1.
Crucifixion of Jesus
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The crucifixion of Jesus occurred in 1st century Judea, most probably between the years 30 and 33 AD. According to the gospels, Jesus, the Christ, was arrested, tried, and sentenced by Pontius Pilate to be scourged. Jesus was stripped of his clothing and offered wine mixed with gall to drink and he was then hung between two convicted thieves and according to Marks Gospel, died some six hours later. During this time, the soldiers affixed a sign to the top of the cross stating Jesus of Nazareth and they then divided his garments among them, but cast lots for his seamless robe. After Jesus death they pierced his side with a spear to be certain that he had died, the Bible describes seven statements that Jesus made while he was on the cross, as well as several supernatural events that occurred. Collectively referred to as the Passion, Jesus suffering and redemptive death by crucifixion are the aspects of Christian theology concerning the doctrines of salvation. The baptism of Jesus and his crucifixion are considered to be two historically certain facts about Jesus, bart Ehrman states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him. John Dominic Crossan states that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be, eddy and Boyd state that it is now firmly established that there is non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus. Craig Blomberg states that most scholars in the third quest for the historical Jesus consider the crucifixion indisputable. Christopher M. Tuckett states that, although the reasons for the death of Jesus are hard to determine, one of the indisputable facts about him is that he was crucified. While scholars agree on the historicity of the crucifixion, they differ on the reason, geza Vermes also views the crucifixion as a historical event but provides his own explanation and background for it. John P. Meier views the crucifixion of Jesus as historical fact and states that, based on the criterion of embarrassment, Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader. Meier states that a number of criteria, e. g. the criterion of multiple attestation. The crucified man was identified as Yehohanan ben Hagkol and probably died about 70 AD, the analyses at the Hadassah Medical School estimated that he died in his late 20s. The earliest detailed accounts of the death of Jesus are contained in the four canonical gospels, there are other, more implicit references in the New Testament epistles. In the synoptic gospels, Jesus predicts his death in three separate episodes, all four Gospels conclude with an extended narrative of Jesus arrest, trial, crucifixion, burial, and accounts of resurrection. In each Gospel these five events in the life of Jesus are treated with more detail than any other portion of that Gospels narrative. Scholars note that the reader receives an almost hour-by-hour account of what is happening, after being flogged, Jesus was mocked by Roman soldiers as the King of the Jews, clothed in a purple robe, crowned with thorns, beaten and spat on
2.
Christian cross variants
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This is a list of Christian cross variants. The Christian cross, with or without a figure of Christ included, is the religious symbol of Christianity. A cross with figure of Christ affixed to it is termed a crucifix, the term Greek cross designates a cross with arms of equal length, as in a plus sign, while the term Latin cross designates a cross with an elongated descending arm. Numerous other variants have developed during the medieval period. Christian crosses are used widely in churches, on top of buildings, on bibles, in heraldry, in personal jewelry, on hilltops. Crosses are a prominent feature of Christian cemeteries, either carved on gravestones or as sculpted stelae, roman Catholic, Anglican and Lutheran depictions of the cross are often crucifixes, in order to emphasize that it is Jesus that is important, rather than the cross in isolation. Large crucifixes are a prominent feature of some Lutheran churches, as illustrated in the article Rood, several Christian cross variants are available in computer-displayed text. The Latin cross symbol is included in the character set as 271D. For others, see Religious and political symbols in Unicode, basic variants, or early variants widespread since antiquity
3.
Protestantism
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Protestantism is a form of Christianity which originated with the Reformation, a movement against what its followers considered to be errors in the Roman Catholic Church. It is one of the three divisions of Christendom, together with Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy. The term derives from the letter of protestation from German Lutheran princes in 1529 against an edict of the Diet of Speyer condemning the teachings of Martin Luther as heretical. Although there were earlier breaks from or attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church—notably by Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Protestants reject the notion of papal supremacy and deny the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation, but disagree among themselves regarding the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. The Five solae summarize the reformers basic differences in theological beliefs, in the 16th century, Lutheranism spread from Germany into Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, the Baltic states, and Iceland. Reformed churches were founded in Germany, Hungary, the Netherlands, Scotland, Switzerland and France by such reformers as John Calvin, Huldrych Zwingli, the political separation of the Church of England from Rome under King Henry VIII brought England and Wales into this broad Reformation movement. Protestants developed their own culture, which made major contributions in education, the humanities and sciences, the political and social order, the economy and the arts, some Protestant denominations do have a worldwide scope and distribution of membership, while others are confined to a single country. A majority of Protestants are members of a handful of families, Adventism, Anglicanism, Baptist churches, Reformed churches, Lutheranism, Methodism. Nondenominational, evangelical, charismatic, independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity. Six princes of the Holy Roman Empire and rulers of fourteen Imperial Free Cities, the edict reversed concessions made to the Lutherans with the approval of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V three years earlier. During the Reformation, the term was used outside of the German politics. The word evangelical, which refers to the gospel, was more widely used for those involved in the religious movement. Nowadays, this word is still preferred among some of the historical Protestant denominations in the Lutheran and Calvinist traditions in Europe, above all the term is used by Protestant bodies in the German-speaking area, such as the EKD. In continental Europe, an Evangelical is either a Lutheran or a Calvinist, the German word evangelisch means Protestant, and is different from the German evangelikal, which refers to churches shaped by Evangelicalism. The English word evangelical usually refers to Evangelical Protestant churches, and it traces its roots back to the Puritans in England, where Evangelicalism originated, and then was brought to the United States. Protestantism as a term is now used in contradistinction to the other major Christian traditions, i. e. Roman Catholicism. Initially, Protestant became a term to mean any adherent to the Reformation movement in Germany and was taken up by Lutherans. Even though Martin Luther himself insisted on Christian or Evangelical as the only acceptable names for individuals who professed Christ, French and Swiss Protestants preferred the word reformed, which became a popular, neutral and alternative name for Calvinists
4.
Mainline Protestant
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Some make a distinction between mainline and oldline, with the former referring only to denominational ties and the latter referring to church lineage, prestige and influence. However, this distinction has largely been lost to history and the terms are now nearly synonymous, Mainline Protestants were a majority of all Christians in the United States until the mid-20th century, but now constitute a minority among Protestants. The term mainline has also applied to Canadian Protestant churches that share common origins with their US counterparts. In Mexico, the Anglican Church is historically tied to and formed from the US Episcopal Church, the term is also occasionally used to refer to historic Protestant churches in Europe, Latin America, and South Africa. Mainline churches share a liberal approach to issues that often leads to collaboration in organizations such as the National Council of Churches. Because of their involvement with the movement, mainline churches are sometimes given the alternative label of ecumenical Protestantism. These churches played a role in the Social Gospel movement and were active in social causes such as the civil rights movement. As a group, the churches have maintained religious doctrine that stresses social justice. Politically and theologically, mainline Protestants are more liberal than non-mainline Protestants, members of mainline denominations have played leadership roles in many aspects of life, including politics, business, science, the arts, and education. They founded most of the leading institutes of higher education. Nominee Merrick Garland adheres to Judaism and nominee Neil Gorsuch was raised and educated as a Catholic, from 1854 until at least 1964, Mainline Protestants and their descendants were heavily Republican. In recent decades, Republicans slightly outnumber Democrats, Mainline denominations peaked in membership in the 1950s and have declined steadily in the last half century. From 1965 to 1988, mainline church membership declined from 31 million to 25 million, a Pew Forum statistic revealed the same share in 2014. The term mainline Protestant was coined during debates between modernists and fundamentalists in the 1920s, several sources claim that the term is derived from the Philadelphia Main Line, a group of affluent suburbs of Philadelphia, most residents belonged to mainline denominations. Today, most mainline Protestants remain rooted in the Northeastern and Midwestern United States, in the US, Protestantism is generally divided between mainline denominations and evangelical or conservative denominations. In other parts of the world, the term mainline Protestant is not used, instead, the term ecumenical is used to distinguish similar churches from evangelical denominations. Hence in christological and doctrinal reference mainstream Christianity is often equivalent to Trinitarianism, in the United Kingdom and Australia, the term mainline Protestant is not used, and mainstream does not mean progressive Protestant. The largest US mainline churches are referred to as the Seven Sisters of American Protestantism
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Anabaptism
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Anabaptism is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in Europe. Traditionally this movement is seen as an offshoot of European Protestantism, Anabaptists are Christians who believe that baptism is only valid when the candidate confesses his or her faith in Christ and wants to be baptized. This believers baptism is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a decision to be baptized. Anabaptists are those who are in a line with the early Anabaptists of the 16th century. Other Christian groups, like Baptists, who practice believers baptism but have different roots, are not seen as Anabaptist. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement, schwarzenau Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are considered later developments among the Anabaptists. The name Anabaptist means one who baptizes again and their persecutors named them this, referring to the practice of baptizing persons when they converted or declared their faith in Christ, even if they had been baptized as infants. Anabaptists required that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen, the early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism, but the right baptism of Christ, which is preceded by teaching and oral confession of faith, I teach, and say that infant baptism is a robbery of the right baptism of Christ. Anabaptists were persecuted largely because of their interpretation of scripture that put them at odds with official state church interpretations, most Anabaptists adhered to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount, which precluded taking oaths, participating in military actions, and participating in civil government. Some groups that are now extinct, who practised rebaptism, however, felt otherwise and they were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, and Hutterites and some historians tend to consider them as being outside of true Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524, True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them. For instance, Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology, medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a similar to the Anabaptists. The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, no Christian has the jus gladii. Matthew 5,39 Civil government belongs to the world, the believer belongs to Gods kingdom, so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. But no force is to be used towards them, on December 27,1521, three prophets appeared in Wittenberg from Zwickau who were influenced by Thomas Müntzer—Thomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism and their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression
6.
Creed
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A creed is a statement of the shared beliefs of a religious community in the form of a fixed formula summarizing core tenets. One of the most widely used creeds in Christianity is the Nicene Creed and it was based on Christian understanding of the Canonical Gospels, the letters of the New Testament and to a lesser extent the Old Testament. Affirmation of this creed, which describes the Trinity, is taken as a fundamental test of orthodoxy for most Christian denominations. The Apostles Creed is also broadly accepted, Some Christian denominations and other groups have rejected the authority of those creeds. Muslims declare the shahada, or testimony, I bear witness there is no god but God. Whether Judaism is creedal has been a point of some controversy, although some say Judaism is noncreedal in nature, others say it recognizes a single creed, the Shema Yisrael, which begins, Hear, O Israel, the LORD our God, the LORD is one. The word creed is particularly used for a statement which is recited as part of liturgy. The term is anglicized from Latin credo I believe, the incipit of the Latin texts of the Apostles Creed, within Evangelicalism, the terms doctrinal statement or doctrinal basis tend to be preferred. Doctrinal statements may include positions on lectionary and translations of the Bible, the term creed is sometimes extended to comparable concepts in non-Christian theologies, thus the Islamic concept of ʿaqīdah is often rendered as creed. Several creeds have originated in Christianity,1 Corinthians 15, 3–7 includes an early creed about Jesus death and resurrection which was probably received by Paul. The antiquity of the creed has been located by most biblical scholars to no more than five years after Jesus death, the Old Roman Creed is an earlier and shorter version of the Apostles Creed. The Apostles Creed is widely used by most Christian denominations for both liturgical and catechetical purposes, the Nicene Creed reflects the concerns of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 which had as their chief purpose to establish what Christians believed. The Chalcedonian Creed was adopted at the Council of Chalcedon in 451 in Asia Minor and it defines that Christ is acknowledged in two natures, which come together into one person and hypostasis. The Athanasian Creed is a Christian statement of belief focusing on Trinitarian doctrine, the Tridentine Creed was initially contained in the papal bull Iniunctum Nobis, issued by Pope Pius IV on November 13,1565. The creed was intended to summarize the teaching of the Council of Trent, the Maasai Creed is a creed composed in 1960 by the Maasai people of East Africa in collaboration with missionaries from the Congregation of the Holy Ghost. The creed attempts to express the essentials of the Christian faith within the Maasai culture, the Credo of the People of God is a profession of faith that Pope Paul VI published with the motu proprio Solemni hac liturgia of 30 June 1968. Pope Paul VI spoke of it as a profession of faith, Protestant denominations are usually associated with confessions of faith, which are similar to creeds but usually longer. By the martyr French Huguenots Jean du Bourdel, Matthieu Verneuil, Pierre Bourdon and André la Fon at the site of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
7.
Bethany Theological Seminary
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Bethany Theological Seminary is the official seminary of the Church of the Brethren. The seminary was founded in 1905 as Bethany Biblical Seminary by A. C. Wieand, while the two were traveling in the Holy Land overlooking the village of Bethany from the Mount of Olives in 1901–02, they decided to name the new Bible institute Bethany. In 1994, the seminary moved from Oak Brook, Illinois, to Richmond, Indiana, to form a partnership with the Earlham School of Religion, a Christian theological school in the Quaker tradition. Bethany offers students opportunities for a degree in ministry in the form of Master of Divinity, students can further refine their field of study through a degree emphasis in Peace Studies or Ministry With Youth and Young Adults. Bethany emphasizes peace, service, simple living, and the importance of the faith community, several Bethany professionals and graduates are also associated with a renewed interest in theopoetics. Students in either the Master of Divinity or Master of Arts programs can now enroll as residential or Connections students. Connections is designed for persons who cannot relocate to Richmond, and who can commit to taking a mix of online, offsite. One of the locations for off-site Bethany courses is the Susquehanna Valley Ministry Center, on the campus of Elizabethtown College in Elizabethtown. Bethany partners with a circle of theological schools to further enhance graduate-level educational opportunities
8.
Brethren World Assembly
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The Schwarzenau Brethren, or German Baptist Brethren as it is known in America, originated in Germany, the outcome of the Radical Pietist ferment of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. They thereby attempted to translate the Philadelphian idea of love into concrete congregational ordinances obligatory for all the members, unlike the Philadelphians, Brethren rejected Leades embrace of direct revelation and emphasized early Christianity as the binding standard for congregational practices. The founding Brethren were also in conversation with Mennonites and influenced by Anabaptist writings, in Germany the Brethren became known as Neue Täufer, in distinction from the older Baptist groups with which they had no formal ties. In the United States they became known as Dunkers, Dunkards, or Tunkers, forms that stem from the German verb tunken, to dip. Another religious group related historically to the same Radical Pietist ferment as the Brethren is the Community of True Inspiration, the Schwarzenau Brethren was first organized in 1708 under the leadership of Alexander Mack in Schwarzenau, Germany, now part of Bad Berleburg in North Rhine-Westphalia. A notable influence was Ernest Christopher Hochmann von Hochenau, a traveling Pietist minister, while living in Schriesheim, his home town, Mack invited Hochmann to come and minister there. Like others who influenced the Brethren, Hochmann considered the church to be spiritual. Religious persecution drove the Brethren to take refuge in Friesland, in the Netherlands, in 1719 Peter Becker brought a group to Pennsylvania. In 1720 forty Brethren families settled in Surhuisterveen in Friesland and they settled among the Mennonites and remained there until 1729, when all but a handful emigrated to America, in three separate groups from 1719 to 1733. Peter Becker organized the first American congregation at Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 1743 Christopher Sauer, an early pastor and a printer by trade, printed a Bible in German, the first published in a European language in North America. Many members of the Schwarzenau Brethren came from the Southwest of Germany, because they settled in Pennsylvania among other Germans, who mainly came from the Palatinate and adjacent regions, they took part in the dialect leveling, that was the cradle of Pennsylvania German. Their language therefore was or soon became what today is called Pennsylvania Dutch or better Pennsylvania German, in 1782 the Brethren forbade slaveholding by its members. In 1871 these Brethren adopted the title German Baptist Brethren at their Annual Meeting, the group continued to expand and from Pennsylvania, they migrated chiefly westward. By 1908 they were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Brethren typically kept this teaching to themselves, and it was largely abandoned by the late nineteenth century. They were among the first to take Christian universalism to America when they emigrated there, the church leaders are ministers, teachers, and deacons, though the positions may vary slightly in the various branches. The official role of elder, while no longer recognized in most congregations, was the most respected position in the church, ministers and deacons are elected by the members of the congregation in which they hold membership. Ministers preach the word, baptize, assist deacons in anointing, solemnize marriages, deacons serve the church by arranging for visitation to members or their families during illness or crisis, and often function in the capacity of stewards. The first schism from the body of German Baptist Brethren occurred in 1728
9.
Christian Peacemaker Teams
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Christian Peacemaker Teams is an international organization set up to support teams of peace workers in conflict areas around the world. These teams believe that they can lower the levels of violence through nonviolent direct action, human rights documentation, CPT sums their work up as. committed to reducing violence by getting in the way. CPT has a corps of over 30 activists who currently work in Colombia, Iraq, the West Bank, Chiapas, Mexico. These teams are supported by over 150 reservists who spend two weeks to two months a year on location, in conflict areas it works in partnership with Jewish, Muslim and secular peace organizations, such as the International Solidarity Movement and Peace Brigades International. Another component of CPTs work is to engage. congregations, meetings, although it is a Christian-based organization, CPT does not engage in any type of missionary activity. Their website states While CPTers have chosen to follow Jesus Christ, the group does not believe that its Christianity might also put it at a dangerous disadvantage in areas of the world where religious tensions run high. Their website also states that Corp members are Christians, but there is no requirement for members of CPTs short-term delegations. For example, one of the CPT delegates who was held hostage in Iraq, the Mennonite Church USA Archives is the repository of the official records of Christian Peacemaker Teams. The inspiration for the group came from Ron Sider at the Mennonite World Conference in 1984, unless we are prepared to pay the cost of peacemaking, we have no right to claim the label or preach the message. After a series of meetings, Gene Stoltzfus was hired as the first staff person for the new organization in 1988, over the next few years CPT trainings and conferences explored various models for international peacemaking. In 1990, just before the Gulf War, CPT sent a team of 13 to Iraq for 10 days and this delegation proved to be the first of a number the group sent its first delegations to Haiti, Iraq, and the West Bank. CPT has operated in Iraq since October 2002, since the 2003 invasion of Iraq, they have worked with and advocated for families of people detained by the U. S. Military and collected stories of detainee abuse. S and their captors are a previously unknown group, the Swords of Righteousness Brigade. The hostages were shown on a video broadcast released worldwide on 29 November by Arab satellite channel Al Jazeera, the captors branded their hostages as spies posing as Christian peace activists. The captors threatened to kill the hostages unless the US freed all Iraqi prisoners held in the US, a body found in Iraq on 10 March 2006 was identified later that day as being that of Tom Fox. During the crisis, the news had broken that he had performed for a time with the United States Marine Band. On March 23,2006, the three remaining hostages were freed from a house in the Mansour neighbourhood in Baghdad by a multinational force, none of the kidnappers were found in the house at the time. The Telegraph reported that A deal had been struck with a man detained the previous night who was one of the leaders of the kidnappers and he was allowed a telephone call to warn his henchmen to leave the kidnap house
10.
National Council of Churches
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The National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA, usually identified as the National Council of Churches, is the largest ecumenical body in the United States. NCC is a partnership of 38 Christian faith groups in the United States. Its member communions include Mainline Protestant, Orthodox, African American, Evangelical, Josephite, together, they encompass more than 100,000 local congregations and 40 million adherents. It began as the Federal Council of Churches in 1908, the first efforts at ecumenical organization emerged in 1908 with the creation of the Federal Council of Churches. The FCC was created as a response to problems that arose during the rapid industrialization of the U. S. The primary concern was the protection of workers in a host of areas including wages, working conditions, child labor, and a six day work week. During the next 40 plus years, FCC remained engaged in the social problems of the day as well as international problems that threatened to draw the U. S. into war. Its progressive social program along with support of conscientious objectors to World War II garnered stiff criticism from Christian fundamentalist circles, by 1950, numerous programs and efforts of social uplift had formed in addition to the FCC. Seeking greater unity, a dozen ecumenical bodies gathered in Cleveland, out of this meeting, via the merger of the Federal Council of Churches with several other ecumenical bodies, emerged the NCC. The Councils 38 member communions include Mainline Protestant, Orthodox, African American, Evangelical, Josephite, individual adherents of more than 50 Christian faith groups actively participate in NCC study groups, commissions and ministries. These communions covenant with one another to manifest ever more fully the unity of the Church, relying upon the transforming power of the Holy Spirit, the communions come together as the Council in common mission, serving in all creation to the glory of God. The Social Creeds Since its founding in 1950, one of the activities of NCC has been to effect positive change for the betterment of society. Adopted in December 1908, The Social Creed of the Churches was a statement by members of the Federal Council of Churches against what it described as industrial problems, the NCC in Washington For a number of years the NCC maintained a separate policy advocacy office in Washington, DC. Its work centered on areas mentioned in the creeds but also focused around two programs, Eco-Justice and the Ecumenical Poverty Initiative. Both of these programs have been spun off into separate independent organizations since NCC restructuring in 2013, the Council helped launch the Let Justice Roll grassroots anti-poverty campaign that has been successful in raising the minimum wage in more than 20 states since 2005. NCC and the Civil Rights Movement NCC was closely aligned with leaders in the civil movement, including Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. The NCC was an important link to mainline churches for the civil movement and it consistently condemned segregation during the Montgomery Bus Boycott. The NCC continued to be intertwined with the civil rights movement throughout the 1950s and 1960s
11.
Puerto Rico
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Puerto Rico, officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico and briefly called Porto Rico, is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the northeast Caribbean Sea. It is an archipelago that includes the island of Puerto Rico and a number of smaller ones such as Mona, Culebra. The capital and most populous city is San Juan and its official languages are Spanish and English, though Spanish predominates. The islands population is approximately 3.4 million, Puerto Ricos rich history, tropical climate, diverse natural scenery, renowned traditional cuisine, and attractive tax incentives make it a popular destination for travelers from around the world. Four centuries of Spanish colonial government transformed the ethnic, cultural and physical landscapes primarily with waves of African captives, and Canarian. In the Spanish imperial imagination, Puerto Rico played a secondary, in 1898, following the Spanish–American War, the United States appropriated Puerto Rico together with most former Spanish colonies under the terms of the Treaty of Paris. Puerto Ricans are natural-born citizens of the United States, however, Puerto Rico does not have a vote in the United States Congress, which governs the territory with full jurisdiction under the Puerto Rico Federal Relations Act of 1950. As a U. S. territory, American citizens residing on the island are disenfranchised at the level and may not vote for president. However, Congress approved a constitution, allowing U. S. citizens on the territory to elect a governor. A fifth referendum will be held in June 2017, with only Statehood, in early 2017, the Puerto Rican government-debt crisis posed serious problems for the government. The outstanding bond debt that had climbed to $70 billion or $12,000 per capita at a time with 12. 4% unemployment, the debt had been increasing during a decade long recession. Puerto Ricans often call the island Borinquen – a derivation of Borikén, its indigenous Taíno name, the terms boricua and borincano derive from Borikén and Borinquen respectively, and are commonly used to identify someone of Puerto Rican heritage. The island is also known in Spanish as la isla del encanto. Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista, in honor of Saint John the Baptist, eventually traders and other maritime visitors came to refer to the entire island as Puerto Rico, while San Juan became the name used for the main trading/shipping port and the capital city. The islands name was changed to Porto Rico by the United States after the Treaty of Paris of 1898, the anglicized name was used by the US government and private enterprises. The name was changed back to Puerto Rico by a joint resolution in Congress introduced by Félix Córdova Dávila in 1931, the ancient history of the archipelago known today as Puerto Rico is not well known. The scarce archaeological findings and early Spanish scholarly accounts from the colonial era constitute the basis of knowledge about them. The first comprehensive book on the history of Puerto Rico was written by Fray Íñigo Abbad y Lasierra in 1786, the first settlers were the Ortoiroid people, an Archaic Period culture of Amerindian hunters and fishermen who migrated from the South American mainland
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Brazil
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Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. As the worlds fifth-largest country by area and population, it is the largest country to have Portuguese as an official language. Its Amazon River basin includes a vast tropical forest, home to wildlife, a variety of ecological systems. This unique environmental heritage makes Brazil one of 17 megadiverse countries, Brazil was inhabited by numerous tribal nations prior to the landing in 1500 of explorer Pedro Álvares Cabral, who claimed the area for the Portuguese Empire. Brazil remained a Portuguese colony until 1808, when the capital of the empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, in 1815, the colony was elevated to the rank of kingdom upon the formation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. Independence was achieved in 1822 with the creation of the Empire of Brazil, a state governed under a constitutional monarchy. The ratification of the first constitution in 1824 led to the formation of a bicameral legislature, the country became a presidential republic in 1889 following a military coup détat. An authoritarian military junta came to power in 1964 and ruled until 1985, Brazils current constitution, formulated in 1988, defines it as a democratic federal republic. The federation is composed of the union of the Federal District, the 26 states, Brazils economy is the worlds ninth-largest by nominal GDP and seventh-largest by GDP as of 2015. A member of the BRICS group, Brazil until 2010 had one of the worlds fastest growing economies, with its economic reforms giving the country new international recognition. Brazils national development bank plays an important role for the economic growth. Brazil is a member of the United Nations, the G20, BRICS, Unasul, Mercosul, Organization of American States, Organization of Ibero-American States, CPLP. Brazil is a power in Latin America and a middle power in international affairs. One of the worlds major breadbaskets, Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee for the last 150 years and it is likely that the word Brazil comes from the Portuguese word for brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology red like an ember, formed from Latin brasa and the suffix -il. As brazilwood produces a red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official Portuguese name, early sailors sometimes also called it the Land of Parrots. In the Guarani language, a language of Paraguay, Brazil is called Pindorama
13.
Dominican Republic
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The Dominican Republic is a sovereign state occupying the eastern two-thirds of the island of Hispaniola, in the Greater Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean region. The western one-third of the island is occupied by the nation of Haiti, christopher Columbus landed on the Western part of Hispaniola, in what is now Haiti, on December 6,1492. The island became the first seat of the Spanish colonial rule in the New World, the Dominican people declared independence in November 1821 but were forcefully annexed by their more powerful neighbor Haiti in February 1822. After the 1844 victory in the Dominican War of Independence against Haitian rule the country again under Spanish colonial rule until the Dominican War of Restoration of 1865. The Dominican Republic experienced mostly internal strife until 1916, a civil war in 1965, the countrys last, was ended by another U. S. military occupation and was followed by the authoritarian rule of Joaquín Balaguer, 1966–1978. Since then, the Dominican Republic has moved toward representative democracy and has been led by Leonel Fernández for most of the time since 1996. Danilo Medina, the Dominican Republics current president, succeeded Fernandez in 2012, the Dominican Republic has the ninth-largest economy in Latin America and is the largest economy in the Caribbean and Central American region. Though long known for agriculture and mining, the economy is now dominated by services. Over the last two decades, the Dominican Republic have been standing out as one of the economies in the Americas – with an average real GDP growth rate of 5. 4% between 1992 and 2014. GDP growth in 2014 and 2015 reached 7.3 and 7. 0%, respectively, in the first half of 2016 the Dominican economy grew 7. 4% continuing its trend of rapid economic growth. Recent growth has been driven by construction, manufacturing and tourism, private consumption has been strong, as a result of low inflation, job creation, as well as high level of remittances. The Dominican Republic has a market, Bolsa de Valores de la Republica Dominicana. and advanced telecommunication system. Nevertheless, unemployment, government corruption, and inconsistent electric service remain major Dominican problems, the country also has marked income inequality. International migration affects the Dominican Republic greatly, as it receives, mass illegal Haitian immigration and the integration of Dominicans of Haitian descent are major issues. A large Dominican diaspora exists, mostly in the United States, contributes to development, the Dominican Republic is the most visited destination in the Caribbean. The year-round golf courses are major attractions, the island has an average temperature of 26 °C and great climatic and biological diversity. The country is also the site of the first cathedral, castle, monastery, and fortress built in all of the Americas, located in Santo Domingos Colonial Zone, a World Heritage Site. Music and sport are of importance in the Dominican culture, with Merengue and Bachata as the national dance and music
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Haiti
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Haiti, officially the Republic of Haiti and formerly called Hayti, is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean Sea. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic, the region was originally inhabited by the indigenous Taíno people. Spain discovered the island on 5 December 1492 during the first voyage of Christopher Columbus across the Atlantic, when Columbus initially landed in Haiti, he had thought he had found India or Asia. On Christmas Day 1492, Columbus flagship the Santa Maria ran aground north of what is now Limonade, the island was named La Española and claimed by Spain, which ruled until the early 17th century. Competing claims and settlements by the French led to the portion of the island being ceded to France. The development of plantations, worked by slaves brought from Africa. Upon his death in a prison in France, he was succeeded by his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the Haitian Revolution lasted just over a dozen years, and apart from Alexandre Pétion, the first President of the Republic, all the first leaders of government were former slaves. The Citadelle Laferrière is the largest fortress in the Americas, Henri Christophe – former slave and first king of Haiti, Henri I – built it to withstand a possible foreign attack. It has the lowest Human Development Index in the Americas, most recently, in February 2004, a coup détat originating in the north of the country forced the resignation and exile of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide. A provisional government took control with security provided by the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti, the name Haïti comes from the indigenous Taíno language which was the native name given to the entire island of Hispaniola to mean, land of high mountains. The h is silent in French and the ï in Haïti, is a mark used to show that the second vowel is pronounced separately. In English, this rule for the pronunciation is often disregarded, the name Haïti was restored by Haitian revolutionary Jean-Jacques Dessalines as the official name of independent Saint-Domingue, as a tribute to the Amerindian predecessors. The Taíno name for the island was Haiti. The people had migrated over centuries into the Caribbean islands from South America, genetic studies show they were related to the Yanomami of the Amazon Basin. They also originated in Central and South America, after migrating to Caribbean islands, in the 15th century, the Taíno were pushed into the northeast Caribbean islands by the Caribs. In the Taíno societies of the Caribbean islands, the largest unit of organization was led by a cacique, or chief. The caciquedoms were tributary kingdoms, with payment consisting of harvests, Taíno cultural artifacts include cave paintings in several locations in the country. These have become symbols of Haiti and tourist attractions
15.
Nigeria
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Its coast in the south lies on the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. It comprises 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, where the capital, Nigeria is officially a democratic secular country. Modern-day Nigeria has been the site of numerous kingdoms and tribal states over the millennia, the modern state originated from British colonial rule beginning in the 19th century, and the merging of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and Northern Nigeria Protectorate in 1914. The British set up administrative and legal structures whilst practising indirect rule through traditional chiefdoms, Nigeria became a formally independent federation in 1960, and plunged into a civil war from 1967 to 1970. Nigeria is often referred to as the Giant of Africa, owing to its large population, with approximately 184 million inhabitants, Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa and the seventh most populous country in the world. Nigeria has one of the largest populations of youth in the world, Nigeria is divided roughly in half between Christians, who live mostly in the southern part of the country, and Muslims in the northern part. A minority of the population practise religions indigenous to Nigeria, such as native to the Igbo. As of 2015, Nigeria is the worlds 20th largest economy, worth more than $500 billion and $1 trillion in terms of nominal GDP and it overtook South Africa to become Africas largest economy in 2014. The 2013 debt-to-GDP ratio was 11 percent, Nigeria is a member of the MINT group of countries, which are widely seen as the globes next BRIC-like economies. It is also listed among the Next Eleven economies set to become among the biggest in the world, Nigeria is a founding member of the African Union and a member of many other international organizations, including the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations and OPEC. The name Nigeria was taken from the Niger River running through the country and this name was coined in the late 19th century by British journalist Flora Shaw, who later married Lord Lugard, a British colonial administrator. The origin of the name Niger, which applied only to the middle reaches of the Niger River, is uncertain. The word is likely an alteration of the Tuareg name egerew n-igerewen used by inhabitants along the middle reaches of the river around Timbuktu prior to 19th-century European colonialism. The Nok civilisation of Northern Nigeria flourished between 500 BC and AD200, producing life-sized terracotta figures which are some of the earliest known sculptures in Sub-Saharan Africa, further north, the cities Kano and Katsina have a recorded history dating to around 999 AD. Hausa kingdoms and the Kanem-Bornu Empire prospered as trade posts between North and West Africa, the Kingdom of Nri of the Igbo people consolidated in the 10th century and continued until it lost its sovereignty to the British in 1911. Nri was ruled by the Eze Nri, and the city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture, Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umeuri clan. Members of the clan trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure Eri, in West Africa, the oldest bronzes made using the lost-wax process were from Igbo Ukwu, a city under Nri influence. The Yoruba kingdoms of Ife and Oyo in southwestern Nigeria became prominent in the 12th and 14th centuries, the oldest signs of human settlement at Ifes current site date back to the 9th century, and its material culture includes terracotta and bronze figures
16.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
17.
South Sudan
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South Sudan, officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in northeastern Africa that gained its independence from Sudan in 2011. Its current capital is Juba, which is also its largest city and it was planned that the capital city would be changed to the more centrally located Ramciel in the future before civil war broke out. It includes the vast swamp region of the Sudd, formed by the White Nile, following the First Sudanese Civil War, the Southern Sudan Autonomous Region was formed in 1972 and lasted until 1983. A second Sudanese civil war soon developed and ended with the Comprehensive Peace Agreement of 2005, later that year, southern autonomy was restored when an Autonomous Government of Southern Sudan was formed. South Sudan became an independent state on 9 July 2011, following a referendum passed with 98. 83% of the vote. It is a United Nations member state, a state of the African Union, of the East African Community. In July 2012, South Sudan signed the Geneva Conventions, South Sudan has suffered ethnic violence and has been in a civil war since 2013, as of 2016 it has the second highest score on the Fragile States Index. The Nilotic people of South Sudan—the Acholi, Anyuak, Bari, Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk, Kaligi, Zande, the Azande, Mundu, Avukaya and Baka, who entered South Sudan in the 16th century—established the regions largest state of Equatoria Region. The Dinka are the largest, Nuer the second largest and Azande are the third-largest ethnic group in South Sudan while the Bari are fourth-largest. They are found in the Maridi, Yambio, and Tombura districts in the tropical rainforest belt of Western Equatoria, in the 18th century, the Avungara sib rose to power over the rest of Azande society and this domination continued into the 20th century. The major reasons include the history of British policy preference toward developing the Arab north. After Sudans first independent elections in 1958, the ignoring of the south by Khartoum led to uprisings, revolt. As of 2012, peoples include Acholi, Anyuak, Azande, Baka, Balanda Bviri, Bari, Boya, Didinga, Dinka, Jiye, Kaligi, Kuku, Lotuka, Mundari, Murie, Nilotic, Nuer, Shilluk, Toposa and Zande. Slavery had been an institution of Sudanese life throughout history, the slave trade in the south intensified in the 19th century and continued after the British had suppressed slavery in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Annual Sudanese slave raids into non-Muslim territories resulted in the capture of thousands of southern Sudanese. In the 19th century, the Azande fought the French, the Belgians, Egypt, under the rule of Khedive Ismail Pasha, first attempted to control the region in the 1870s, establishing the province of Equatoria in the southern portion. Egypts first governor was Samuel Baker, commissioned in 1869, followed by Charles George Gordon in 1874, the Mahdist Revolt of the 1880s destabilized the nascent province, and Equatoria ceased to exist as an Egyptian outpost in 1889. Important settlements in Equatoria included Lado, Gondokoro, Dufile and Wadelai, european colonial maneuverings in the region came to a head in 1898, when the Fashoda Incident occurred at present-day Kodok, Britain and France almost went to war over the region
18.
United Andean Indian Mission
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Prominent missionaries working for the UAIM were, among others, Paul Streich, Benjamin Gutiérrez and Eugene Braun. The first missionary field for the UAIM was Picalquí, in Pichincha, Ecuador, the mission also operated a small medical mission with the help of American physicians already living in the country. Later on, the mission expanded to places, but it never gained a strong presence in Ecuador. When the mission disbanded, it had few congregations, the United Churchs first president was Rev. Gonzalo Carvajal, who resigned to work for HCJB and the Presbyterian Church in America. Since the denomination adopted a Methodist identity, it has an episcopal structure, the current presiding bishop is Silvio Cevallos Parra. At the time of the merger, the churches in the UAIM were, the United Methodist Church, the Presbyterian Church, the United Church of Christ. Sunquist, W. Scott and Becker, Caroline N, a History of Presbyterian Missions, 1944-2007, Geneva Press,2008. The United Andean-Indian Mission Becomes a Reality, Board of International Missions, Evangelical, padilla, Washington, La Iglesia y los Dioses Modernos. Historia del protestantismo en el Ecuador, Corporación Editora Nacional, Quito, horton, Douglas, The United Church of Christ, Its Origins, Organization, and Role in the World Today, Thomas Nelson Publishers,1962. An Evangelical Saga, Xulon Press,2005 Damboriena, Prudencio, miller, Park Hays, Why I Am a Presbyterian, Read Books,2007
19.
Church of North India
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It is the successor of Church of England in India along with the Church of Pakistan and the Church of South India. The CNIs jurisdiction covers all states of the Indian Union with the exception of the four states in the south and has approximately 1,250,000 members in 3,000 pastorates. A negotiation committee was set up in 1951 using the plan of Church Union that resulted from the earlier consultations as its basis, the Methodist Episcopal Church, however, did not join the discussions and, in 1981, it became the Methodist Church in India. In 1957, the Church of the Brethren in India and the Disciples of Christ denominations joined in the negotiations as well, a new negotiation committee was set up in 1961 with representatives from all the abovementioned denominations. In 1965, a plan of Church Union, known as the 4th Plan of Union 1965, was made. The CNI is a church that draws from the traditions. The basic creeds of the CNI are the Apostles Creed and the Nicene Creed of 381 AD. The liturgy of the CNI is of particular interest, as it combines many traditions, including that of the Methodists and such smaller churches as the Church of the Brethren, provision is given for diverse liturgical practices and understandings of the divine revelation. The polity of the CNI brings together the episcopal, the presbyterial, the episcopacy of the CNI is both historical as well as constitutional. There are 26 dioceses, each under the supervision of a bishop, the main administrative and legislative body is the synod, which meets once every three years to elect a presiding bishop, called a moderator, and an executive committee. The moderator acts as the head of the church, Social involvement is a major emphasis in the CNI. There are synodal boards in charge of various ministries, Secondary, Higher, Technical and Theological Education, Health Services, Social Services, Rural Development, Literature and Media. There is also a synodal Programme Office which seeks to protect and promote peace, justice, harmony, the CNI currently operates 65 hospitals, nine nursing schools,250 educational institutions and three technical schools. The CNI participates in many bodies as a reflection of its commitment towards church unity. Domestically it participates in a joint council with the Church of South India and it is also a member of the National Council of Churches in India. The CNI is also in partnership with other domestic, regional and international Christian agencies
20.
Alexander Mack
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Alexander Mack was the leader and first minister of the Schwarzenau Brethren in the Schwarzenau, Wittgenstein community of modern-day Bad Berleburg, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Mack founded the Brethren along with seven other Radical Pietists in Schwarzenau in 1708, Mack and the rest of the early Brethren emigrated to the United States in the mid-18th century, where he continued to minister to the Brethren community until his death. Mack was born in Schriesheim, Palatinate in contemporary Baden-Württemberg, Germany and he was born the third son to miller Johann Phillip Mack and his wife Christina Fillbrun Mack and baptized into the local Reformed church on 27 July 1679. The Macks remained in Schriesheim throughout the Nine Years War, intermittently seeking refuge in the country because of violence. Upon finishing his studies, Mack took over the family mill, by 1705, the Macks became moved by the Pietist movement locally led by Ernst Christoph Hochmann von Hochnau and started to host an illegal Bible study and prayer group at their home. In the early 1700s, Graf Henrich Albrecht Sayn-Wittgenstein provided refuge to religious dissenters from other German states, many were settled around the small village of Schwarzenau, including Mack and his followers. The era of toleration for radical Pietism lasted only until ~1740, Schwarzenau is now part of the town of Bad Berleburg in the district of Siegen-Wittgenstein in the state of Nord Rhein Westfalen. The school in Schwarzenau was named in honor of Alexander Mack, the initial group that became known as the Schwarzenau Brethren were inaugurated by Mack as a Bible study with four other men and three women. In 1708—having become convinced of the necessity of Believers baptism—the group decided to baptize themselves, Mack and several other Brethren emigrated to East Friesland because of pressure within the interfaith community in Schwarzenau in 1720. They stayed until 1729, when the community found it impossible to sustain itself. In 1719, a different Brethren group led by Peter Becker had already emigrated to Germantown, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Mack and his followers sailed for Germantown to establish a community in the New World. Mack was a Universalist and strict pacifist, ^ Some sources cite this as Macks birthday, others refer to this as his date of baptism. Grebe, Ursula Warum Alexander-Mack-Schule. in Wittgenstein Volume II, lückel, Ulf Die Anfänge des radikalen Pietismus in Wittgenstein in Von Wittgenstein in die Welt, Radikale Frömmigkeit und religiöse Toleranz. Mack, Alexander, William R. Eberly, ed, background and Development of Brethren Doctrines 1650–1987, Brethren Encyclopedia Monograph Series,2, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, Brethren Encyclopedia, Inc. ISBN 0-936693-22-3 Counting the Cost, The Life of Alexander Mack, 1679–1735, William G. Willougby, Brethren Press ISBN 087178159X Alexander Mack at the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online
21.
Schwarzenau Brethren
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The Schwarzenau Brethren, or German Baptist Brethren as it is known in America, originated in Germany, the outcome of the Radical Pietist ferment of the late 17th and early 18th centuries. They thereby attempted to translate the Philadelphian idea of love into concrete congregational ordinances obligatory for all the members, unlike the Philadelphians, Brethren rejected Leades embrace of direct revelation and emphasized early Christianity as the binding standard for congregational practices. The founding Brethren were also in conversation with Mennonites and influenced by Anabaptist writings, in Germany the Brethren became known as Neue Täufer, in distinction from the older Baptist groups with which they had no formal ties. In the United States they became known as Dunkers, Dunkards, or Tunkers, forms that stem from the German verb tunken, to dip. Another religious group related historically to the same Radical Pietist ferment as the Brethren is the Community of True Inspiration, the Schwarzenau Brethren was first organized in 1708 under the leadership of Alexander Mack in Schwarzenau, Germany, now part of Bad Berleburg in North Rhine-Westphalia. A notable influence was Ernest Christopher Hochmann von Hochenau, a traveling Pietist minister, while living in Schriesheim, his home town, Mack invited Hochmann to come and minister there. Like others who influenced the Brethren, Hochmann considered the church to be spiritual. Religious persecution drove the Brethren to take refuge in Friesland, in the Netherlands, in 1719 Peter Becker brought a group to Pennsylvania. In 1720 forty Brethren families settled in Surhuisterveen in Friesland and they settled among the Mennonites and remained there until 1729, when all but a handful emigrated to America, in three separate groups from 1719 to 1733. Peter Becker organized the first American congregation at Germantown, Pennsylvania, in 1743 Christopher Sauer, an early pastor and a printer by trade, printed a Bible in German, the first published in a European language in North America. Many members of the Schwarzenau Brethren came from the Southwest of Germany, because they settled in Pennsylvania among other Germans, who mainly came from the Palatinate and adjacent regions, they took part in the dialect leveling, that was the cradle of Pennsylvania German. Their language therefore was or soon became what today is called Pennsylvania Dutch or better Pennsylvania German, in 1782 the Brethren forbade slaveholding by its members. In 1871 these Brethren adopted the title German Baptist Brethren at their Annual Meeting, the group continued to expand and from Pennsylvania, they migrated chiefly westward. By 1908 they were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas, Brethren typically kept this teaching to themselves, and it was largely abandoned by the late nineteenth century. They were among the first to take Christian universalism to America when they emigrated there, the church leaders are ministers, teachers, and deacons, though the positions may vary slightly in the various branches. The official role of elder, while no longer recognized in most congregations, was the most respected position in the church, ministers and deacons are elected by the members of the congregation in which they hold membership. Ministers preach the word, baptize, assist deacons in anointing, solemnize marriages, deacons serve the church by arranging for visitation to members or their families during illness or crisis, and often function in the capacity of stewards. The first schism from the body of German Baptist Brethren occurred in 1728
22.
Schwarzenau, Bad Berleburg
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Bad Berleburg is a town, in the district of Siegen-Wittgenstein, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is one of Germanys largest towns by land area and it is located approximately 30 km northeast of Siegen and 35 km northwest of Marburg an der Lahn. Bad Berleburg lies in the northeast of Siegen-Wittgenstein in the middle of the Rothaargebirge, the western town limit is also the boundary with the neighbouring district of Olpe. The town is bordered on the north by the Hochsauerland district. The towns eastern limit is likewise the boundary with the Bundesland of Hesse, the town of Bad Laasphe borders on Bad Berleburg in the south, and the community of Erndtebrück in the southwest. The small river Odeborn flows through Berleburg and empties into the Eder further south, on the castle hills at Aue, Dotzlar and Wemlighausen are traces of circular forts from this time. There is, however, no evidence of settlement in the area for the time that follows, the constituent communities of Arfeld and Raumland were mentioned in documents in 800 and 802 respectively. There are also documents from 1059 confirming the existence of Alertshausen, Beddelhausen, Elsoff, in 1174, the name Widechinstein was mentioned for the first time. The village of Berleburg is mentioned for the first time in 1258 in documents from the Grafschaft Abbey, the castle passed on 30 March 1258 to Count Siegfried I and the monastery reeve Adolf von Grafschaft. In 1322, this double overlordship in Berleburg was ended by Widekind von Grafschaft when he forwent his rights to the town in Siegfried IIs favour, Siegfried was the last of his noble line, and when he died, the inheritance went to his son-in-law, Salentin von Sayn. He founded the House of Sayn-Wittgenstein, in 1488, and again in 1522, great fires roared through the town. Between 1726 and 1742, the well known Berleburg Bible was printed here, christoph Sauer lived at Schwarzenau for a few years before emigrating to Pennsylvania in 1724. There in 1743 he would print the first German-language Bible in North America with a press, tolerance of religious dissenters ebbed by the mid-1750s. Wittgenstein was placed under the Grand Duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1806, under the terms of the Congress of Vienna, it was then ceded to the Prussian province of Westphalia in 1816. When the Rothaarbahn railway was built to Berleburg in 1911, it brought with it the onset of industrialization, other forms of industry did not come to town until after the Second World War. The town was acknowledged as a climatic spa in 1935 for its gentle. After 1949, the Klinik Wittgenstein was built as a psychosomatic hospital, in 1951, on private initiative, a Kneipp spa association was founded, which was the forerunner to the Wittgenstein spa institution. In the first year that the WKA Kneipp spa works were open, little by little, Berleburg became Germanys second largest Kneipp spa
23.
Heifer International
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Heifer International is a global nonprofit working to eradicate poverty and hunger through sustainable, values-based holistic community development. Heifer distributes animals, along with agricultural and values-based training, to families in need around the world as a means of providing self-sufficiency. Recipients must agree to “pass on the gift” by sharing animal offspring, as well as the skills and knowledge of animal husbandry, based in Little Rock, Arkansas, Heifer International started with a shipment of 17 heifers to Puerto Rico in 1944. Heifer International began as Heifers for Relief in 1944 and its founder, an Ohio farmer named Dan West, was a Church of the Brethren relief worker during the Spanish Civil War. Working with Quakers and Mennonites, West directed a program where children were given rations of milk. In 1938, West was ladling out milk to hungry children and wrote later that he thought, These children don’t need a cup. When back home in Indiana, West took the idea to his neighbors and this led to the formation of the Heifers for Relief Committee in 1939. In 1942, West was approved by the U. S. Department of Agriculture to pursue the idea as a national project, the charity was incorporated in 1944 and sent its first shipment of 17 heifers to Puerto Rico. Several local farmers who knew West donated the animals, the first cows were named, Faith, Hope, and Charity, and recipient families had to promise that they would donate the first female calf to another poor family. West asked farmers and church leaders to donate pregnant dairy cows due to calve soon so that families could have milk for years to come. Metzger started his tenure as a seagoing cowboy, seagoing cowboys volunteered to accompany the animals to their overseas destinations. Eventually Metzger guided Heifer to work in developing nations instead of war-torn regions, in the early 1970s, Heifer consolidated its U. S. distribution network by buying several large farms, including a 1, 200-acre ranch in Perryville, Arkansas, as livestock holding facilities. The organization moved its headquarters to Little Rock, near the Perryville ranch, livestock are now sourced from within country or regionally. In 1992, Heifer International appointed Jo Luck to its helm as CEO, Jo Luck is a former member of Bill Clinton’s Arkansas gubernatorial cabinet. Before serving as CEO and President, Luck was the Director of International Programs for Heifer International, Heifer International’s budget boomed to almost $100 million under Jo Luck’s leadership. In 2012, the Foundation followed up with an additional $8.2 million, ferrari was named CEO of Heifer International. Ferrari became president and CEO after Jo Luck’s retirement, passing on the Gift is part of Heifer International’s charitable model. The nonprofit grounds all of its projects in its 12 Cornerstones of Just, passing on the gift allows families and individuals who have received animals to be donors themselves
24.
Higher education
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Higher education, post-secondary education, or third level education is an optional final stage of formal learning that occurs after completion of secondary education. Tertiary education at non-degree level is referred to as further education or continuing education as distinct from higher education. The right of access to education is mentioned in a number of international human rights instruments. In Europe, Article 2 of the First Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, adopted in 1950, in the days when few pupils progressed beyond primary education, the term higher education was often used to refer to secondary education, which can create some confusion. Higher education includes teaching, research, exacting applied work, within the realm of teaching, it includes both the undergraduate level, and beyond that, graduate-level. The latter level of education is referred to as graduate school. Higher education is important to national economies, both as an industry, in its own right, and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy. College educated workers have commanded a measurable wage premium and are less likely to become unemployed than less educated workers. However, the admission of so many students of average ability to higher education inevitably requires a decline in academic standards. There is some question as to whether advanced mathematical skills or talent are in fact necessary for such as history, English, philosophy. In contrast, the higher education and training that takes place at vocational universities and schools usually concentrates on practical applications. Requirements for admission to such high-level graduate programs is extremely competitive, in the United States, there are large differences in wages and employment associated with different degrees. Medical doctors and lawyers are generally the highest paid workers, and have among the lowest unemployment rates and it may encompass using insights to conceive, model and scale an appropriate solution to a problem or objective. Engineering disciplines include, aerospace, biological, civil, chemical, computer, electrical, industrial, examples are painting, sculpture, and drawing, etc. Higher educational institutions in these arts include Film schools and Art schools, Higher vocational education and training takes place at the non-university tertiary level. Such education combines teaching of practical skills and theoretical expertise. Higher education differs from other forms of education such as that offered by institutions of vocational education. Higher vocational education might be contrasted with education in a broader scientific field
25.
Bridgewater College
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Bridgewater College, is a private, coeducational, four-year liberal-arts college located in Bridgewater, a town in Rockingham County, Virginia, United States. Established in 1880, Bridgewater College admitted women from the time of its founding and was the first private, Bridgewater College was established in 1880 as Spring Creek Normal and Collegiate Institute by Daniel Christian Flory. Nine years later, the school was named Bridgewater College and chartered by the Commonwealth of Virginia to grant undergraduate degrees, Bridgewater conferred its first Bachelor of Arts degree on June 1,1891. In 1895, the Chairman of the Faculty, Walter B, yount, a graduate of what would become Juniata College and the University of Virginia was named the colleges first President. After his retirement in 1910, John S. Flory succeeded him as the colleges President, Bridgewater College became the first private, senior co-educational liberal arts college in Virginia and one of the few accredited colleges of its type in the South. The oldest portion of the Bridgewater College campus, consisting of five fine brick buildings constructed before 1911 is included in the Bridgewater Historic District. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984, Bridgewater offers more than 60 majors and minors, awarding the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees. Bridgewater students have the opportunity to study abroad through the BCA Study Abroad program, countries include Australia, Belgium, China, Cuba, Ecuador, England, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Japan, Mexico, New Zealand, Spain and Wales. Bridgewater College is located in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia, the Bridgewater campus comprises 300 acres and the educational activities are focused on the primary campus of 40 acres. Students can choose to be involved in approximately 60 social, cultural, religious, in addition, the student-run Eagle Productions hosts a wide variety of free weekend activities available to students. Events range from comedians and musicians to Homecoming festivities and the Springfest Carnival, Bridgewater College is a Division III member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and follows guidelines and policies set forth by this governing body. The teams are members of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference, which has 14 member institutions, additionally, the athletic program supports cheerleading, a dance team and pep band, which perform at home football and basketball games. Annual events at Bridgewater College celebrate tradition, community, alumni, founders Day observance at Bridgewater commemorates the April 3,1854, birth of Daniel Christian Flory, who began Bridgewater College in 1880, at the age of 26. In 2008, civil rights activist Andrew Jackson Young, Jr. was honored during the celebration of the 128th anniversary of the college. President Philip C. Stone awarded Young an Honorary Doctorate of Humane Letters, honoris causa, in recognition of his service to mankind. Homecoming weekend in October welcomes alumni back to the college with class reunions, outdoor festivities, a football game. Senior Week is the week before graduation, in which seniors celebrate with several organized events, oracles at the Oak was a tradition originally carried out by the senior classes during the early to mid 1900s underneath an oak tree on campus. Students met to pledge their dedication to the school and to each other, after the lightning-damaged oak tree was cut down, the tradition subsided
26.
Elizabethtown College
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Elizabethtown College is a small liberal arts college located in Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania, United States in Lancaster County. The school was founded in 1899 by members of the Church of the Brethren and it is commonly referred to as E-town, and has an undergraduate student body population of approximately 1,900. The College was founded by interested members of the Church of the Brethren in response to an initiative by the Reverend Jacob G. Francis, Francis advocated for Elizabethtown because of the proximity to the railways. First classes for the new college were held on Nov.13,1900, during its first two decades, the College operated as an academy, offering a limited curriculum centering on four-year teaching degrees and high school type classes. In 1921, the Pennsylvania Department of Public Instruction accredited the College, later, in 1928, the College was approved by the Pennsylvania Supreme Court for pre-law education. In 1948, Elizabethtown College became accredited by the Middle States Association, throughout this period, the college grew considerably as it built Fairview Hall, Gibble Science Building, the Alumni Auditorium and Zug Memorial Library. The Colleges presidents were referred to as principals prior to 1902, ziegler, 1900–1918 Samuel H. Hertzler, 1918–1936 Henry Kulp Ober, 1936–1939 Rufus P. Bucher, 1939–1954 Joseph W. Kettering, 1954–1968 Aaron G. Breidenstine, 1960–1974 Clifford B. James B. Hoover Center for Business opened in August 2006 and is named for 1975 Elizabethtown College graduate James B, the Hoover Center houses the Colleges business program, the Edward R. Murphy Center and the S. Dale High Center for Family Business. Masters Center for Science, Math, and Engineering opened in October 2007 and is named for its benefactor, Frank M. Masters, the Masters Center encompasses Esbenshade and Musser halls and Lyet wing. It houses the Colleges science, mathematics, and engineering programs, Esbenshade houses science facilities as well as Gibble Auditorium, which holds both classes and campus events. Musser Hall opened in 1983 and houses the Colleges chemistry program, Nicarry Hall opened in 1972 and is named for Wayne Nicarry. It houses classrooms and faculty offices for the humanities, originally the Gibble Science Hall, the Steinman Center, named for the Steinman Foundation of Lancaster, Pa. was renovated in 1985 to house communications and arts programs. Originally a residential facility named the Fairview Apartments, Wenger houses some of the Colleges humanities programs, originally Zug Memorial Library, it now houses the Colleges fine and performing arts programs, Hess art gallery and administrative offices. Alpha Hall opened in 1901 and was the first building erected on the Colleges campus, brossman is a combination of the Annenberg Center and Baugher Student Center opened in 1992 and 1962, respectively. A new structure was built between two buildings, while they were refurbished. The center houses a bookstore, post office, black box theater, dining hall, convenience store, performance spaces, student support offices, the Library is 54,230 square feet and has the capability to house 250,000 volumes. Leffler Chapel and Performance Center opened in 1995, a gift from Carlos R. and Georgiana F. Leffler, the Chapel is home to the 844-seat Musser Auditorium, the Lyet Gallery and the McCormick Gallery exhibition space. Leffler House opened in 1956 and currently houses the admissions office, Young Center for Anabaptist and Pietist Studies is named for Galen S
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Juniata College
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</ref> }} Juniata College is a private liberal arts college in Huntingdon, Pennsylvania, United States. Today, Juniata has about 1,600 students from 42 states and territories and 45 countries, the Huntingdon Normal School was established by a young Huntingdon physician, Dr. Andrew B. Brumbaugh, and his two cousins, Henry and John Brumbaugh, Henry provided a second-story room over his local print shop for classes, while John lodged and fed the colleges first teacher, Jacob M. Zuck. Andrew was to provide students and furniture, Juniatas first classes were held on April 17,1876 with Zuck teaching Rebecca Cornelius, Maggie D. Miller, and Gaius M. Brumbaugh, the only son of Andrew Brumbaugh. In 1877 the school changed its name to Brethren Normal School, at this time Zuck also discussed adding a Scientific Course and issuing Certificates of Graduation. In 1879, classes moved into Founders Hall, the schools first permanent building on the present-day campus then known as The Building. On May 11 of same year, Jacob Zuck died from pneumonia when he insisted on sleeping in the then unfinished Founders Hall without a heater, james Quinter was than chosen to lead the school as the schools first president. The name Juniata College was made the legal name in 1896. In 1895, Dr. Martin Grove Brumbaugh, an 1881 graduate from Huntingdon Normal, M. G. Brumbaugh died unexpectedly in 1930 while on vacation in Pinehurst, North Carolina and was succeeded in his presidency by a former pupil at Juniata, Dr. Charles Calvert Ellis. Past Juniata presidents include, The main campus area is 110 acres, two new buildings since 2000 include the von Liebig Center for Science and the Suzanne von Liebig Theatre. Founders Hall, the first building on campus, has also renovated recently. Construction was finished in the summer of 2009 and uses geothermal energy to heat. This building is recognized as a LEED Gold building, the newest building project on campus is Nathan Hall, a dormitory named in honor of longtime Juniata employee, Hilda Nathan. Hilda worked in the office from 1946 to 1976. The new residence hall, which opened to students for the Fall 2014 semester, Nathan Hall has an elevator and is designed for accessibility throughout the building. The space also is designed to foster community with such as informal gathering spaces and lounges within the building. The dorm also was constructed using green technologies such as heating, energy-efficient lighting, plantings. The building also offers a shelter to encourage less driving
28.
Manchester University (Indiana)
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Manchester University is a liberal arts university with a campus located in North Manchester, Indiana, and a second campus in Fort Wayne, Indiana, home to the Universitys College of Pharmacy. Total enrollment is approximately 1,500 students, Manchester University was founded in Roanoke, Indiana, as the Roanoke Classical Seminary in 1860 by the United Brethren Church. Howe served as the last president of Roanoke Classical Seminary, which was moved to North Manchester to become North Manchester College and he served as Manchester Colleges first president from 1889–1894 and is known as the founder. The school was renamed Manchester College in 1889 when it moved to North Manchester, in 1932, Manchester merged with Mount Morris College of Mount Morris, Illinois, a Methodist seminary founded in 1839. Manchester is a college of the Church of the Brethren, the Peace Studies Institute and Program for Conflict Resolution—the first undergraduate peace studies major in the U. S. was established at Manchester in 1948. The program was chaired by Kenneth Brown from 1980 until 2005, the Manchester College Historic District was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1990. In 2012, Manchester changed its name from Manchester College to Manchester University, Manchester University operates on a 4-1-4 academic calendar in its College of Undergraduate Studies. Students working toward a degree can choose from thirty-eight major fields of study. Students working toward a degree can choose from four major fields of study. Manchester also offers degrees in two fields of study and a doctorate degree in Pharmacy. Manchester University as a whole has been accredited by The Higher Learning Commission of the North Central Association of Colleges, the Department of History and Political Science is one of the oldest and most prestigious programs of study at Manchester, housing the Mock Trial and Model United Nations organizations. Well-known graduates include G. John Ikenberry, Albert G, all students classified as first-years, sophomores, or juniors must live on campus unless they live within 40 miles of Manchester University with their parents or are married. There are no fraternities or sororities at Manchester, and the University is a dry campus, Manchester University has five residence halls, East Hall houses up to 224 men and women. Garver Hall houses up to 275 men and women, helman Hall houses up to 129 men and women. Oakwood Hall houses up to 129 men and women, schwalm Hall houses up to 200 men and women. The Universitys chapter of Indiana Reading Corps is one of the largest in the state, habitat for Humanity also is a major recipient of campus service. Washington Monthly magazine ranks Manchester 14th among the nation’s baccalaureate colleges for its “contribution to the public good, Manchester University teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Associations Division III. The Spartans are a member of the Heartland Collegiate Athletic Conference, adams, professor emeritus of art,2002 U. S
29.
McPherson College
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McPherson College is a four-year liberal arts college in McPherson, Kansas, United States. It was chartered in 1887 by the leaders of the Church of the Brethren, the college provides a career-oriented liberal arts education. It is accredited by The Higher Learning Commission and is a member of the North Central Association, during their 1887 Annual Meeting, the Church of the Brethren recognized the need for a college west of the Mississippi River to serve the educational desires of settlers moving westward. The first academic semester opened on 5 September 1888, with 60 students, the Dormitory, a single building which served as residence hall, college, and library had been constructed before the semester began. By the end of the first school year nearly 200 students had enrolled, in 1898, Sharp Hall was completed, though it had been used for school purposes for some time while still incomplete. On 12 February 1898, the school was officially christened McPherson College, in 1926, J Willard Hershey synthesized one of the worlds earliest synthetic diamonds on the McPherson College campus. One of the diamonds is on display at the McPherson Museum in McPherson, there is some debate about the success of Hersheys experiments, with some researchers concluding that the diamonds were not true diamonds and others concluding that some of them were. In 1962, McPherson College became a member of Brethren Colleges Abroad. This donation provided the spark to launch the Automotive Restoration Technology program at McPherson College, the Tonight Show host Jay Leno has been a financial supporter of the Automotive Restoration Technology program since 1997 and a member of the programs National Advisory Board since 1998. By the fall of 2010, McPherson College had the highest student fall enrollment in over 40 years, McPherson College has been led by thirteen presidents and four interim presidents. McPherson College operates on a 4-1-4 academic calendar, the present campus has sixteen major buildings on twenty-three acres of land. Three out of four of the faculty hold terminal degrees, All of the arts faculty hold the degree of Master of Fine Arts or higher. McPherson College has a 13/1 student-faculty ratio, freshman and Sophomore seminars Academic Community Essentials is the name of McPhersons First Year Experience program. Freshmen must enroll in the course in both the fall and spring semesters of their first year, the course goal is that Students will show that they have learned about college life, create a degree plan, and practice good study skills, critical thinking, and conflict resolution. Sophomores must enroll in one semester of Sophomore Seminar, the course goal is that Students will complete a service project, develop a career plan, and show that they have explored internship options. McPherson College offers the four year Bachelor of Science degree in Automotive Restoration Technology in the United States. The program focuses on the restoration of valuable, classic. There are eight scholarships offered exclusively to Automotive Restoration students, McPherson College recently added an interdisciplinary entrepreneurship program
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University of La Verne
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The University of La Verne is a private not-for-profit university located in La Verne, California, United States, about 35 miles east of Los Angeles. It awards both undergraduate and graduate degrees, many of their classes are taught at smaller campuses throughout the greater Los Angeles area. U. S. News & World Report ranked the University 8th among private institutions in California, the University of La Verne was founded in 1891 as Lordsburg College by members of the Church of the Brethren, a German Christian sect originating from the Schwarzenau Brethren. In 1917, the agricultural community of Lordsburgh renamed itself La Verne. La Verne conferred its first masters degree in 1965 and began an education program in 1969. In 1981, the University founded a campus in Orange County and has opened locations throughout the area, including Vandenberg AFB. Despite its Church of the Brethren heritage, the University describes itself as non-sectarian, historically, the Brethren are considered one of the peace churches, like the Quakers and the Mennonites, and slots on the Board of Trustees are still held for members of the Brethren. The baccalaureate ceremony is held at the local Church of the Brethren, La Verne Online offers select programs through online coursework and some programs offer student choice on whether to take a class on campus or online. The Elvin and Betty Wilson Library—La Verne’s main library—contains over 193,000 volumes, the University of La Verne College of Law was founded in 1970 and is currently located in Ontario, California. In February 2006, the College of Law was provisionally accredited by the American Bar Association, allowing students to take the bar exam, in June 2011, the American Bar Association denied the University of La Verne full ABA accreditation. On August 29,2011, the school announced it received accreditation from the Committee of Bar Examiners of the State Bar of California, in March 2012, the ABA again granted provisional approval. On March 14,2016, the ABA granted full accreditation, at the University of La Verne, approximately 30% of traditional-age undergraduates participate in intercollegiate athletics annually. Its athletic program is dedicated to developing scholar-athletes who demonstrate a commitment to academic and athletic success, La Verne offers 20 intercollegiate athletic teams—10 sports for men and 10 for women. The Leopards are a member of the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference, La Verne has captured numerous SCIAC Championships, and has claimed NCAA team titles in baseball, mens volleyball and womens volleyball. Women’s volleyball is a national contender with three national titles and 22 conference championships in its history. The program produced two National Players of the Year, baseball has a national reputation stretching back five decades, with two national titles and 20 conference titles. Football’s competitive tradition can be traced back 83 years and is a keystone of the University’s athletic legacy, softball has established a competitive reputation, earning eight NCAA Division III playoff berths since 2006. Men’s golf won seven consecutive SCIAC championships from 2007–13 and placed second at the Division III national championship tournaments twice, kelby Scharmann claimed the individual national championship in 2015 and Mitchell Fedorka received the Jack Nicklaus Award as the Golf Coaches Association of America’s collegiate player of the year
31.
Christianity
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Christianity is a Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, who serves as the focal point for the religion. It is the worlds largest religion, with over 2.4 billion followers, or 33% of the global population, Christians believe that Jesus is the Son of God and the savior of humanity whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Old Testament. Christian theology is summarized in creeds such as the Apostles Creed and his incarnation, earthly ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection are often referred to as the gospel, meaning good news. The term gospel also refers to accounts of Jesuss life and teaching, four of which—Matthew, Mark, Luke. Christianity is an Abrahamic religion that began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the mid-1st century, following the Age of Discovery, Christianity spread to the Americas, Australasia, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world through missionary work and colonization. Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, throughout its history, Christianity has weathered schisms and theological disputes that have resulted in many distinct churches and denominations. Worldwide, the three largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the denominations of Protestantism. There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the Bible, concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds. They began as baptismal formulae and were expanded during the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. Many evangelical Protestants reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. The Baptists have been non-creedal in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the Restoration Movement, such as the Christian Church, the Evangelical Christian Church in Canada, the Apostles Creed is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is also used by Presbyterians, Methodists, and Congregationalists and this particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator, each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the apostolic period. The creed was used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome. Most Christians accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the mentioned above. The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God, Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was anointed by God as savior of humanity, and hold that Jesus coming was the fulfillment of messianic prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from the contemporary Jewish concept, Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not sin
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Radical Pietism
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Radical Pietism the theological doctrine of Pietism interpreted to the effect that its followers decided to break with denominational Lutheranism, forming separate churches. Such Radical Pietists contrast with Church Pietists, who chose to remain within their denominational settings, Radical Pietists distinguished between true and false Christianity, which led to their separation from these entities. Pietism emphasized the need for a religion of the heart instead of the head, and was characterized by purity, inward devotion, charity, asceticism. Leadership was empathetic to adherents instead of being strident loyalists to sacramentalism, the Pietistic movement was birthed in Germany through spiritual pioneers who wanted a deeper emotional experience rather than a preset adherence to form. They stressed a personal experience of salvation and an openness to new spiritual illumination. Many of the Radical Pietists were influenced by the writings of Jakob Böhme, Gottfried Arnold and they taught that personal holiness, spiritual maturity, Bible study, prayer, and fasting were essential towards feeling the effects of grace. A common trait among radical Pietists, is that they formed communities where they sought to revive the original Christian living of the Acts of the Apostles, jean de Labadie founded a communitarian group in Europe which was known, after its founder, as the Labadists. Johannes Kelpius led a group who came to America from Germany in 1694. The Harmony Society, founded by George Rapp, was another German-American religious group influenced by Radical Pietism, other groups include the Zoarite Separatists, and the Amana Colonies. In Sweden, a group of radical pietists formed a community, the Skevikare, on an island outside of Stockholm, two other common traits of radical Pietism were their strong endtime expectations, and their breakdown of social barriers. They were very influenced by prophecies gathered and published by John Amos Comenius, events like comets and lunar eclipses were seen as signs of threatening divine judgements. In Pennsylvania, Johannes Kelpius even installed a telescope on the roof of his house, as for the social barriers, in Germany and Sweden the familiar pronomen thou was commonly used among the radical Pietists. They also strongly abandoned class designation and academic degrees, some of the barriers between men and women were also broken down. Many radical pietistic women became known as writers and prophets. Neo-Lutheranism was a Lutheran revival in reaction against pietism, and the movement in Germany declined in the 19th century. Karl Barth, who initially supported pietism, later critiqued radical pietism as creating a move towards unorthodoxy and this is then seen by Milbank as the impetus for the quick rise and failure of defenses of critical reason by Fitche, Schelling, and Hegel. All this is seen as culminating in the especially radical pietism in Kierkegaard, sprache, Literatur und Wirkung der Inspirierten. Der Streit um das Recht auf eine neue Gesellschaft, andreas Deppermann, Johann Jakob Schütz und die Anfänge des Pietismus
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Radical Reformation
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Beginning in Germany and Switzerland in the 16th century, the Radical Reformation gave birth to many radical Protestant groups throughout Europe. The term covers both radical reformers like Thomas Müntzer, Andreas Karlstadt, groups like the Zwickau prophets and Anabaptist groups like the Hutterites and Mennonites, in parts of Germany, Switzerland and Austria, a majority sympathized with the Radical Reformation despite intense persecution. Thus, the Church only consisted of the community of believers. Though most of the Radical Reformers were Anabaptist, some did not identify themselves with the mainstream Anabaptist tradition, Thomas Müntzer was involved in the German Peasants War. Andreas Karlstadt disagreed theologically with Huldrych Zwingli and Martin Luther, teaching nonviolence, kaspar Schwenkfeld and Sebastian Franck were influenced by German mysticism and spiritualism. Some early forms of the Radical Reformation were millenarian, focusing on the imminent end of the world, after the Munster rebellion, the small group of the Batenburgers continued to adhere to militant Anabaptist beliefs. Non-violent Anabaptist groups also had millenarian beliefs, the early Anabaptists believed that their reformation must purify not only theology but also the actual lives of Christians, especially their political and social relationships. Many groups were influenced by biblicism, spiritualism and mainly absolute pacifism, the Hutterites also practiced community of goods. In the beginning most of them were strongly missionary, later forms of Anabaptism were much smaller, and focused on the formation of small, separatist communities. Among the many varieties to develop were Mennonites, Amish, simons had no use for the violence advocated and practiced by the Münster movement, which seemed to him to pervert the very heart of Christianity. In addition to the Anabaptists, other Radical Reformation movements have been identified, with Michael Servetus and Faustus Socinus anti-Trinitarianism came to the foreground. Religious Society of Friends, a group influenced by the Radical Reformation Christian anarchism Justus Velsius Martyrs Mirror Restorationism Williams. The Radical Reformation, 3rd ed. Estep, William R, Radical Reformation at Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online 16th Century Reformation Reading Room, Tyndale Seminary
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Church of the Brethren
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The Church of the Brethren is a Christian denomination with origins in the Schwarzenau Brethren that was organized in 1708 by Alexander Mack in Schwarzenau, Germany. The Brethren movement began as a melding of Radical Pietist and Anabaptist ideas during the Protestant Reformation, the first of its churches in the United States was established in 1723. These church bodies became known as Dunkards, and more formally as German Baptist Brethren. The denomination holds the New Testament as its only creed, historically, the church has taken a strong stance for nonresistance or pacifism—it is one of the three historic peace churches, alongside the Mennonites and Quakers. Distinctive practices include believers baptism by immersion, a threefold love feast consisting of feet washing, a fellowship meal, and communion, anointing for healing. The Church of the Brethren represents the largest body descending from Macks Schwarzenau Brethren church, the church had 122,810 members as of June 2010 and 1,047 congregations in the United States and Puerto Rico as of August 2010. Six liberal arts colleges and one seminary are related to the Church of the Brethren, general offices and the Brethren Press are located in Elgin, Illinois. In 1948, the Church of the Brethren joined the World Council of Churches as a member and was a forming member of the National Council of Churches in 1950. Five men and three women gathered at the Eder, a river that flows through Schwarzenau, to perforrm baptism as an outward symbol of their new faith. One of the members of the group first baptized Mack, who then, in turn and these eight Christians referred to themselves as the New Baptists. The name alluded to the use of the name Täufer by the Mennonites, the denomination reorganized in America and founded its first American congregation on Christmas Day 1723 in Germantown, Pennsylvania, then a village outside Philadelphia. They became known as German Baptists, in 1871, the denomination adopted the name, The German Baptist Brethren Church. Until the early 20th century, Brethren were colloquially called Tunkers or Dunkers, in 1728, Conrad Beissel, a Brethren minister at Conestoga renounced his association with the Brethren and formed his own group in Ephrata, Pennsylvania. They came to be known as the Ephrata Cloister, Beissel practiced a mystical form of Christianity. He encouraged celibacy and a vegetarian diet, after the Beissel split, the Brethren split several times because of doctrinal differences. The most conservative members emphasized consistency, obedience, and the order of the Brethren and they opposed the use of musical instruments, Sunday schools, and worldly amusements. They promoted plain dress, simple living, and church discipline, the progressives in the church focused on grace and acceptance. They promoted higher education, salaried ministers, Sunday schools, the majority of Brethren held a position between the two extremes
35.
Baptism
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Baptism is a Christian sacrament of admission and adoption, almost invariably with the use of water, into the Christian Church generally. The canonical Gospels report that Jesus was baptized—a historical event to which a degree of certainty can be assigned. Baptism has been called a sacrament and an ordinance of Jesus Christ. In some denominations, baptism is also called christening, but for others the word christening is reserved for the baptism of infants, Baptism has also given its name to the Baptist churches and denominations. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the candidate to be immersed, in v.16, Matthew will speak of Jesus coming up out of the water. The traditional depiction in Christian art of John the Baptist pouring water over Jesus head may therefore be based on later Christian practice, other common forms of baptism now in use include pouring water three times on the forehead, a method called affusion. Martyrdom was identified early in Church history as baptism by blood, later, the Catholic Church identified a baptism of desire, by which those preparing for baptism who die before actually receiving the sacrament are considered saved. Today, some Christians, particularly Christian Scientists, Quakers, The Salvation Army, and Unitarians, do not see baptism as necessary, among those that do, differences can be found in the manner and mode of baptizing and in the understanding of the significance of the rite. Most Christians baptize in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, much more than half of all Christians baptize infants, many others hold that only believers baptism is true baptism. Some insist on submersion or at least partial immersion of the person who is baptized, others consider that any form of washing by water, as long as the water flows on the head, is sufficient. The term baptism has also used to refer to any ceremony, trial, or experience by which a person is initiated, purified. The Greek verb baptō, dip, from which the verb baptizo is derived, is in turn hypothetically traced to a reconstructed Indo-European root *gʷabh-, the Greek words are used in a great variety of meanings. John the Baptist, who is considered a forerunner to Christianity, the apostle Paul distinguished between the baptism of John, and baptism in the name of Jesus, and it is questionable whether Christian baptism was in some way linked with that of John. Christians consider Jesus to have instituted the sacrament of baptism, though whether Jesus intended to institute a continuing, the earliest Christian baptisms were probably normally by immersion, complete or partial. Though other modes may have also been used, at the hour in which the cock crows, they shall first pray over the water. When they come to the water, the water shall be pure and flowing, that is, then they shall take off all their clothes. The children shall be baptized first, all of the children who can answer for themselves, let them answer. If there are any children who cannot answer for themselves, let their parents answer for them, after this, the men will be baptized
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Love feast
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The term Agape or Love feast was used for certain religious meals among early Christians that seem to have been originally closely related to the Eucharist. In modern times the Lovefeast is used to refer to a Christian ritual meal distinct from the Eucharist, similar communal meals are attested also in the Apostolic Tradition often attributed to Hippolytus of Rome, who does not use the term agape, and by Tertullian, who does. Though still mentioned in the Quinisext Council of 692, the Agape fell into disuse soon after, the name has been revived more recently among other groups, including Anglicans, as well as the American House Church movement. Many New Testament scholars hold that the Christians of Corinth met in the evening and had a meal including sacramental action over bread. 1 Corinthians 11, 20–34 indicates that the rite was associated with participation in a meal of a general character. It apparently involved a full meal, with the participants bringing their own food, no doubt there have to be differences among you to show which of you have Gods approval. When you come together, it is not the Lords Supper you eat, for as you eat, one remains hungry, another gets drunk. Dont you have homes to eat and drink in, or do you despise the church of God and humiliate those who have nothing. The term Agape is also used in reference to meals in Jude 12 and according to a few manuscripts of 2 Peter 2,13 Soon after the year 100, the rescheduling of the agape meal was triggered by Corinthian selfishness and gluttony. Tertullian too seems to write of these meals, though what he describes is not quite clear, clement of Alexandria distinguished so-called Agape meals of luxurious character from the agape which the food that comes from Christ shows that we ought to partake of. Accusations of gross indecency were sometimes made against the form that these meals sometimes took, the genuine agapæ were of apostolic origin, but were often abused by hypocrites, even under the apostolic eye. He reports that even before the time of his stay in Milan, canons 27 and 28 of the Council of Laodicea restricted the abuses of taking home part of the provisions and of holding the meals in churches. The permanent celebration of agapae was assured by legacies and foundations, after the Protestant Reformation there was a move amongst some groups of Christians to try to return to the practices of the New Testament Church. One such group was the Schwarzenau Brethren who counted a Love Feast consisting of Feet-washing, the Agape meal, john Wesley, the founder of Methodism, travelled to America in the company of the Moravians and greatly admired their faith and practice. After his conversion in 1738 he introduced the Love Feast to what became known as the Methodist movement, due to the lack of ordained ministers within Methodism, the Love Feast took on a life of its own, as there were very few opportunities to take Communion. As such, the Primitive Methodists celebrated the Love Feast, before it died out again in the nineteenth century as the revival cooled. The Creation Seventh Day Adventists partake of an Agape feast as a part of their New Moon observances, the Agape is a common feature used by the Catholic Neocatechumenal Way in which members of the Way participate in light feast after the celebration of the Eucharist on certain occasions. A number of Eastern Orthodox Christian parishes will have a meal on Sundays and feast days following the Divine Liturgy
37.
Foot washing
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Maundy, or the Washing of the Feet, is a religious rite observed by various Christian denominations. The term mandatum, therefore, was applied to the rite of foot-washing on this day of the Christian Holy Week called Maundy Thursday, John 13, 1–17 recounts Jesus performance of this act. In verses 13, 14–17, He instructs His disciples,14 If I then, your Lord and Teacher, have washed your feet,15 For I have given you an example, that you should do as I have done to you. 16 Most assuredly, I say to you, a servant is not greater than his master,17 If you know these things, blessed are you if you do them. Many denominations therefore observe the liturgical washing of the feet on Maundy Thursday of Holy Week, moreover, for some denominations, foot-washing was an example, a pattern. Many groups throughout Church history and many denominations have practiced foot washing as a church ordinance including Adventists, Anabaptists, Baptists. The origin of the word Maundy has at least two possibilities, 1) Through Middle English and Old French mandé, from Latin mandatum. 2) From the Latin mendicare, Old French mendier, and English maund, the root of this practice appears to be found in the hospitality customs of ancient civilizations, especially where sandals were the chief footwear. A host would provide water for guests to wash their feet and this is mentioned in several places in the Old Testament of the Bible, as well as other religious and historical documents. A typical Eastern host might bow, greet, and kiss his guest, though the wearing of sandals might necessitate washing the feet, the water was also offered as a courtesy even when shoes were worn. I Samuel 25,41 is the first biblical passage where an honored person offers to wash feet as a sign of humility. In John 12, Mary of Bethany anointed Jesus feet presumably in gratitude for raising her brother Lazarus from the dead, the Bible records washing of the saints feet being practised by the primitive church in I Timothy 5,10 perhaps in reference to piety, submission and/or humility. There are several names for this practice, maundy, foot washing, washing the feet, pedilavium. 6 He cometh, therefore, unto Simon Peter, and that one saith to him, Sir, thou—dost Thou wash my feet. 7 Jesus answered and said to him, That which I do thou hast not known now, Jesus answered him, If I may not wash thee, thou hast no part with me. 9 Simon Peter saith to him, Sir, not my feet only, but also the hands and the head. 12 When, therefore, He washed their feet, and took His garments, having reclined at meat again, He said to them, Do ye know what I have done to you. 13 Ye call me, The Teacher and The Lord, and ye say well, for I am,14 if then I did wash your feet—the Lord,15 For I have given thee an example, that ye should do as I have done to ye
