose Laws state that Swedes, Norwegians, Icelanders and Danes spoke the same language, another term used, used especially commonly with reference to West Norse, was norrœnt mál. In some instances the term Old Norse refers specifically to Old West Norse, the Old East Norse dialect was spoken in Denmark, Sweden, settlements in Kievan Rus, eastern England, and Danish settlements in Normandy. The Old Gutnish dialect was spoken in Gotland and in settlements in the East. In the 11th century, Old Norse was the most widely spoken European language, in Kievan Rus, it survived the longest in Veliky Novgorod, probably lasting into the 13th century there. Norwegian is descended from Old West Norse, but over the centuries it has heavily influenced by East Norse. Old Norse also had an influence on English dialects and Lowland Scots and it also influenced the development of the Norman language, and through it and to a smaller extent, that of modern French. Various other languages, which are not closely related, have heavily influenced by Norse, particularly the Norman dialects, Scottish Gaelic. The current Finnish and Estonian words for Sweden are Ruotsi and Rootsi, of the modern languages, Icelandic is the closest to Old Norse. Written modern Icelandic derives from the Old Norse phonemic writing system, contemporary Icelandic-speakers can read Old Norse, which varies slightly in spelling as well as semantics and word order. However, pronunciation, particularly of the phonemes, has changed at least as much as in the other North Germanic languages. Faroese retains many similarities but is influenced by Danish, Norwegian, although Swedish, Danish and the Norwegian languages have diverged the most, they still retain asymmetric mutual intelligibility. Speakers of modern Swedish, Norwegian and Danish can mostly understand each other without studying their neighboring languages, the languages are also sufficiently similar in writing that they can mostly be understood across borders
4.
Yule
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Yule or Yuletide is a festival observed by the historical Germanic peoples. Scholars have connected the celebration to the Wild Hunt, the god Odin, and it later underwent Christianised reformulation resulting in the term Christmastide. Terms with an equivalent to Yule are used in the Nordic countries for Christmas with its religious rites. Today Yule is also used to an extent in the English-speaking world as a synonym for Christmas. Present day Christmas customs such as the Yule log, Yule goat, Yule boar, Yule singing, today the event is celebrated in Heathenry and some other forms of Modern Paganism. Both words are thought to be derived from Common Germanic *jeχʷla-, and are cognate with Gothic jiuleis, Old Norse, Icelandic, and Faroese jól, Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian jul, jol and ýlir. The etymological pedigree of the word, however, remains uncertain, though numerous attempts have been made to find Indo-European cognates outside the Germanic group. The noun Yuletide is first attested from around 1475, the word is attested in an explicitly pre-Christian context primarily in Old Norse. Among many others, the long-bearded god Odin bears the names jólfaðr, in plural may refer to the Norse gods in general. In Old Norse poetry, the word is employed as a synonym for feast. Jolly may share the etymology, but was borrowed from Old French jolif. The word was first mentioned by the Anglo-Norman chronicler Geoffrey Gaimar in his Estoire des Engleis, or History of the English People, Yule was an indigenous midwinter festival celebrated by the Germanic peoples. While the Old Norse month name ýlir is similarly attested, the Old Norse corpus also contains references to an event by the Old Norse form of the name. In chapter 55 of the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál, different names for the gods are given, one of the names provided is Yule-beings. A work by the skald Eyvindr Skáldaspillir that uses the term is then quoted, in addition, one of the numerous names of Odin is Jólnir, referring to the event. The Saga of Hákon the Good credits King Haakon I of Norway with the Christianisation of Norway as well as rescheduling the date of Yule to coincide with Christian celebrations held at the time, Yule had previously been celebrated for three nights from midwinter night, according to the saga. Haakon planned that when he had established himself and held power over the whole country. According to the saga, the result was that his popularity caused many to allow themselves to be baptised, Haakon spent most of this time in Trondheim
5.
Church bell
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A church bell in the Christian tradition is a bell which is rung in a church for a variety of church purposes, and can be heard outside the building. Traditionally they were used to call worshippers to the church for a communal service and they are also rung on special occasions such as a wedding, or a funeral service. In some religious traditions they are used within the liturgy of the service to signify to people that a particular part of the service has been reached. The ringing of bells, in the Christian tradition, is also believed to drive out demons. It is hung within a steeple or belltower of a church or religious building, such bells are either fixed in position or hung from a pivoted beam so they can swing to and fro. A rope hangs from a lever or wheel attached to the headstock, and when the bell ringer pulls on the rope the bell back and forth. Bells that are hung dead are normally sounded by hitting the bow with a hammer or occasionally by a rope which pulls the internal clapper against the bell. A church may have a bell, or a collection of bells which are tuned to a common scale. They may be stationary and chimed, rung randomly by swinging through a small arc, before modern communications, church bells were a common way to call the community together for all purposes, both sacred and secular. The injunction to pray the Lords prayer thrice daily was given in Didache 8,2 f, as such, the Catechism of the Catholic Church states that the Early Church prayed the Lords Prayer thrice a day, supplanting the former Amidah predominant in the Hebrew tradition. The Christian tradition of the ringing of bells from a belltower is analogous to the Islamic tradition of the adhan from a minaret. Most Christian denominations ring church bells to call the faithful to worship, in the United Kingdom predominantly in the Anglican church, there is a strong tradition of change ringing on full-circle tower bells for about half an hour before a service. This originated from the early 17th century when bell ringers found that swinging a bell through a large arc gave more control over the time between successive strikes of the clapper. This culminated in ringing bells through a circle, which let ringers easily produce different striking sequences. In Christianity, the ringing of bells is traditionally believed to drive out demons. The ringing of a bell to announce a death is called a death knell. A more modern tradition where there are full-circle bells is to use half-muffles when sounding one bell as a tolled bell, or all the bells in change-ringing. This means a leather muffle is placed on the clapper of each bell so that there is a loud open strike followed by a muffled strike, which has a very sonorous and mournful effect
6.
Christmas Eve
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Christmas Eve is the day before Christmas Day, the festival commemorating the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Christmas Day is observed around the world, and Christmas Eve is widely observed as a full or partial holiday in anticipation of Christmas Day, together, both days are considered one of the most culturally significant celebrations in Christendom and Western society. Many churches still ring their bells and hold prayers in the evening, for example. Since tradition holds that Jesus was born at night, Midnight Mass is celebrated on Christmas Eve, traditionally at midnight, roman Catholics and high church Anglicans traditionally celebrate Midnight Mass, which begins either at or sometime before midnight on Christmas Eve. This ceremony, which is held in churches throughout the world, celebrates the birth of Christ, Midnight Mass is popular in Poland. In recent years churches have scheduled their Midnight Mass as early as 7 pm. In Spanish-speaking areas, the Midnight Mass is sometimes referred to as Misa de Gallo, in the Philippines, the custom has expanded into the nine-day Simbang Gabi, when Filipinos attend dawn Masses from 16 December, continuing daily until Christmas Eve. In 2009 Vatican officials scheduled the Midnight Mass to start at 10 pm so that the 82-year-old Pope Benedict XVI would not have too late a night. Whilst it does not include any kind of Mass, the Church of Scotland has a service beginning just before midnight, the Church of Scotland no longer holds Hogmanay services on New Years Eve, however. The Christmas Eve Services are still very popular, on Christmas Eve, the Christ Candle in the center of the Advent wreath is traditionally lit in many church services. In candlelight services, while singing Silent Night, each member of the congregation receives a candle, lutherans traditionally practice Christmas Eve Eucharistic traditions typical of Germany and Scandinavia. Krippenspiele, special music for organ, vocal and brass choirs. A nativity scene may be erected indoors or outdoors, and is composed of figurines depicting the infant Jesus resting in a manger, Mary, other figures in the scene may include angels, shepherds, and various animals. The figures may be made of any material, and arranged in a stable or grotto, the Magi may also appear, and are sometimes not placed in the scene until the week following Christmas to account for their travel time to Bethlehem. While most home nativity scenes are packed away at Christmas or shortly thereafter, Christmas Vespers are popular in the early evening, and midnight services are also widespread in regions which are predominantly Lutheran. The old Lutheran tradition of a Christmas Vigil in the morning hours of Christmas Day can still be found in some regions. Methodists celebrate the evening in different ways, some, in the early evening, come to their church to celebrate Holy Communion with their families. The mood is very solemn, and the visible light is the Advent Wreath
7.
Yule Lads
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The Yuletide-lads, Yule Lads, or Yulemen, are figures from Icelandic folklore who in modern times have become the Icelandic version of Santa Claus. Their number has varied over time, but currently there are considered to be thirteen and they put rewards or punishments into shoes placed by children on window sills during the last thirteen nights before Christmas Eve. Every night, one Yuletide lad visits each child, leaving gifts or rotting potatoes, the Yuletide-lads originate from Icelandic folklore. Early on their number and depictions varied greatly depending on location, in 1932, the poem Jólasveinarnir was published as a part of the popular poetry book Jólin Koma by Icelandic poet Jóhannes úr Kötlum. The Yuletide-lads were originally portrayed as being mischievous, or even criminal, pranksters who would steal from and they all had descriptive names that conveyed their modus operandi. The Yuletide-lads are traditionally said to be the sons of the mountain-dwelling trolls Grýla and they would trek from the mountains to scare Icelandic children who misbehaved before Christmas. Additionally, the Yuletide-lads are often depicted with the Yule Cat, in modern times the Yuletide-lads have been depicted as taking on a more benevolent role comparable to Santa Claus and other related figures. They are occasionally depicted as wearing late medieval style Icelandic clothing, the Yuletide-lads are said to come to town during the last 13 nights before Christmas. Below are the official thirteen Yuletide-lads in the order they arrive, names in English are based on Hallberg Hallmundssons translation of the poem
8.
Icelandic cuisine
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Icelandic cuisine, the cuisine of Iceland, has a long history. Important parts of Icelandic cuisine are lamb, dairy, and fish, popular foods in Iceland include skyr, hangikjöt, kleinur, laufabrauð and bollur. Þorramatur is a traditional buffet served at midwinter festivals called Þorrablót, it includes a selection of traditionally cured meat and fish served with rúgbrauð. The flavors of this traditional country food originates in its methods, pickling in fermented whey or brine, drying. Modern Icelandic chefs usually emphasise the quality of available ingredients rather than age-old cooking traditions, numerous restaurants in Iceland specialise in seafood. At the annual Food and Fun chefs competition, competitors create innovative dishes with fresh ingredients produced in Iceland, points of pride are the quality of the lamb meat, seafood, and skyr. Because of the history of settlement in a climate, animal products dominate Icelandic cuisine. Popular taste has been developing, however, to closer to the European norm. As an example, consumption of vegetables has increased in recent decades while consumption of fish has diminished. Several events in the history of Iceland were of significance for its cuisine. With Christianisation in 1000 came the tradition of fasting and a ban on horse meat consumption, more significantly in terms of farming and food supply was the onset of the Little Ice Age in the 14th century. Farmers were not able to grow barley anymore and had to rely on imports for any kind of cereal grains and this type of dwelling was used well into the 20th century. Historians often use the Reformation in 1550 as the transition between the Middle Ages and the modern period in Icelandic history. Farming in Iceland continued with practices from the 14th century to the late 18th century. A trade monopoly instituted by the Danish king in 1602 had an effect on culinary traditions. But the cuisine of Denmark had the most influence in the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th, preserved foods began to be replaced with greater emphasis on fresh ingredients. When Iceland was settled by immigrants from Scandinavia and Viking colonies in the British Isles, they brought their farming methods, research indicates that the climate of Iceland was much milder during the Middle Ages than it is now, and sources tell of cultivation of barley and oats. Most of this would have consumed as porridge or gruel or used for making beer
9.
Rock ptarmigan
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The rock ptarmigan is a medium-sized gamebird in the grouse family. In Japan, it is known as the raichō, which means thunder bird and it is the official bird of Gifu, Nagano, and Toyama Prefectures and is a protected species nationwide. The rock ptarmigan is 34–36 cm long with a wingspan of 54–60 cm and it is smaller than the willow ptarmigan by about 10%. The males song is a loud croaking, the rock ptarmigan is seasonally camouflaged, its feathers moult from white in winter to brown in spring or summer. The breeding male has upper parts with white wings and under parts. In winter, its plumage becomes completely white except for the black tail and it can be distinguished from the winter willow ptarmigan by habitat—the rock ptarmigan prefers higher elevations and more barren habitat, it is also smaller with a more delicate bill. The rock ptarmigan is a species which breeds across arctic and subarctic Eurasia and North America on rocky mountainsides. Because of the habitat in which it lives, it has only a few predators—such as golden eagles—and it can be surprisingly approachable. It has been introduced to New Zealand, South Georgia, the Kerguelen Islands, during the last ice age, the species was far more widespread in continental Europe. The rock ptarmigan feeds primarily on birch and willow buds and catkins when available and it also eats various seeds, leaves, flowers, and berries of other plant species. Insects are eaten by the developing young, apart from the comb, the male rock ptarmigan has no ornaments or displays that are typical for grouses in temperate regions. Studies on other grouses have shown that much variation in comb size, the males comb has been the focus of studies regarding sexual selection. The correlation to size disappeared after the first year, but the correlation to comb condition remained and this is consistent with another study of the same population of L. muta that showed that mating success overall is correlated to comb condition. Exceptions were first-time breeders, in which the size of the comb influenced mating success, the rock ptarmigan becomes sexually mature at six months of age and commonly has up to six chicks. Because of this high breeding rate, the size of the population is affected very little by factors such as hunting, the ptarmigans genus name, Lagopus, is derived from Ancient Greek lagos, meaning hare, + pous, foot, in reference to the birds feathered legs. The species name, muta, comes from New Latin and means mute and it was for a long time misspelt mutus, in the erroneous belief that the ending of Lagopus denotes masculine gender. However, as the Ancient Greek term λαγωπους is of feminine gender, and the name has to agree with that. The word ptarmigan comes from the Scottish Gaelic tàrmachan, literally croaker, the silent initial p was added in 1684 by Robert Sibbald through the influence of Greek, especially pteron, wing, feather, or pinion
10.
Reindeer
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This includes both sedentary and migratory populations. While overall widespread and numerous, some of its subspecies are rare, for this reason, it is considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN. Reindeer vary considerably in colour and size, both sexes can grow antlers annually, although the proportion of females that grow antlers varies greatly between population and season. Antlers are typically larger on males, hunting of wild reindeer and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer are important to several Arctic and Subarctic peoples. In traditional festive legend, Santa Clauss reindeer pull a sleigh through the sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to children on Christmas Eve. The name Rangifer, which Carl Linnaeus chose for the genus, was used by Albertus Magnus in his De animalibus. This word may go back to a Saami word raingo, for the origin of the word tarandus, which Linnaeus chose as the specific epithet, he made reference to Ulisse Aldrovandis Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum historia fol. However, Aldrovandi – and before him Konrad Gesner – thought that rangifer, in any case, the tarandos name goes back to Aristotle and Theophrastus – see In history below. Because of its importance to many cultures, Rangifer tarandus and some of its subspecies have names in many languages, the name rein is of Norse origin. The Finnish name poro may also stem from the same, the word deer was originally broader in meaning, but became more specific over time. In Middle English, der meant a wild animal of any kind. Cognates of Old English dēor in other dead Germanic languages have the sense of animal, such as Old High German tior, Old Norse djúr or dýr, Gothic dius, Old Saxon dier. The name caribou comes, through French, from Mikmaq qalipu, meaning snow shoveler, in Inuktitut, spoken in eastern Arctic North America, the caribou is known by the name tuktu. In the western North American Arctic, the used by the Iñupiat is tuttu. Across the range of a species, individuals may display considerable morphological, genetic, COSEWIC developed Designated Unit attribution to add to classifications already in use. The species taxonomic name Rangifer tarandus was defined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, the subspecies taxonomic name, Rangifer tarandus caribou was defined by Gmelin in 1788. Based on Banfields often-cited A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer, R. t. caboti, R. t. osborni and R. t. terraenovae were considered invalid and included in R. t. caribou. Some recent authorities have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct and he affirms that true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention
11.
Epiphany (holiday)
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Epiphany, also Theophany or Three Kings Day, is a Christian feast day that celebrates the revelation of God incarnate as Jesus Christ. In Western Christianity, the feast commemorates principally the visit of the Magi to the Christ child, moreover, the feast of the Epiphany, in some Western Christian denominations, also initiates the liturgical season of Epiphanytide. Eastern Christians, on the hand, commemorate the baptism of Jesus on both sides of the Jordan River, seen as his manifestation to the world as the Son of God. Qasr el Yahud in the West Bank, and Al-Maghtas in Jordan on the east bank, Al-Maghtas is considered to be the site of the baptism of Jesus. The traditional date for the feast is January 6, however, since 1970, the celebration is held in some countries on the Sunday after January 1. In many Western Christian Churches, the eve of the feast is celebrated as Twelfth Night, the Monday after Epiphany is known as Plough Monday. Popular Epiphany customs include Epiphany singing, chalking the door, having ones house blessed, consuming Three Kings Cake, winter swimming, the word Epiphany is from Koine Greek ἐπιφάνεια, epiphaneia, meaning manifestation or appearance. It is derived from a meaning to appear. In classical Greek it was used of the appearance of dawn, of an enemy in war, in the Septuagint the word is used of a manifestation of the God of Israel. In the New Testament the word is used in 2 Timothy 1,10 to refer either to the birth of Christ or to his appearance after his resurrection, and five times to refer to his Second Coming. Epiphany may have originated in the Greek-speaking eastern half of the Roman Empire as a feast to honor the baptism of Jesus, around 200, Clement of Alexandria wrote that, But the followers of Basilides celebrate the day of His Baptism too, spending the previous night in readings. And they say that it was the 15th of the month Tybi of the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar, and some say that it was observed the 11th of the same month. The Egyptian dates given correspond to January 6 and 10, the Basilides were a Gnostic sect. The reference to readings suggests that the Basilides were reading the Gospels, in ancient gospel manuscripts, the text is arranged to indicate passages for liturgical readings. If a congregation began reading Mark at the beginning of the year, it might arrive at the story of the Baptism on January 6, If Christians read Mark in the same format the Basilides did, the two groups could have arrived at the January 6 date independently. The earliest reference to Epiphany as a Christian feast was in A. D.361, the holiday is listed twice, which suggests a double feast of baptism and birth. The Nativity was assigned to the date as the birth because Luke 3,23 was misread to mean that Jesus was exactly 30 when he was baptized. Epiphanius of Salamis says that January 6 is Christs Birthday, that is, His Epiphany and he also asserts that the Miracle at Cana occurred on the same calendar day
12.
Christmas traditions
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Christmas traditions vary from country to country. Christmas carols may be sung and stories told about such figures as the Baby Jesus, St Nicholas, Santa Claus, Father Christmas, Stephens Day, New Years, and the Feast of the Epiphany. Christmas Day is a holiday in Eritrea that is celebrated on January 7 or on 27 Tahsas of the Ethiopian calendar. Christmas is called Ledet in Eritrea or Gena in Ethiopia, many people who are Christian in the two countries fast for 40 days. They then head to church at dawn on Christmas morning, on Christmas Day, there will be colorful musical celebrations which involve the priests dressed in their best robes performing rituals, including dancing and playing drums and other instruments. Early in the morning at dawn, everyone dresses in white, Late in the afternoon there will be the traditional game of Gena, a kind of hockey. According to an Ethiopian legend, the game was being played by the shepherds who were tending their flocks on the night that Jesus was born, the game is attended by the leader of the community. A prize is awarded to the winner of the Gena game, as the towns and cities empty, people jam the West African markets to buy and transport live chickens, goats and cows that will be needed for the Christmas meals. On Christmas Eve, traditional meals are prepared according to the traditions of each region, rather than having candy and cakes, Nigerians as a whole tend to prepare various meats in large quantities. In the North several local desserts are made which is hardly ever found in other parts of Nigeria. An alternative in both regions is a soup with fish, goat, or beef which may also be served with Fufu. Gift giving in Nigeria often involves money and the flow of gifts from the more fortunate to the less fortunate, after the successful visitors have come from their towns, cities, and even overseas, they are given time to settle in. Afterwards, local relatives begin approaching them asking for assistance of some kind, religion in Nigeria is about equally divided between Christians and Muslims. There are occasional outbreaks of religious conflict, the Islamic sect Boko Haram has attacked Christian churches with bombings on Christmas 2011. Christmas in South Africa is a holiday celebrated on December 25. Many European traditions are maintained despite the distance from Europe, Christmas trees are set up in homes and the children are given presents in their stockings. Traditional fir Christmas trees are popular and children leave a stocking out for Santa Claus on Christmas Eve, the gift bearer is Santa Claus on Christmas Eve. The Christmas meal is mince pies, turkey, roast beef or a barbecue outdoors, the meal is finished with Christmas Pudding
13.
Jul (Denmark)
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Jul, the Danish Christmas, is celebrated throughout December starting either at the beginning of Advent or on December 1 with a variety of traditions. Christmas Eve, Juleaften, the event of Jul, is celebrated on evening of December 24. Celebrating on the eve before the holiday is used for most other holidays in Denmark. In the evening a dinner is eaten with the family. It usually consists of roast pork, roast duck, roast goose or stuffed turkey with potatoes, caramelized potatoes, red cabbage, for dessert, risalamande, a cold rice pudding dish is served with a hot cherry sauce, traditionally with a whole almond hidden inside. The lucky finder of this almond is entitled to a small gift and it is eaten warm with a fruit drink or sweet malt beer. After the meal is complete, the family dance around the Juletræ and sing Christmas carols and hymns like Nu er det jul igen. When the singing is complete, presents from under the tree are handed out by the children or in turn, after they have been opened, there are more snacks, candy, chips, and sometimes the traditional Gløgg. In Denmark there is a tradition to go to Church on the afternoon of Christmas Eve, the text is Luke 2, but since the 24th is not an official Christmas holiday, there was no official ritual for that day until recently. Most churches have Christmas services on both official Christmas holidays, 25th and 26 December, with well-defined rituals, going to church on Christmas Eve has become very popular. The services on 24 December are the most heavily frequented services of the year with around a third of the population attending, throughout the Yule period, a range of Yule dinners or lunches are arranged. Before December 24, most workplaces, unions, schools, football teams, or extended groups of friends arrange a Julefrokost and this typically involves plenty of food and alcohol, and often takes place on a Friday or Saturday night. After December 24, usually on Christmas Day and the Second Day of Christmas which are public holidays and this usually involves more food, and takes place from noon until evening. An average Dane usually attends three to four julefrokoster and one or two familiejulefrokoster during Jul, a typical Yule Lunch involves lots of beer and snaps. It begins with a variety of dishes, open face sandwiches with pickled herring, shrimps. Sometimes gravlax or smoked salmon and smoked eel are offered as well, next will be a variety of warm and cold meats, such as fried sausages, fried meatballs, boiled ham, liver pâté and fried pork, served with red or green braised cabbage dishes. Desserts are usually cheeses, fruit and risalamande, a special rice dessert associated with Christmas, from time to time, someone calls out Skål to make a toast, and everyone stops eating to take a drink. Normally, everyone takes public transportation to the event, to avoid alcohol related traffic accidents on the way home from these parties, Denmark has adopted and expanded the German tradition of Advent calendars
14.
Jul (Norway)
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Jul or jol is the term used for the Christmas holiday season in Scandinavia and parts of Scotland. Originally, jul was the name of a month in the old Germanic calendar, the concept of jul was a period of time rather than a specific event prevailing in Scandinavia. In modern times, Jul is a general time stretching from mid-November to mid-January, with Christmas, the modern English yule and yuletide derive from this term. The term Jul is common throughout Norway, Sweden, Iceland, Greenland, Denmark, Scotland and the Faroe Islands. Whereas the start of jul proper is announced by the chiming of church bells throughout the country in the afternoon of 24 December, it is more accurate to describe the season as an eight-week event. It consists of five phases, Advent, Julaften, Romjul, Nyttår, and The End of Christmas, very often with Epiphany, the thirteenth day of Christmas, as the final day of the season. From the original beginning on Christmas Day, the custom of Julebord has spread to the season and beyond. The modern day celebration is based on the Church year and has retained several pre-Reformation. The central event in Scandinavia is Christmas Eve, when the main Christmas meal is served, Jul or Jol are cognates of Norse Jòlnir or Ýlir, which are alternate names of Odin, although the root itself is debated. Jul was celebrated during the moon of the winter half of the year – roughly from the new moon of November to the new moon of December. At this time, the animals for slaughter were the fattest, flour had been processed, all the work of autumn was completed, the time of celebration has varied. According to written sources such as the legislation of Gulaþing, it was mandatory for farmers to have a drinking party with at least three farmers attending. If a farmer was so far away from his neighbours that this was difficult, the beer should be ready by November 1. By the wording of the legislation, there are two celebrations where beer drinking was mandatory, the first was a form of thanksgiving, while the second was a smaller party for the family. Like the cookies left for Santa Claus today, it was customary to leave a bowl of rice porridge with butter for the Jul spirit. The food represented a sacramental meal, sacramental meals were formally called a blót—in this particular instance, yuleblót or winterblót. As usual in the world, Christmas features Christmas Dinner, decorated Christmas trees. Remnants of customs from the agrarian society include decoration with boughs of green from spruce or fir, e. g. on the doormat
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Jul (Sweden)
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Jul, the Swedish Christmas holiday, is celebrated throughout December and traditionally until St. Knuts Day on January 13. The main celebration and the exchange of gifts takes place on Christmas Eve, the Lucia Day is celebrated during Advent, on December 13. Christmas in Sweden is a blend of domestic and foreign customs that have been re-interpreted, refined and commercialised on their way from agrarian society to the modern age, the origin of the Germanic word Jul is somewhat unclear. Around the year 600, it is mentioned in the Gothic calendar together with Christian religious texts, around the year 900, the word Jul can be found in a tribute to king Harald Fairhair, in which someone is said to Dricka Jul. The pretext for the Jul celebration was to mark the winter solstice when the start to get longer. The people sacrificed cattle and perhaps humans to win the blessing on the germinating crop. The ás who was hailed at this time was Odin. The Jul was Christianized, while the rites were forbidden. The celebration of Christmas at the end of December is an old tradition with many origins. Among these is the Old Norse Christmas celebration - which was prevailing in Scandinavia in the 11th century - and was celebrated in connection with the mid-winter offering celebration, moreover, we have the Christian celebration in memory of the birth of Jesus Christ. The earliest records of celebrations are from year 333. Eight hundred years later this is merged with the Old Norse Christmas celebration, in the Old Norse sources the pagan celebration of Jul in the Nordic countries is often described as to drink jul/yule. The central aspect of the pagan Germanic celebration of midwinter was to eat, to bake and to produce ale and mead were important preparations for the celebration. In medieval wooden calendars and pre-Christian picture stones, this celebration is still symbolised by a barrel of ale, so the emphasis on food and drink traditions was originally a pagan trait of the Christmas celebration. The story of the Christmas tree begins in Germany in the 16th century, during the 17th and 18th centuries the Christmas tree started being dressed with candles. The first Swedish Christmas trees were decorated with live candles and treats such as fruit. Apples were often hung on the branches where the candles were located to make them more parallel to the ground and it soon became more common for families to make their own decorations with paper and straw. Some families preferred to build a Ljuskrona decorated with cut paper, from around 1880, commercial Christmas tree decorations were readily available in larger Swedish cities, the finest of which were imported from Germany
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Iceland
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Iceland is a Nordic island country in the North Atlantic Ocean. It has a population of 332,529 and an area of 103,000 km2, the capital and largest city is Reykjavík. Reykjavík and the areas in the southwest of the country are home to over two-thirds of the population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active, the interior consists of a plateau characterised by sand and lava fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a climate, despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle. Its high latitude and marine influence still keeps summers chilly, with most of the archipelago having a tundra climate. According to the ancient manuscript Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in the year 874 AD when the Norwegian chieftain Ingólfr Arnarson became the first permanent settler on the island. In the following centuries, Norwegians, and to a lesser extent other Scandinavians, emigrated to Iceland, the island was governed as an independent commonwealth under the Althing, one of the worlds oldest functioning legislative assemblies. Following a period of strife, Iceland acceded to Norwegian rule in the 13th century. The establishment of the Kalmar Union in 1397 united the kingdoms of Norway, Denmark, Iceland thus followed Norways integration to that Union and came under Danish rule after Swedens secession from that union in 1523. In the wake of the French revolution and the Napoleonic wars, Icelands struggle for independence took form and culminated in independence in 1918, until the 20th century, Iceland relied largely on subsistence fishing and agriculture, and was among the poorest in Europe. Industrialisation of the fisheries and Marshall Plan aid following World War II brought prosperity, in 1994, it became a part of the European Economic Area, which further diversified the economy into sectors such as finance, biotechnology, and manufacturing. Iceland has an economy with relatively low taxes compared to other OECD countries. It maintains a Nordic social welfare system that provides health care. Iceland ranks high in economic, political and social stability and equality, in 2013, it was ranked as the 13th most-developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index. Iceland runs almost completely on renewable energy, some bankers were jailed, and the economy has made a significant recovery, in large part due to a surge in tourism. Icelandic culture is founded upon the nations Scandinavian heritage, most Icelanders are descendants of Germanic and Gaelic settlers. Icelandic, a North Germanic language, is descended from Old Norse and is related to Faroese
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History of Iceland
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The recorded history of Iceland began with the settlement by Viking explorers and their slaves from the east, particularly Norway and the British Isles, in the late ninth century. Iceland was still uninhabited long after the rest of Western Europe had been settled, recorded settlement has conventionally been dated back to 874, although archaeological evidence indicates Gaelic monks had settled Iceland before that date. The land was settled quickly, mainly by Norwegians who may have been fleeing conflict or seeking new land to farm, by 930, the chieftains had established a form of governance, the Althing, making it one of the worlds oldest parliaments. Towards the end of the tenth century Christianity came to Iceland through the influence of the Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason. During this time Iceland remained independent, a known as the Old Commonwealth. Norway, in turn, was united with Sweden and then Denmark, eventually all of the Nordic states were united in one alliance, the Kalmar Union, but on its dissolution, Iceland fell under Danish rule. The subsequent strict Danish–Icelandic Trade Monopoly in the 17th and 18th centuries was very detrimental to the economy, Icelands subsequent poverty was aggravated by severe natural disasters like the Móðuharðindin or Mist Hardships. During this time the population declined, Iceland remained part of Denmark, but in keeping with the rise of nationalism around Europe in the nineteenth century an independence movement emerged. The Althing, which had suspended in 1799, was restored in 1844. However Iceland shared the Danish Monarchy until World War II, although Iceland was neutral in the Second World War, the United Kingdom peacefully occupied it in 1940 to forestall a Nazi occupation, after Denmark itself was overrun by the German Wehrmacht. Because of the strategic position in the North Atlantic, the allies occupied the island until the end of the war. In 1944, and declared itself an independent nation. Following the Second World War Iceland was a member of both the United Nations and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Its economy grew rapidly due to fishing, although this was marred by conflicts with other nations like the Cod Wars. Following rapid financial growth, the 2008–11 Icelandic financial crisis occurred, Iceland continues to remain outside the European Union. Icelands history has also marked by a number of natural disasters. Iceland is also a young country in the geological sense. The oldest stone specimens found in Iceland date back to ca.16 million years ago, in geological terms, Iceland is a young island
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Outline of Iceland
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The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Iceland, Iceland – sovereign island nation located in the North Atlantic Ocean between continental Europe and Greenland. It is considered part of Northern Europe and it is the least populous of the Nordic countries, having a population of about 329,000. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active on a scale, this defines the landscape in various ways. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterized by fields, mountains and glaciers. Warmed by the Gulf Stream, Iceland has a temperate climate relative to its latitude and provides a habitable environment and nature
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Military history of Iceland
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This is a brief overview of historical warfare and recent developments in what today constitutes the Republic of Iceland. The armies being divided into units by the quality the warriors, at the end of this period the number of chieftains had diminished and their power had grown to the detriment of their followers. This resulted in a series of major feuds known as Age of the Sturlungs in the 13th century. During and before the war more than 21 fortresses were built, the battle consisted of little less than 1000 men with the average casualty rate of 15%. This low casualty rate has been attributed to the mentality that permeated Icelandic society. As well as the requirements of Christianity to get a pardon from a cleric for each fiend smitten, while executions after battle were uncommon, they were extensive when they happened. Amphibious operations were important part of warfare in Iceland in this time, especially in the Westfjords, the largest of these was an engagement of a few dozen ships in Húnaflói known as Flóabardagi. One side employing smaller longships as well as boats and the other large Knaars, other larger merchant ships, at the end most of the chieftains had been slain and only one of the original chieftains who started the war remained. It had nonetheless become evident that no one chieftain was powerful enough to all the others. This led the Icelandic betri bændur of the South, North and Western Iceland to submit to the Norwegian crown, all inhabitants of a sýslumaður´s fief were obligated to follow them in battle against invaders. The king rarely asked for expeditionary forces to help defend Norway, there are however a few documented occasions of Icelandic expeditionary armies coming to the kings aid. As the church became more powerful its bishops and priests became more militant, the Bishops own sveinar could expect to become priests after their military service. The two bishops became de facto Ecclesiastical Counts or Kirkjugreifar, responsible for law enforcement and overall command of military defences, Icelandic noblemen became wary of the Bishops powers in the late 15th century and protested. Other firearms, such as the hand gonne, known as haki or hakbyssa in Iceland, since the king of Denmark had embraced Lutheranism in the early 16th century he had campaigned to convert his realms from Catholicism to Lutheranism. In the 1540s it was Icelands turn, Lutheran bishop was elected as the bishop of Skálholt diocese and bitter conflict ensued. Although the bloodshed didnt come close to that in the Civil War fought in the 13th century it was considerable as the bishops fielded armies of thousands. In a bid to isolate Skálholt, Icelands last Catholic bishop, Jón Arason of Hólar, although initially successful in capturing Sauðafell he was later defeated by Daðis army and captured with his sons. Jón Arason and his sons were then transported to Skálholt and beheaded there in 1550, a year later a Danish mercenary force mostly consisting of Landsknechts arrived to support the policy of conversion
