1.
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
–
The cathedral is the reputed burial place of Saint James the Great, one of the apostles of Jesus Christ. The cathedral has historically been a place of pilgrimage on the Way of St. James since the Early Middle Ages, the building is a Romanesque structure, with later Gothic and Baroque additions. According to legend, the apostle Saint James the Great brought Christianity to the Iberian Peninsula, in 44 AD, he was beheaded in Jerusalem. His remains were brought back to Galicia, Spain. Following Roman persecutions of Spanish Christians, his tomb was abandoned in the 3rd century, according to legend, this tomb was rediscovered in 814 AD by the hermit Pelagius, after he witnessed strange lights in the night sky. Bishop Theodomirus of Iria recognized this as a miracle and informed king Alfonso II of Asturias, the king ordered the construction of a chapel on the site. Legend has it that the king was the first pilgrim to this shrine, in 997 the early church was reduced to ashes by Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir, army commander of the caliph of Córdoba. The Al-Andalus commander was accompanied on his raid by his vassal Christian lords, the gates and the bells, carried by local Christian captives to Córdoba, were added to the Aljama Mosque. Construction of the present cathedral began in 1075 under the reign of Alfonso VI of Castile and it was built according to the same plan as the monastic brick church of Saint Sernin in Toulouse, probably the greatest Romanesque edifice in France. It was built mostly in granite, construction was halted several times and, according to the Liber Sancti Iacobi, the last stone was laid in 1122. But by then, the construction of the cathedral was not finished. The cathedral was consecrated in 1211 in the presence of king Alfonso IX of Leon, according to the Codex Calixtinus the architects were Bernard the elder, a wonderful master, his assistant Robertus Galperinus and, later possibly, Esteban, master of the cathedral works. In the last stage Bernard, the younger was finishing the building and he also constructed a monumental fountain in front of the north portal in 1122. The church became a see in 1075 and, due to its growing importance as a place of pilgrimage. A university was added in 1495, the cathedral was expanded and embellished with additions in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. Each of the façades along with their adjoining squares constitute a magnificent urban square, the Baroque façade of the Praza do Obradoiro square was completed by Fernando de Casas Novoa in 1740. Also in baroque style is the Acibecharía façade by Ferro Caaveiro and Fernández Sarela, the Pratarías façade, built by the Master Esteban in 1103, and most importantly the Pórtico da Gloria, an early work of Romanesque sculpture, were completed by Master Mateo in 1188. The Pórtico da Gloria of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela is a Romanesque portico by Master Mateo, to commemorate its completion in 1188, the date was carved on a stone and set in the cathedral, and the lintels were placed on the portico
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
–
The Western façade of the cathedral as seen from the Praza do Obradoiro.
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
–
Westside of the Cathedral, Collotype 1889
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
–
Overview of the cathedral complex.
Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela
–
Pórtico da Gloria, Collotype 1889
2.
Spain
–
By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
Spain
–
Lady of Elche
Spain
–
Flag
Spain
–
Altamira Cave paintings, in
Cantabria.
Spain
–
Celtic castro in
A Guarda,
Galicia.
3.
Lima
–
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín rivers, in the coastal part of the country. Together with the seaport of Callao, it forms an urban area known as the Lima Metropolitan Area. With a population of almost 10 million, Lima is the most populous area of Peru. Lima was founded by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro on January 18,1535 and it became the capital and most important city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru, around one-third of the national population lives in the metropolitan area. Lima is home to one of the oldest higher-learning institutions in the New World, the National University of San Marcos, founded on May 12,1551 during the Spanish colonial regime, is the oldest continuously functioning university in the Americas. In October 2013 Lima was chosen to host the 2019 Pan American Games and it also hosted the December 2014 United Nations Climate Change Conference and the Miss Universe 1982 pageant. In October 2015 Lima hosted the 2015 Annual Meetings of the World Bank Group, according to early Spanish articles the Lima area was once called Itchyma, after its original inhabitants. However, even before the Inca occupation of the area in the 15th century and this oracle was eventually destroyed by the Spanish and replaced with a church, but the name persisted, the chronicles show Límac replacing Ychma as the common name for the area. Modern scholars speculate that the word Lima originated as the Spanish pronunciation of the native name Limaq, linguistic evidence seems to support this theory as spoken Spanish consistently rejects stop consonants in word-final position. Non-Peruvian Spanish speakers may mistakenly define the city name as the direct Spanish translation of lime, the city was founded in 1535 under the name City of the Kings because its foundation was decided on January 6, date of the feast of the Epiphany. This name quickly fell into disuse and Lima became the name of choice, on the oldest Spanish maps of Peru. The river that feeds Lima is called Rímac and many people assume that this is because its original Inca name is Talking River. However, the inhabitants of the valley were not Incas. This name is an innovation arising from an effort by the Cuzco nobility in colonial times to standardize the toponym so that it would conform to the phonology of Cuzco Quechua, later, as the original inhabitants died out and the local Quechua became extinct, the Cuzco pronunciation prevailed. Nowadays, Spanish-speaking locals do not see the connection between the name of their city and the name of the river runs through it. They often assume that the valley is named after the river, however, historically, the Flag of Lima has been known as the «Banner of Perus Kings City»
Lima
–
Collage of Lima
Lima
–
Flag
Lima
–
Pachacamac was an important religious centre before the arrival of Spanish conquistadors
Lima
–
Balconies were a major feature of Lima's architecture during the colonial period.
4.
Spanish Baroque architecture
–
Spanish Baroque is a strand of Baroque architecture that evolved in Spain, its provinces, and former colonies. As early as 1667, the facades of Granada Cathedral and Jaén Cathedral suggest the artists fluency in interpreting traditional motifs of Spanish cathedral architecture in the Baroque aesthetic idiom and its gardens still remain as El Retiro park. This sober brick Baroque of the 17th century is well represented in the streets of the capital in palaces and squares. In contrast to the art of Northern Europe, the Spanish art of the period appealed to the rather than seeking to please the intellect. Within half a century, they transformed Salamanca into an exemplary Churrigueresque city, the development of the style passed through three phases. Between 1680 and 1720, the Churriguera popularized Guarinis blend of Solomonic columns and composite order, between 1720 and 1760, the Churrigueresque column, or estipite, in the shape of an inverted cone or obelisk, was established as a central element of ornamental decoration. The years from 1760 to 1780 saw a shift of interest away from twisted movement and excessive ornamentation toward a neoclassical balance. In this case as in others, the design involves a play of tectonic and decorative elements with little relation to structure. The focus of the ornamentation is an elaborately sculptured surround to a main doorway. The Royal Palace of Madrid and the interventions of Paseo del Prado in the same city and they were constructed in a sober Baroque international style, often mistaken for neoclassical, by the kings Philip V and Charles III. In the richest imperial province of 17th-century Spain, Flanders, florid decorative detailing was more tightly knit to the structure, a remarkable convergence of Spanish, French and Dutch Baroque aesthetics may be seen in the Abbey of Averbode. Six decades later, the architect Jaime Bort y Meliá, was the first to introduce Rococo to Spain. The greatest practitioner of the Spanish Rococo style was a master, Ventura Rodríguez. Even more than its Spanish counterpart, American Baroque developed as a style of stucco decoration, even then, the new style hardly affected the structure of churches. The Peruvian Baroque was particularly lush, as evidenced by the monastery of San Francisco in Lima, in the eighteenth century, the architects of the region turned for inspiration to the Mudéjar art of medieval Spain. The late Baroque type of Peruvian facade first appears in the Church of Our Lady of Mercy, similarly, the Iglesia de La Compañia, Quito suggests a carved altarpiece with its richly sculpted facade and a surfeit of spiral salomónica. To the north, the richest province of 18th-century New Spain — Mexico — produced some fantastically extravagant and this ultra-Baroque approach culminates in the works of Lorenzo Rodriguez, whose masterpiece is the Sagrario Metropolitano in Mexico City. Other fine examples of the style may be found in the remote silver-mining towns, there are about sixty churches whose facades and domes display glazed tiles of many colours, often arranged in Arabic designs
Spanish Baroque architecture
–
Royal Palace of Madrid (1738-1892).
Spanish Baroque architecture
–
Estipite in the Church of
Caravaca de la Cruz.
Spanish Baroque architecture
–
Church of St. Michel in
Louvain, Belgium: Willem Hesius, 1650.
Spanish Baroque architecture
–
Plaza Mayor in Salamanca (1729-1755), Alberto and Manuel de Lara Churriguera.
Andrés Garcia de Quiñones designed the city Hall.
5.
Ornament (architecture)
–
In architecture and decorative art, ornament is a decoration used to embellish parts of a building or object. A wide variety of styles and motifs have been developed for architecture. In textiles, wallpaper and other objects where the decoration may be the justification for its existence. The vast range of used in ornament draw from geometrical shapes and patterns, plants. In a 1941 essay, the architectural historian Sir John Summerson called it surface modulation, the earliest decoration and ornament often survives from prehistoric cultures in simple markings on pottery, where decoration in other materials has been lost. Ornament implies that the object has a function that an unornamented equivalent might also fulfill. Where the object has no function, but exists only to be a work of art such as a sculpture or painting. In recent centuries a distinction between the arts and applied or decorative arts has been applied, with ornament mainly seen as a feature of the latter class. Ornament increased over the Romanesque and Gothic periods, but was reduced in Early Renaissance styles. While the concept of the Kunstwollen has few followers today, his analysis of the development of forms has been confirmed and refined by the wider corpus of examples known today. Styles of ornamentation can be studied in reference to the culture which developed unique forms of decoration. The Ancient Egyptian culture is arguably the first civilization to add decoration to their buildings. Their ornament takes the forms of the world in that climate, decorating the capitals of columns and walls with images of papyrus. Assyrian culture produced ornament which shows influence from Egyptian sources and a number of themes, including figures of plants. Ancient Greek civilization created many new forms of ornament, with variations from Doric, Ionic. The Romans Latinized the pure forms of the Greek ornament and adapted the forms to every purpose, a few medieval notebooks survive, most famously that of Villard de Honnecourt showing how artists and craftsmen recorded designs they saw for future use. As printing became cheaper, the single ornament print turned into sets, from the 16th to the 19th century, pattern books were published in Europe which gave access to decorative elements, eventually including those recorded from cultures all over the world. Napoleon had the great pyramids and temples of Egypt documented in the Description de lEgypte, owen Jones published The Grammar of Ornament in 1856 with colored illustrations of decoration from Egypt, Turkey, Sicily and Spain
Ornament (architecture)
–
18th-century
Rococo balcony,
Bavaria. The form is itself ornamental, and further decorated in painted plasterwork.
Ornament (architecture)
–
Arabesque ornament on a Turkish
dagger hilt
Ornament (architecture)
–
Ming dynasty
Jingdezhen dish with dragon
Ornament (architecture)
–
Northern Mannerist architectural pattern book by
Wendel Dietterlin, 1598
6.
Stucco
–
Stucco or render is a material made of aggregates, a binder, and water. Stucco is applied wet and hardens to a dense solid. It is used as coating for walls and ceilings and as a sculptural. Stucco may be used to cover less visually appealing construction materials such as metal, concrete, cinder block, or clay brick and adobe. In English, stucco usually means a coating for the outside of a building, and plaster one for interiors, as described below, but other European languages, importantly including Italian, do not have the same distinction, stucco means plaster in Italian and serves for both. This has led to English often using stucco for interior decorative plasterwork in relief, especially in art history, the difference in nomenclature between stucco, plaster, and mortar is based more on use than composition. Animal or plant fibers were often added for additional strength, in the latter nineteenth century, Portland cement was added with increasing frequency in an attempt to improve the durability of stucco. At the same time, traditional lime plasters were being replaced by gypsum plaster, traditional stucco is made of lime, sand, and water. Modern stucco is made of Portland cement, sand, and water, lime is added to increase the permeability and workability of modern stucco. Sometimes additives such as acrylics and glass fibers are added to improve the properties of the stucco. This is usually done with what is considered a one-coat stucco system, lime stucco is a relatively hard material that can be broken or chipped by hand without too much difficulty. The lime itself is white, color comes from the aggregate or any added pigments. Lime stucco has the property of being self-healing to a degree because of the slight water solubility of lime. Portland cement stucco is very hard and brittle and can easily crack if the base on which it is applied is not stable, typically its color was gray, from the innate color of most Portland cement, but white Portland cement is also used. Todays stucco manufacturers offer a wide range of colors that can be mixed integrally in the finish coat. As a building material, stucco is a durable, attractive and it was traditionally used as both an interior and exterior finish applied in one or two thin layers directly over a solid masonry, brick or stone surface. The finish coat usually contained a color and was typically textured for appearance. The lath added support for the wet plaster and tensile strength to the brittle, cured stucco, while the increased thickness, the traditional application of stucco and lath occurs in three coats — the scratch coat, the brown coat and the finish coat
Stucco
–
Stucco from the
House of Borujerdi-ha, 1850s,
Kashan,
Iran.
Stucco
–
Stucco from the
Sardar Rafie Yanehsari building (Shahryari building 1),
Hezarjarib District,
Behshahr County,
Iran.
Stucco
–
Stucco used as an exterior coating on a residential building.
Stucco
–
Rock dash stucco used as an exterior coating on a house on Canada's west coast. The chips of quartz, stone, and colored glass measure approx. 3-6 mm (1/8" - 1/4").
7.
Madrid
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Madrid is the capital city of the Kingdom of Spain and the largest municipality in both the Community of Madrid and Spain as a whole. The city has a population of almost 3.2 million with an area population of approximately 6.5 million. It is the third-largest city in the European Union after London and Berlin, the municipality itself covers an area of 604.3 km2. Madrid lies on the River Manzanares in the centre of both the country and the Community of Madrid, this community is bordered by the communities of Castile and León. As the capital city of Spain, seat of government, and residence of the Spanish monarch, Madrid is also the political, economic, the current mayor is Manuela Carmena from Ahora Madrid. Madrid is home to two football clubs, Real Madrid and Atlético de Madrid. Madrid is the 17th most liveable city in the according to Monocle magazine. Madrid organises fairs such as FITUR, ARCO, SIMO TCI, while Madrid possesses modern infrastructure, it has preserved the look and feel of many of its historic neighbourhoods and streets. Cibeles Palace and Fountain have become one of the monument symbols of the city, the first documented reference of the city originates in Andalusan times as the Arabic مجريط Majrīṭ, which was retained in Medieval Spanish as Magerit. A wider number of theories have been formulated on possible earlier origins, according to legend, Madrid was founded by Ocno Bianor and was named Metragirta or Mantua Carpetana. The most ancient recorded name of the city Magerit comes from the name of a built on the Manzanares River in the 9th century AD. Nevertheless, it is speculated that the origin of the current name of the city comes from the 2nd century BC. The Roman Empire established a settlement on the banks of the Manzanares river, the name of this first village was Matrice. In the 8th century, the Islamic conquest of the Iberian Peninsula saw the changed to Mayrit, from the Arabic term ميرا Mayra. The modern Madrid evolved from the Mozarabic Matrit, which is still in the Madrilenian gentilic, after the disintegration of the Caliphate of Córdoba, Madrid was integrated in the Taifa of Toledo. With the surrender of Toledo to Alfonso VI of León and Castile, the city was conquered by Christians in 1085, Christians replaced Muslims in the occupation of the centre of the city, while Muslims and Jews settled in the suburbs. The city was thriving and was given the title of Villa, since 1188, Madrid won the right to be a city with representation in the courts of Castile. In 1202, King Alfonso VIII of Castile gave Madrid its first charter to regulate the municipal council, which was expanded in 1222 by Ferdinand III of Castile
Madrid
–
From upper left: view of business districts of
AZCA and
CTBA,
Gran Vía street and
Metropolis Building, the
Palace of Communication, view of
Royal Palace and
Almudena Cathedral.
Madrid
Madrid
–
Plaza Mayor
Madrid
–
Puerta de Alcalá
8.
Catalan people
–
The Catalans are a Romance ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Catalonia, who form a nationality in northern Spain. The inhabitants of the adjacent portion of southern France are included in this definition, also, Catalan is sometimes used to define people from the so-called Catalan Countries, expression used to include other areas where the Catalan is spoken. The aforementioned territories are often designated Països Catalans, Catalan Countries, the area that now is known primarily as Catalonia was, as the rest of the Iberian Peninsula, invaded in 1500 BCE by Proto-Celtic Urnfield people who brought the rite of burning the dead. These Indo-European people were absorbed by the Iberians beginning in 600 BCE in a process that would not be complete until the fourth century BCE. These groups came under the rule of various invading groups starting with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians, following the Punic Wars, the Romans replaced the Carthaginians as the dominant power in the Iberian eastern coast, including parts of Catalonia, by 206 BCE. Rome established Latin as the language and imparted a distinctly Roman culture upon the local population. An early precursor to the Catalan language began to develop from a form of popular Latin before. Various Germanic tribes arrived following nearly six centuries of Roman rule, the Visigoths established themselves in the fifth century and would rule the area until 718 when Muslim Arabs and Berbers conquered the region and held it for close to a century. The Franks held back small Muslim raiding parties, which had penetrated virtually unchallenged as far as central France, larger wars with the Muslims began with the Spanish March which led to the beginnings of the Reconquista by Catalan forces over most of Catalonia by the year 801. Barcelona became an important center for Christian forces in the Iberian Peninsula, Catalonia emerged from the conflicts in Muslim Spain as a regional power, as Christian rulers entrenched themselves in the region during the Carolingian period. Rulers such as Wilfred the Hairy became masters of a territory encompassing Catalonia. The Crown of Aragón included Catalonia, Aragón, Valencia, some sporadic regional unrest led to conflicts such as the Revolt of the Germanies in Valencia and Majorca, and the 1640 revolt in Catalonia known as the Reapers War. This latter conflict embroiled Spain in a war with France as many Catalan nobles allied themselves with Louis XIII. The Catalan government took sides with the Habsburg pretender against the Bourbon one during the War of the Spanish Succession that started in 1705 and ended in 1714. The Catalan failure to defend the perpetuation of Habsburg dynasty in Spain culminated in the surrender of Barcelona on 11 September 1714, which came to be commemorated as Catalonias national day. During the Napoleonic Wars, much of Catalonia was seized by French forces by 1808, in France, strong assimilationist policies integrated many Catalans into French society, while in Spain a Catalan identity was increasingly suppressed in favor of a national identity. The Catalans regained autonomy during the Spanish Second Republic from 1932 until Francisco Francos nationalist forces retook Catalonia by 1939. It was not until 1975 and the death of Franco that the Catalans as well as other Spaniards began to regain their right to cultural expression, which was restarted by the Spanish Constitution of 1978
Catalan people
–
Battle of the Puig by Andreu Marçal de Sax depicting the Christian victory with the aid of
Saint George.
Catalan people
–
After the Catalan defeat during the
War of Spanish Succession,
Philip V of Spain ordered to publicly burn all the Catalan flags and banners.
Catalan people
–
The
castells,
human towers, are part of the Catalan culture since 1712 and were declared by
UNESCO to be amongst the
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.
Catalan people
–
Catalan children wearing the traditional outfit, including the
barretina.
9.
Salamanca
–
Salamanca is an ancient Celtic city in northwestern Spain that is the capital of the Province of Salamanca in the community of Castile and León. The city lies on several hills by the Tormes River and its Old City was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1988. Salamanca attracts thousands of students, generating a diverse environment. It is situated approximately 200 kilometres west of the Spanish capital Madrid and 80 km east of the Portuguese border, with its 30,000 students, the university is, together with tourism, a primary source of income in Salamanca. In the 3rd century BC, Hannibal laid siege to the city, with the fall of the Carthaginians to the Romans, the city of Helmantica, as it was known, began to take more importance as a commercial hub in the Roman Hispania due to its favorable location. Salamanca lay on a Roman road, known as the Vía de la Plata and its Roman bridge dates from the 1st century, and was a part of this road. With the fall of the Roman Empire, the Alans established in Lusitania, later the city was conquered by the Visigoths and included in their territory. The city was already an episcopal see, and signatures of bishops of Salamanca are found in the Councils of Toledo, Salamanca surrendered to the Moors, led by Musa bin Nusair, in the year 712 AD. For years, this area between the south of Duero River and the north of Tormes River, became the battlefield between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslim Al-Andalus rulers. The constant fighting of the Kingdom of León first, and the Kingdom of Castile and León later against the Caliphate depopulated Salamanca, after the battle of Simancas the Christians resettled this area. After the capture of Toledo by Alfonso VI of León and Castile in 1085, raymond of Burgundy, instructed by his father-in-law Alfonso VI of León, led a group of settlers of various origins in 1102. Soon it became one of the most significant and prestigious academic centres in Europe, during the 16th century, the city reached its height of splendour. During that period, the University of Salamanca hosted the most important intellectuals of the time, in 1551, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V ordered an inquiry to find out if the science of Andreas Vesalius, physician and anatomist, was in line with Catholic doctrine. Vesalius came to Salamanca that same year to appear before the board and was acquitted, Salamanca suffered the general downturns of the Kingdom of Castile during the 17th century, but in the 18th century it experienced a rebirth. In this period, the new baroque Cathedral and main square were finished, the battle which raged that day is famous as a defining moment in military history, many thousands of men were slaughtered by cannon fire in the space of only a few short hours. During the devastating Spanish Civil War the city went over to the Nationalist side and was used as the de facto capital. The Nationalists soon moved most of the departments to Burgos. Like much of fervently Catholic and largely rural Leon and Old Castile regions, Salamanca was a supporter of the Nationalist side
Salamanca
–
View of Salamanca
Salamanca
–
Old Cathedral, Salamanca, built in the 12th century
Salamanca
–
New Cathedral of Salamanca, built in the 16th century
Salamanca
–
Monterrey Palace (16th century)
10.
Alonso Cano
–
Alonzo Cano or Alonso Cano was a Spanish painter, architect and sculptor born in Granada. He learned architecture from his father, Miguel Cano, painting in the academy of Juan del Castillo, and from Francisco Pacheco the teacher of Velázquez, and sculpture from Juan Martínez Montañés. As a sculptor, his most famous works are the Madonna and Child in the church of Lebrija, and he was made first royal architect, painter to Philip IV, and instructor to the prince, Balthasar Charles, Prince of Asturias. According to another story, he found his house robbed after coming home one evening, his wife murdered, notwithstanding the presumption against the fugitive, the magistrates condemned Cano, because he was of a jealous temper. Upon this he fled to Valencia, but afterwards returned to Madrid, where he was put to the torture, which he endured without incriminating himself, and the king received him into favour. After the death of his wife he took Holy Orders as a protection from farther prosecution, but still continued his professional pursuits. In his last moments, when the priest held to him a crucifix, he told him to take it away, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, probably this version is spurious as many others about his life and temperament. San Vicente Ferrer Virgin of the Olive Tree Inmaculada del Facistol in the sacristy of the Cathedral of Granada, virgen of Bethlehem Bust of Saint Paul Head of San Juan de Dios Annunciation Christ Bound to the Column in the church of the Convento del Stmo. Cristo de la Victoria de Serradilla, entrance of the Cathedral of Granada Saint John the Baptist as a Youth 1634, in the National Sculpture Museum
Alonso Cano
–
Alonzo Cano, (Portraits of Illustrious Spanish), 1791
Alonso Cano
–
Saint John the Evangelist's Vision of Jerusalem
Alonso Cano
–
Immaculate Conception, c. 1618–20, attributed to Velázquez or Cano
Alonso Cano
–
Saint John and the Poisoned
Chalice, c. 1635–37
11.
Granada Cathedral
–
Granada Cathedral, or the Cathedral of the Incarnation is a Roman Catholic church in the city of Granada, capital of the province of the same name in the Autonomous Region of Andalusia, Spain. The cathedral is the seat of the Archdiocese of Granada, most unusually, he created a circular capilla mayor rather than a semicircular apse, perhaps inspired by Italian ideas for circular perfect buildings. Within its structure the cathedral combines other orders of architecture and it took 181 years for the cathedral to be built. Subsequent architects included Juan de Maena, followed by Juan de Orea, in 1667 Alonso Cano, working with Gaspar de la Peña, altered the initial plan for the main façade, introducing Baroque elements. The main chapel contains two kneeling effigies of the Catholic King and Queen, Isabel and Ferdinand by Pedro de Mena y Medrano, the busts of Adam and Eve were made by Alonso Cano. The Chapel of the Trinity has a marvelous retablo with paintings by El Greco, Jusepe de Ribera, granadas cathedral has a rectangular base due to its five naves that completely cover the cross, which doesnt stand out over the floor-plan. All of the five naves are staggered in height, the one being bigger. At the foot of the cathedral there are located two towers, the left one, called the tower of San Miguel, being a buttress which replaced the planned tower on that side. The main chapel consists of a series of Corinthian columns on which capitals is the entablature and, over it, the vault, the facade consists of a framed structure in the form of a triumphal arch with portals and canvas. It consists of three pillars crowned by semicircular arches supported on pilasters, similar to San Andrés de Mantua of Leon Battista Alberti, the pilasters dont have capitals but projections sculptured in the walls, as well as attached marble medallions. Above the main door is located a marble tondo from José Laughing on the Annunciation and it should also be highlighted the presence of a vase with lilies at the top, alluding to the virgin and pure nature of the mother of God. The sacrarium, raised between 1706 and 1759, follows the classic proportions of the whole, keeping the multiple columns of the transept the shapes of the compound of Siloam, information on the Cathedrals of Granada on the Spain. info website
Granada Cathedral
–
Facade of the Cathedral
Granada Cathedral
–
Inner view.
Granada Cathedral
–
Province of Barcelona
12.
Charterhouse of Pavia
–
The Certosa di Pavia is a monastery and complex in Lombardy, northern Italy, situated near a small town of the same name in the Province of Pavia,8 km north of Pavia. Built in 1396-1495, it was located on the border of a large hunting park belonging to the Visconti family of Milan. It is one of the largest monasteries in Italy, Certosa is the Italian name for a house of the cloistered monastic order of Carthusians founded by St. Bruno in 1044 at Grande Chartreuse. The location was strategically chosen midway between Milan and Pavia, the city of the Duchy, where the Duke held his court. The church, the last edifice of the complex to be built, was to be the mausoleum of the Visconti. It was designed as a structure with a nave and two aisles, a type unusual for the Carthusian Order. The nave, in the Gothic style, was completed in 1465, Solari was followed as director of the works by Giovanni Antonio Amadeo. The church was consecrated on May 3,1497, the lower part of the façade was not completed until 1507. The construction contract obliged the monks to use part of the revenue of the held in benefice to the monastery to continue to improve the edifice. Consequently, the Certosa includes a collection of artworks of all centuries from the 15th to the 18th. In 1782, the Carthusians were expelled by the Emperor Joseph II of Austria, in 1810 the monastery was closed until the Carthusians reacquired it in 1843. In 1866 it was declared a National Monument and sequestrated by the Italian State, the monks currently living in the monastery are Cistercians admitted to it in the 1960s. In August 1946 the illegally exhumed body of Benito Mussolini was discovered in the complex, two Franciscan friars were charged with assisting in the concealment of the body. The church is built on a Latin cross plan, with a nave, the chancel terminates with an apse. It is covered by crossed vaults on Gothic arches and is inspired, on a reduced scale, the vaults are alternatively decorated with geometrical shapes and starry skies. The transept and the main chapel end with square-plan chapels with smaller, the façade of the church is famous for its exuberant decorations, typical of Lombard architecture, every part being decorated with reliefs, inlaid marble and statues. Sculptors who worked on it include Cristoforo Mantegazza and Giovanni Antonio Amadeo himself, the architect Giovanni Solari, in building the double row of arcades down the flanks of the church, modified its appearance. After his death he was succeeded in Pavia by his son Guiniforte Solari, in their hands the project was thoroughly redesigned
Charterhouse of Pavia
–
The Certosa di Pavia as seen from the Small Cloister
Charterhouse of Pavia
–
View of the façade.
Charterhouse of Pavia
–
The portal.
Charterhouse of Pavia
–
The path to the church.
13.
Moorish architecture
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Moorish architecture is the architectural tradition that appeared in the Maghreb region and the Iberian peninsula after the Arab Islamic conquest. Other notable buildings include the palace city of Medina Azahara, the church San Cristo de la Luz in Toledo. The term is used to include the products of the Islamic civilisation of Southern Italy. The Palazzo dei Normanni in Sicily was begun in the 9th century by the Emir of Palermo, there is archeological evidence of an eighth-century mosque in Narbonne, France. Arabic architecture Islamic architecture Arab-Norman culture Islamic influences on Christian art Moorish Revival* Moroccan architecture Mudéjar Mudéjar Architecture of Aragon Curl, a Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
Moorish architecture
–
Paderne Castle, Portugal.
Moorish architecture
Moorish architecture
–
Church of Nossa Senhora da Anunciação (formerly a mosque),
Mértola.
Moorish architecture
14.
Guarino Guarini
–
Camillo-Guarino Guarini was an Italian architect of the Piedmontese Baroque, active in Turin as well as Sicily, France, and Portugal. He was a Theatine priest, mathematician, and writer and he was accepted as a Theatine novice in 1639, spent his novitiate at the monastery of San Silvestro al Quirinale in Rome, and returned to Modena in 1647, where he was ordained in 1648. He rose quickly in the Theatine hierarchy, becoming first auditor, then superintendent of works, treasurer, lecturer in philosophy, procuratore, prince Alfonso supported another candidate and Guarini was soon replaced and had to leave Modena. The next few years are poorly documented and he wrote four mathematical books in both Latin and Italian, of which Euclides adauctus is a work on descriptive geometry. In 1665, he published a mathematical-philosophical tract Placita Philosophica defending the universe against Copernicus. The Palazzo Carignano is regarded as one of the finest urban palaces of the half of the 17th century in Italy. Guarini appears to have influenced by Borromini. Between 1657 and 1659 he stayed in Spain, where he studied Moorish buildings, in architecture, his successors include Filippo Juvarra, and Juvarras pupil Bernardo Vittone. The latter published his designs in Architettura Civile in 1737 and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Guarini, Camillo-Guarino. Art and Architecture in Italy, 1600–1750, optical Illusion and Projection, A Study of Guarino Guarinis Dome in Santissima Sindone Books on line, http, //architectura. cesr. univ-tours. fr/Traite/Auteur/Guarini. asp. param=en
Guarino Guarini
–
Guarino Guarini
Guarino Guarini
–
The
Carignano Palace in Turin.
Guarino Guarini
–
Interior Cupola of the Sindone Chapel, Turin
Guarino Guarini
–
Compendio della sfera celeste
15.
Solomonic column
–
The Solomonic column, also called Barley-sugar column, is a helical column, characterized by a spiraling twisting shaft like a corkscrew. It is not signified by a specific style and may be crowned with any design, for example. Twist-fluted columns were a feature of eastern architecture of Late Antiquity. These columns, now considered to have made in the 2nd century CE. In actuality, the columns came from neither temple. Constantine is recorded as having brought them de Grecias i. e. from Greece, a small number of Roman examples of similar columns are known. All that can firmly be said is that they are early and, because they have no Christian iconography in the carving, the columns have distinct sections that alternate from ridged to smooth with sculpted grape leaves. Some of these columns remained on the altar until the old structure of St. Peters was torn down in the 16th century, while removed from the altar, eight of these columns remain part of the structure of St. Peters. Two columns were placed below the pendentives on each of the four piers beneath the dome, another column can now be observed up close in the St. Peters Treasury Museum. Other columns from this set of twelve have been lost over the course of time. If these columns really were from one of the Temples in Jerusalem and these columns have sections of twist-fluting alternating with wide bands of foliated reliefs. From Byzantine examples, the Solomonic column passed to Western Romanesque architecture, in Romanesque architecture some columns also featured spiraling elements twisted round each other like hawser. Such variety adding life to an arcade is combined with Cosmatesque spiralling inlays in the cloister of St. John Lateran and these arcades were prominent in Rome and may have influenced the baroque Solomonic column. The Solomonic column was revived as a feature of Baroque architecture, the twisted S-curve shaft gives energy and dynamism to the traditional column form which fits these qualities that are characteristically Baroque. Easily the best-known Solomonic columns are the colossal bronze Composite columns by Bernini in his Baldacchino at St. Peters Basilica, the construction of the baldachin, actually a ciborium, which was finished in 1633, required that the original ones of Constantine be moved. During the succeeding century, Solomonic columns were used in altars, furniture. Sculpted vines were sometimes carved into the spiralling cavetto of the columns, or made of metal. In an ecclesiastical context such ornament may be read as symbolic of the used in the Eucharist
Solomonic column
–
From Raphael's workshop, "Healing of the Lame Man," a cartoon for a tapestry that depicts Peter healing the lame man (Acts 3). The artist used the Solomonic columns in St. Peter's Basilica as models for the columns of the Jewish Temple
Solomonic column
–
Constantine's columns in their present day location on a pier in St. Peter's. Part of Bernini's Baldacchino, inspired by the original columns, is in the foreground.
Solomonic column
–
Solomonic columns entwined with grapevines in the frontispiece to
Hugh Broughton, A Concent of Scripture, London, 1588
Solomonic column
–
Bernini's baldacchino in St. Peter's Basilica.
16.
Composite order
–
The composite order is a mixed order, combining the volutes of the Ionic order capital with the acanthus leaves of the Corinthian order. In many versions the composite order volutes are larger, however, the column of the composite order is typically ten diameters high, though as with all the orders these details may be adjusted by the architect for particular buildings. The Composite order is essentially treated as Corinthian except for the capital, the composite order is not found in ancient Greek architecture and until the Renaissance was not ranked as a separate order. Instead it was considered as an imperial Roman form of the Corinthian order, leon Battista Alberti in his De re aedificatoria mentions the composite order, calling it Italic. Despite this origin, very many Composite capitals in fact treat the two volutes as different elements, each springing from one side of their leafy base. In this, and in having an ornament between them, they resemble the Archaic Greek Aeolic order, though this seems not to have been the route of their development in early Imperial Rome. This has the advantage of removing the necessity to have a different appearance between the front and side views, and the Ionic eventally developed bending forms that allowed this. The treatment of details has often been very variable, with the inclusion of figures, heraldic symbols, the composite order, due to its delicate appearance, was deemed by the Renaissance to be suitable for the building of churches dedicated to The Virgin Mary or other female saints. In general it has been since used to suggest richness. Bramante used the order in the second order of the cloister of Santa Maria della Pace. For the first order, the Ionic order was used, francesco Borromini developed the composite order in San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome. The interior of the church has 16 composite columns, the load-bearing columns placed underneath the arches have inverted volutes. This choice was highly criticised at the time, thinking it was a lack of knowledge of the Vittruvian orders that led him to his decision, the inverted volutes can also be seen in Borrominis Oratorio dei Filippini in the lower order. There the controversy was even higher, considering that Borromini also removed the acanthus leaves, reggio calabria, Dipartimento Patrimonio Architettonico e Urbanistico
Composite order
–
Composite capital, Palace of Justice (today
Ethnographic Museum),
Budapest
Composite order
–
The classical orders. A typical example of the composite order is depicted in the bottom row to the right.
17.
Granada Charterhouse
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Granada Charterhouse is a Carthusian monastery in Granada, Spain. It is one of the finest examples of Spanish Baroque architecture, the charterhouse was founded in 1506, construction started ten years later, and continued for the following 300 years. While the exterior is an ember in comparison, the interior of the monasterys is a flamboyant explosion of ornamentation. Its complex echoing geometric surfaces make of it one of the masterpieces of Churrigueresque style, the charterhouse displays an extensive collection of paintings, prominent among which the works of Fray Juan Sánchez Cotán
Granada Charterhouse
–
Exterior of the Charterhouse (viewed in the sunset)
Granada Charterhouse
–
Dome of the tabernacle of Granada Charterhouse. Frescoes by
Acisclo Antonio Palomino de Castro
Granada Charterhouse
–
View of the Monastery from the south-east
18.
Chiaroscuro
–
Chiaroscuro is an oil painting technique, developed during the Renaissance, that uses strong tonal contrasts between light and dark to model three-dimensional forms, often to dramatic effect. The underlying principle is that solidity of form is best achieved by the light falling against it, artists known for developing the technique include Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio, and Rembrandt. It is a mainstay of black and white photography and these in turn drew on traditions in illuminated manuscripts going back to late Roman Imperial manuscripts on purple-dyed vellum. Such works used to be called chiaroscuro drawings, but are often described in modern museum terminology by such formulae as pen on prepared paper. Chiaroscuro woodcuts began as imitations of this technique, when discussing Italian art, the term sometimes is used to mean painted images in monochrome or two colours, more generally known in English by the French equivalent, grisaille. The term broadened in meaning early on to cover all strong contrasts in illumination between light and dark areas in art, which is now the primary meaning. The invention of these effects in the West, skiagraphia or shadow-painting to the Ancient Greeks, traditionally was ascribed to the famous Athenian painter of the fifth century BC, Apollodoros. Chose her place to sit for that purpose in the alley of a goodly garden. In drawings and prints, modelling chiaroscuro often is achieved by the use of hatching, washes, stipple or dotting effects, and surface tone in printmaking are other techniques. Chiaroscuro woodcuts are old master prints in woodcut using two or more blocks printed in different colours, they do not necessarily feature strong contrasts of light and they were first produced to achieve similar effects to chiaroscuro drawings. Other printmakers to use the technique include Hans Wechtlin, Hans Baldung Grien, in Germany the technique achieved its greatest popularity around 1520, but it was used in Italy throughout the sixteenth century. Later artists such as Goltzius sometimes made use of it, in most German two-block prints, the keyblock was printed in black and the tone block or blocks had flat areas of colour. In Italy, chiaroscuro woodcuts were produced without keyblocks to achieve a different effect. Manuscript illumination was, as in areas, especially experimental in attempting ambitious lighting effects since the results were not for public display. The development of compositional chiaroscuro received an impetus in northern Europe from the vision of the Nativity of Jesus of Saint Bridget of Sweden. Hugo van der Goes and his followers painted many scenes lit only by candle or the light from the infant Christ. As with some later painters, in their hands the effect was of stillness, strong chiaroscuro became a popular effect during the sixteenth century in Mannerism and Baroque art. Divine light continued to illuminate, often rather inadequately, the compositions of Tintoretto, Veronese, tenebrism was especially practiced in Spain and the Spanish-ruled Kingdom of Naples, by Jusepe de Ribera and his followers
Chiaroscuro
–
Giovanni Baglione. Sacred and Profane Love. 1602–1603, showing dramatic compositional chiaroscuro
Chiaroscuro
–
Detail of "
La Fornarina " by
Raphael, shows delicate modelling chiaroscuro in the body of the model, for example in the shoulder, breast, and arm on the right
Chiaroscuro
–
Chiaroscuro woodcut of the Virgin and Child by
Bartolommeo Coriolano, created between 1630 and 1655 (digitally restored)
Chiaroscuro
–
Nativity at Night by
Geertgen tot Sint Jans, c. 1490, after a composition by
Hugo van der Goes of c. 1470; sources of light are the infant Jesus, the shepherds' fire on the hill behind, and the angel who appears to them
19.
El Transparente
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El Transparente is a Baroque altarpiece in the ambulatory of the Cathedral of Toledo. This lower hole also allows persons in the ambulatory to see through the altarpiece to the tabernacle, as if were transparent and it was created in 1729-1732 by Narciso Tomé and his four sons. The use of light and of mixed materials may reflect the influence of Berninis Cathedra Petri in St Peters Basilica and its execution was ordered by Diego de Astorga y Céspedes, Archbishop of Toledo. The Bishop wished to mark the presence of the Holy Sacrament with a glorious monument, the monument cost 200,000 ducats and aroused great enthusiasm, even a celebratory poem wherein the monument was acclaimed the Eighth Wonder of the World. Cardinal Astorga y Céspedes is buried at the feet of El Transparente, after the two holes were cut, Tomé and his sons designed a way to visually connect the two by sculpting a fantastic company of angels, saints, prophets and cardinals. Abstract designs suggesting flowing robes and foliage hang over corners to mask the details of the architectural piercings, along the edges of the skylight they arranged an array of Biblical figures who seem to tumble into the cathedral. At the outer edge of the opening sits Christ on a bank of clouds, the back side of the altarpiece was converted to a tower of marble which reaches from the floor to the ceiling. Intricate groups of figures were assembled so that the opening to the tabernacle could be hidden yet permit light to pass through
El Transparente
–
El Transparente.
El Transparente
–
El Transparente, side view.
20.
Toledo Cathedral
–
The Primate Cathedral of Saint Mary of Toledo is a Roman Catholic cathedral in Toledo, Spain. It is the seat of the Metropolitan Archdiocese of Toledo, the cathedral of Toledo is one of the three 13th-century High Gothic cathedrals in Spain and is considered, in the opinion of some authorities, to be the magnum opus of the Gothic style in Spain. It also combines some characteristics of the Mudéjar style, mainly in the cloister, the spectacular incorporation of light and the structural achievements of the ambulatory vaults are some of its more remarkable aspects. It is built with limestone from the quarries of Olihuelas. It is popularly known as Dives Toletana, for many years, an unwritten popular tradition has held that there was originally a church from the era of the first Archbishop Eugene located in the same place as the present cathedral. The city had been the seat of Visigothic Spain. The numerous Councils of Toledo attest to its important ecclesiastical past, also, the abjuration of Arianism on the part of Reccared occurred there. The Muslim invasion did not immediately eliminate the Christian presence and the bishopric remained established in the church of Saint Mary of Alfizén, the Visigothic church was torn down and the main mosque of the city of Toledo was erected in its place. The city of Toledo was reconquered by Alfonso VI, King of León and Castile, naturally, the preservation of the main mosque was integral to this compromise. On 25 October 1087, the archbishop in cooperation with Queen Constance sent a contingent to seize the mosque by force. They proceeded to install an altar and hung a bell in the minaret. In gratitude for this gesture, the Cathedral Chapter dedicated a homage to Walid and ordered his effigy to be placed on one of the pillars in the main chapel, thus the conversion of the Toledan mosque was upheld and it remained consecrated as a Christian cathedral. It is possible that it appeared much like the Church of the Savior of Toledo. King Alfonso VI made important donations to the new church, on 18 December 1086, the cathedral was placed under the advocacy of María and it was granted villas, hamlets, mills and one third of the revenues of all the rest of the churches of the city. Pope Urban II recognised this church in 1088 as the cathedral over the rest of the kingdom. The mosque-cathedral remained intact until the 13th century, when in the year 1222 a Papal bull issued by the Pope authorised the construction of a new cathedral which was begun in 1224. The official ceremony of the laying of the foundation took place in 1226. Throughout the 13th century the cathedrals income tax was raised through the incorporation of Alcalá de Henares into its archiepiscopal territories in 1129
Toledo Cathedral
–
Main façade (facing west)
Toledo Cathedral
–
The main façade, from the Plaza del Ayuntamiento.
Toledo Cathedral
–
Alfonso VI of León and Castile
Toledo Cathedral
–
The Cathedral seen from the Church of San Ildefonso
21.
Sagrario Metropolitano
–
The Metropolitan Cathedral of the Assumption of the Most Blessed Virgin Mary into Heaven is the largest cathedral in the Americas, and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Mexico. It is situated atop the former Aztec sacred precinct near the Templo Mayor on the side of the Plaza de la Constitución in Downtown Mexico City. The cathedral was built in sections from 1573 to 1813 around the church that was constructed soon after the Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlan. Spanish architect Claudio de Arciniega planned the construction, drawing inspiration from Gothic cathedrals in Spain, the cathedral has four façades which contain portals flanked with columns and statues. The two bell towers contain a total of 25 bells, the tabernacle, adjacent to the cathedral, contains the baptistery and serves to register the parishioners. There are two large, ornate altars, a sacristy, and a choir in the cathedral, fourteen of the cathedrals sixteen chapels are open to the public. Each chapel is dedicated to a different saint or saints, the chapels contain ornate altars, altarpieces, retablos, paintings, furniture and sculptures. The cathedral is home to two of the largest 18th-century organs in the Americas, there is a crypt underneath the cathedral that holds the remains of many former archbishops. Over the centuries, the cathedral has suffered damage, a fire in 1967 destroyed a significant part of the cathedrals interior. The restoration work that followed uncovered a number of important documents, although a solid foundation was built for the cathedral, the soft clay soil it is built on has been a threat to its structural integrity. Dropping water tables and accelerated sinking caused the structure to be added to the World Monuments Fund list of the 100 Most Endangered Sites, reconstruction work beginning in the 1990s stabilized the cathedral and it was removed from the endangered list in 2000. Hernán Cortés and the conquistadors used the stones from the destroyed temple of the Aztec god of war Huitzilopochtli, principal deity of the Aztecs. Cortés ordered the churchs construction after he returned from exploring what is now Honduras. Architect Martín de Sepúlveda was the first director of project from 1524 to 1532. Juan de Zumárraga, the first Bishop of the first See of the New World, established in the Viceroyalty of New Spain, zumárragas Cathedral was located in the northeast portion of what is now the cathedral. It had three naves separated by three Tuscan columns, the central roof was ridged with intricate carvings done by Juan Salcedo Espinosa and gilded by Francisco de Zumaya and Andrés de la Concha. The main door was probably of Renaissance style, the choir area had 48 seats made of ayacahuite wood crafted by Adrian Suster and Juan Montaño. However, this church was considered inadequate for the growing importance of the capital of New Spain
Sagrario Metropolitano
–
Mexico City Cathedral, with the Metropolitan Tabernacle to the right.
Sagrario Metropolitano
–
The cathedral as seen from Madero street.
Sagrario Metropolitano
–
Back section of cathedral facing República de Guatemala street.
Sagrario Metropolitano
–
Main entrance
22.
Mexico City
–
Mexico City, or City of Mexico, is the capital and most populous city of Mexico. As an alpha global city, Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in the Americas and it is located in the Valley of Mexico, a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres. The city consists of sixteen municipalities, the 2009 estimated population for the city proper was approximately 8.84 million people, with a land area of 1,485 square kilometres. The Greater Mexico City has a domestic product of US$411 billion in 2011. The city was responsible for generating 15. 8% of Mexicos Gross Domestic Product, as a stand-alone country, in 2013, Mexico City would be the fifth-largest economy in Latin America—five times as large as Costa Ricas and about the same size as Perus. Mexico’s capital is both the oldest capital city in the Americas and one of two founded by Amerindians, the other being Quito. In 1524, the municipality of Mexico City was established, known as México Tenochtitlán, Mexico City served as the political, administrative and financial center of a major part of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain was achieved, the district was created in 1824. Ever since, the left-wing Party of the Democratic Revolution has controlled both of them, in recent years, the local government has passed a wave of liberal policies, such as abortion on request, a limited form of euthanasia, no-fault divorce, and same-sex marriage. On January 29,2016, it ceased to be called the Federal District and is now in transition to become the countrys 32nd federal entity, giving it a level of autonomy comparable to that of a state. Because of a clause in the Mexican Constitution, however, as the seat of the powers of the federation, it can never become a state, the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan was founded by the Mexica people in 1325. According to legend, the Mexicas principal god, Huitzilopochtli indicated the site where they were to build their home by presenting an eagle perched on a cactus with a snake in its beak. Between 1325 and 1521, Tenochtitlan grew in size and strength, eventually dominating the other city-states around Lake Texcoco, when the Spaniards arrived, the Aztec Empire had reached much of Mesoamerica, touching both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. After landing in Veracruz, Spanish explorer Hernán Cortés advanced upon Tenochtitlan with the aid of many of the native peoples. Cortés put Moctezuma under house arrest, hoping to rule through him, the Aztecs thought the Spaniards were permanently gone, and they elected a new king, Cuitláhuac, but he soon died, the next king was Cuauhtémoc. Cortés began a siege of Tenochtitlan in May 1521, for three months, the city suffered from the lack of food and water as well as the spread of smallpox brought by the Europeans. Cortés and his allies landed their forces in the south of the island, the Spaniards practically razed Tenochtitlan during the final siege of the conquest. Cortés first settled in Coyoacán, but decided to rebuild the Aztec site to erase all traces of the old order and he did not establish a territory under his own personal rule, but remained loyal to the Spanish crown
Mexico City
–
From above
Torre Latinoamericana,
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral,
Anillo Periférico,
World Trade Center Mexico City,
Angel of Independence,
Chapultepec Castle,
St. Regis Hotel Tower and
Torre Mayor, Skyline of
Paseo de la Reforma and
Palacio de Bellas Artes.
Mexico City
–
Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.
Mexico City
–
The ruins of the
Templo Mayor.
Mexico City
–
The
Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral was built by the Spaniards over the ruins of the main Aztec temple.
23.
New Spain
–
New Spain was a colonial territory of the Spanish Empire, in the New World north of the Isthmus of Panama. It was established following the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521, after 1535 the colony was governed by the Viceroy of New Spain, an appointed minister of the King of Spain, who ruled as monarch over the colony. The capital of New Spain was Mexico City and it developed highly regional divisions, which reflect the impact of climate, topography, the presence or absence of dense indigenous populations, and the presence or absence of mineral resources. The areas of central and southern Mexico had dense indigenous populations with complex social, political, silver mining not only became the engine of the economy of New Spain, but vastly enriched Spain, and transformed the global economy. New Spain was the New World terminus of the Philippine trade, although New Spain was a dependency of Spain, it was a kingdom not a colony, subject to the presiding monarch on the Iberian Peninsula. Every privilege and position, economic political, or religious came from him and it was on this basis that the conquest, occupation, and government of the New World was achieved. The Viceroyalty of New Spain was established in 1535 in the Kingdom of New Spain and it was the first New World viceroyalty and one of only two in the Spanish empire until the 18th century Bourbon Reforms. The Spanish Empire comprised the territories in the north overseas Septentrion, from North America, to the west of the continent, New Spain also included the Spanish East Indies. To the east of the continent, it included the Spanish West Indies and this was not occupied by many Spanish settlers and were considered more marginal to Spanish interests than the most densely populated and lucrative areas of central Mexico. To shore up its claims in North America starting in the late 18th century, Spanish expeditions to the Pacific Northwest explored and claimed the coast of what is now British Columbia and Alaska. The indigenous societies of Mesoamerica brought under Spanish control were of unprecedented complexity, the societies could provide the conquistadors, especially Hernán Cortés, a base from which the conquerors could become autonomous, or even independent, of the Crown. As a result, the Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, since the time of the Catholic Monarchs, central Iberia was governed through councils appointed by the monarch with particular jurisdictions. Thus, the creation of the Council of the Indies became another, the crown had set up the Casa de Contratación in 1503 to regulate contacts between Spain and its overseas possessions. A key function was to gather information about navigation to make trips less risky and they were accompanied by maps of the area discussed, many of which were drawn by indigenous artists. The Francisco Hernández Expedition, the first scientific expedition to the New World, was sent to gather information medicinal plants, an earlier Audiencia had been established in Santo Domingo in 1526 to deal with the Caribbean settlements. That Audiencia, housed in the Casa Reales in Santo Domingo, was charged with encouraging further exploration, management by the Audiencia, which was expected to make executive decisions as a body, proved unwieldy. Therefore, in 1535, King Charles V named Don Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy of New Spain. After the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in 1532 opened up the vast territories of South America to further conquests, the Crown established an independent Viceroyalty of Peru there in 1540
New Spain
–
"Vázquez de Coronado Sets Out to the North" (1540) by
Frederic Remington, oil on canvas, 1905
New Spain
–
Flag
New Spain
–
Indian Wedding and Flying Pole, circa 1690
New Spain
–
Route from Philippines to Acapulco, México
24.
Plaza Mayor, Salamanca
–
The Plaza Mayor in Salamanca, Spain is a large plaza located in the center of Salamanca, used as a public square. It was built in the traditional Spanish baroque style and is a gathering area. It is lined by restaurants, ice cream parlors, tourist shops, jewelry stores and it is considered the heart of Salamanca and is widely regarded as one of the most beautiful plazas in Spain. Construction of the began in 1729 and was completed in 1755. Felipe the V ordered the construction of the plaza to be used for bullfighting and was designed by the Churriguera family in sandstone and it had been used for bullfighting up until the mid-19th century, one hundred years after being completed. The construction began in two phases, the first was between 1729 and 1735 and the second was between 1750 and 1755, the first phase was built under the direction of Alberto Churriguera while the second phase was built under the direction of Manuel de Larra Churriguera, his nephew. Finally, Andrés Garcia de Quiñones built the City Hall, in 1988, UNESCO declared the old city of Salamanca a World Heritage Site. Today, there is a placed in the center of the plaza marking its significance to boast the plazas baroque-style beauty. Salamanca is known as La Dorada, The Golden City because of the glow of its sandstone buildings, the plaza is an irregular square and none of its facades measure the same height. The plazas walls have three floors above its ground level except for the main facade portion. The plaza has 6 entrances leading to different streets from opposite areas of the plaza and it features 88 arches raised on stout pillars and is decorated medallions on its many spandrels. The plaza also has 247 balconies of which now belong to private residents, the city hall is also located on this side of the plaza, also built in the baroque style with 5 granite arches and a steeple. Vantage Point Plaza Plaza Mayor, Valladolid Plaza Mayor, Madrid Salamanca Plaza Mayor information La Plaza Mayor de Salamanca en el punto de mira report by the Citizens Association Defense Heritage
Plaza Mayor, Salamanca
–
The front of the plaza, showing the clock tower in the background and social gatherings in the front
Plaza Mayor, Salamanca
–
The entrance to the
Café Novelty, founded in 1905, from the Plaza Mayor.
Plaza Mayor, Salamanca
–
Plaque in the center of the plaza, which says Twentieth anniversary [of] Salamanca
patrimony of
humanity 1988-2008.
Plaza Mayor, Salamanca
–
Model showing the 2 towers never completed
25.
Altarpieces
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An altarpiece is an artwork such as a painting, sculpture or relief representing a religious subject made for placing behind the altar of a Christian church. Altarpieces were one of the most important products of Christian art especially from the late Middle Ages to the era of the Counter-Reformation. Large number of altarpieces are now removed from their settings, and often their elaborate sculpted frameworks. Altarpieces seem to have begun to be used during the 11th century, the reasons and forces that led to the development of altarpieces are not generally agreed upon. The habit of placing decorated reliquaries of saints on or behind the altar, as well as the tradition of decorating the front of the altar with sculptures or textiles, an elaborate example of such an early altarpiece is the Pala dOro in Venice. The appearance and development of these first altarpieces marked an important turning point both in the history of Christian art and Christian religious practice, the autonomous image now assumed a legitimate position at the centre of Christian worship. Painted panel altars emerged in Italy during the 13th century, in the 13th century, it is not uncommon to find frescoed or mural altarpieces in Italy, mural paintings behind the altar function as visual complements for the liturgy. These altarpieces were influenced by Byzantine art, notably icons, which reached Western Europe in greater numbers following the conquest of Constantinople in 1204. During this time, altarpieces began to be decorated with an outer. Vigoroso da Sienas altarpiece from 1291 display such an altarpiece and this treatment of the altarpiece would eventually pave the way for the emergence, in the 14th century, of the polyptych. The sculpted elements in the emerging polyptychs often took inspiration from contemporary Gothic architecture, in Italy, they were still typically executed in wood and painted, while in northern Europe altarpieces were often made of stone. The early 14th century saw the emergence, in Germany, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, the Baltic region, by hinging the outer panels to the central panel and painting them on both sides, the motif could be regulated by opening or closing the wings. The pictures could thus be changed depending on liturgical demands, the earliest often displayed sculptures on the inner panels, i. e. displayed when open, and paintings on the back of the wings, displayed when closed. With the advent of winged altarpieces, a shift in imagery also occurred, instead of being centred on a single holy figure, altarpieces began to portray more complex narratives linked to the Christian concept of salvation. As the Middle Ages progressed, altarpieces began to be commissioned more frequently, in Northern Europe, initially Lübeck and later Antwerp would develop into veritable export centres for the production of altarpieces, exporting to Scandinavia, Spain and northern France. By the 15th century, altarpieces were often commissioned not only by churches but also by individuals, families, guilds, the 15th century saw the birth of Early Netherlandish painting in the Low Countries, henceforth panel painting would dominate altarpiece production in the area. In Germany, sculpted wooden altarpieces were instead generally preferred, while in England alabaster was used to a large extent, in England, as well as in France, stone retables enjoyed general popularity. In Italy both stone retables and wooden polyptychs were common, with painted panels and often with complex framing in the form of architectural compositions
Altarpieces
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The
Ghent Altarpiece (1432) by
Hubert and
Jan van Eyck. Considered one of the masterpieces of
Northern Renaissance art, it is an example of a complex polyptych panel painting
Altarpieces
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Vigoroso da Siena 's altarpiece from 1291, an example of an early painted panel altarpiece, with the individual parts framed by gables and sculptured elements
Altarpieces
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The Altarpiece of the Holy Blood, by
Tilman Riemenschneider (1501–1505). An example of an altarpiece with a central, sculpted section and relief wings.
26.
Valladolid
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Valladolid is a city in Spain and the de facto capital of the autonomous community of Castile and León. It has a population of 309,714 people, making it Spains 13th most populous municipality and its metropolitan area ranks 20th in Spain with a population of 414,244 people in 23 municipalities. The city is situated at the confluence of the Pisuerga and Esgueva rivers, and located within five winegrowing regions, Ribera del Duero, Rueda, Toro, Tierra de León, Valladolid was originally settled in pre-Roman times by the Celtic Vaccaei people, and later the Romans themselves. It remained a settlement until being re-established by King Alfonso VI of Castile as a Lordship for the Count Pedro Ansúrez in 1072. The Catholic Monarchs, Isabel I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, married in Valladolid in 1469 and established it as the capital of the Kingdom of Castile and later of united Spain. Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid in 1506, while authors Francisco de Quevedo, the city was briefly the capital of Habsburg Spain under Phillip III between 1601 and 1606, before returning indefinitely to Madrid. The city then declined until the arrival of the railway in the 19th century, among the events that are held each year in the city there is Holy Week, Valladolid International Film Week, and the Theatre Festival and street arts. There is no evidence for the origin of the modern name of Valladolid. Another theory suggests that the name derives from the Arabic expression Ballad Al-Walid بلد الوليد, yet a third claims that it derives from Vallis Olivetum, meaning valley of the olives. In texts from the ages the town is called Vallisoletum, meaning sunny valley. The city is popularly called Pucela, a nickname whose origin is not clear. Another theory is that Pucela comes from the fact that Pozzolana cement was sold there, the Vaccaei was a Celtic tribe, the first people with stable presence on the sector of the middle valley of the River Duero documented in historical times. Remains of Celtiberian and of a Roman camp have been excavated near the city, the nucleus of the city was originally located in the area of the current San Miguel y el Rosarillo square, and was surrounded by a palisade. Archaeological proofs of the existence of three ancient lines of walls have been found, the area was captured from the Moors in the 10th century, and Valladolid was a village until King Alfonso VI of León and Castile donated it to Count Pedro Ansúrez in 1072. He built a palace for himself and his wife, Countess Eylo, the Collegiate of St. Mary, in 1469 Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand of Aragon were married in the city, by the 15th century Valladolid was the residence of the kings of Castile. In 1506 Christopher Columbus died in Valladolid still convinced that he had reached the Indies in a house that is now a Museum dedicated to him and it was made the capital of the kingdom again between 1601 and 1606 by Philip III. The city was damaged by a flood of the rivers Pisuerga. Despite the damage to the old city by the 1960s economic boom, the Science Museum is next to the river Pisuerga
Valladolid
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City Hall in the Plaza Mayor
Valladolid
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'A
jousting tournament in the main square of Valladolid', historical ceiling preserved in Prado Museum
Valladolid
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Map of the territory of the
Vaccaei
Valladolid
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Winter in the city gardens
27.
Convent of St. Stephen, Salamanca
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The Convento de San Esteban is a Dominican monastery situated in the Plaza del Concilio de Trento in the city of Salamanca. Construction took until 1610, and involved Martin de Santiago, Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón, Juan Ribero Rada, however, the layout and design are by Juan de Álava, who began the work in 1524, as evidenced by a plan in his possession. Rodrigo Gil de Hontañón was involved with the transepts and the dome, according to tradition, Christopher Columbus stayed in this monastery when he came to Salamanca to defend his idea of reaching the Indies by sailing west, against the geographers of the University. During the Counter Reformation it was an important center where for the Dominicans who founded the School of Salamanca, the facade comprises the front of the church and the adjacent monastery portico. The front the church is one of the finest examples of the Plateresque style and it is conceived as an external reredos, in the form of a triumphal arch under whose barrel vault unfolds the abundant decoration characteristic of this style. The martyrdom of St. Stephen is featured in the tympanum, with a calvary above, the portico, composed of arches, is inspired by Italian renaissance loggias, its plain ornamentation contrasting with the decorative exuberance of the church facade. It was executed by Juan Ribero Rada between 1590 and 1592, but the medallions are the work of the sculptor Martin Rodríguez. Construction of the church commenced under the architect Juan de Álava in 1524, followed by Brother Martin de Santiago and it has a Latin cross plan with a single nave, with the choir above a segmented arch at the foot of the church. The styles present are late Gothic in the parts of the building to the Renaissance in the dome. It measures 14.5 metres wide by 27 metres high in the nave and 44 metres at the dome, in the choir features a paintings of the Triumph of the Church of Antonio Palomino and a Madonna and Child by Rubens. The main cloister, the cloister or the Cloister of the Kings, is the work of Brother Martin de Santiago. The lower level blends elements the Gothic and the Renaissance, the arches that border the garden are semicircular, in Renaissance style but treated as Gothic, and divided by three mullions. The vaults of the four bays are ribbed with Gothic features, in the center of the garden stands a shrine. The upper level has a wooden ceiling, galleried by forty arches, resting on pilasters, whose capitals are decorated with grotesques. From the ground floor you access the chapter houses, the Ancient Chapter is dark, simple and austere, from the 14th century, with work from the following centuries. One of its sections is the chapel, where at the level the most prominent members of the monastery are buried, including Francisco de Vitoria. Ordinary members of the order are buried at the level where the monks sat on benches against the walls for their meetings. The New Chapter is larger, more monumental and better lit than the older one and it is similar in design to the sacristy, which is accessed via the Soto staircase
Convent of St. Stephen, Salamanca
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Iglesia del Convento de San Esteban.
Convent of St. Stephen, Salamanca
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Reredos-like facade of the monastery church
Convent of St. Stephen, Salamanca
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Choir showing the Triumph of the Church by
Antonio Palomino
Convent of St. Stephen, Salamanca
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Cloister of the Kings
28.
New Cathedral, Salamanca
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The New Cathedral is, together with the Old Cathedral, one of the two cathedrals of Salamanca, Spain. It was constructed between the 16th and 18th centuries in two styles, late Gothic and Baroque, building began in 1513 and the cathedral was consecrated in 1733. It was commissioned by Ferdinand V of Castile of Spain and it was declared a national monument by royal decree in 1887. The building began at a time when the style was becoming less popular and was merging with the new Renaissance style. However, this cathedral retained more of its Gothic character because the authorities wanted the new cathedral to blend with the old one, thus the new cathedral was constructed, continuing with Gothic style during the 17th and 18th centuries. The new cathedral was constructed without the subsequent destruction of the old cathedral as normally happened but a wall of the new cathedral, for this reason, the old cathedral had to be reinforced, and the bell tower was constructed on the old one. Two of the architects of the cathedral were Juan Gil de Hontañón. Its main entrance consists of three richly decorated arcs, each leading to the three naves of the church, cracks and broken windows are visible reminders of the devastating effects of the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, still visible today. The moment of this catastrophe is commemorated with the Mariquelo tradition on October 31, when every year residents climb to the cupola high above and play flutes and drums
New Cathedral, Salamanca
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Tower and dome of the New Cathedral.
New Cathedral, Salamanca
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Tower of the New Cathedral of Salamanca
New Cathedral, Salamanca
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Interior of the dome
New Cathedral, Salamanca
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Lateral facade.
29.
Palace of San Telmo
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The Palace of San Telmo is a historical edifice in Seville, southern Spain, now the seat of the presidency of the Andalusian Autonomous Government. Construction of the began in 1682 outside the walls of the city, on property belonging to the Tribunal of the Holy Office. It was originally constructed as the seat of the Seminary School of the University of Navigators, the palace is one of the emblematic buildings of Sevillian Baroque architecture. It is built on a plan, with several interior courtyards, including a central courtyard, towers on the four corners, a chapel. Presiding over the chapel is an early 17th century statue of Nuestra Señora del Buen Aire, the entryway consists of several parts. The door is flanked by three columns on each side, over the door is a balcony supported by Atlantes with aspects of indigenous people of the Americas, twelve allegorical female figures represent the nautical arts and sciences. Atop the façade facing Calle Palos de la Frontera, across from the Hotel Alfonso XIII, are sculptures of twelve illustrious Sevillians, the twelve figures are, Juan Martínez Montañés, sculptor. Rodrigo Ponce de León, Marquess of Cádiz and Captain General of the Reconquista of Granada, diego Rodríguez de Silva y Velázquez, painter. Miguel Mañara, Knight and philanthropist, founder of Sevilles Hospital de la Caridad, luis Daoíz, military officer, hero of the Spanish War of Independence. Fernando Afán de Ribera y Enríquez, Duke of Alcalá, humanist, fray Bartolomé de las Casas, monk, bishop of Chiapas, Mexico and protector of the Indians. The gardens included the Queens sewing box, built in 1893 and this unique building takes the form of a small hexagonal castle with turrets at the corners. It is the oldest building in Seville in the neomudéjar style, work began in 1991 to convert the building for use as the official seat of the presidency of the Andalusian Autonomous Government. This last project took place under the leadership of Sevillian architect Guillermo Vázquez Consuegra, thereafter, the building had a number of uses. First, briefly, it was the headquarters of the Railway Society and site of the Literary University, but was underutilized, in 1849 it was acquired by the Dukes of Montpensier, who converted it into their official residence. In 1901, while Marcelo Spínola was Archbishop of Seville, the palace was converted into a seminary and it remained so until 1989, when the arch-episcopate of Seville ceded the building to the Andalusian Autonomous Government to be the new seat of the presidency. Vida azarosa del Palacio de San Telmo, su historia y administración eclesiástica, ISBN 84-95539-25-X Vázquez Soto, José María, Vázquez Consuegra, Guillermo & Torres Vela, Javier. San Telmo, biografía de un palacio, OCLC435364040 ASIN B00F2USTWO Informe sobre los valores patrimoniales del Palacio de San Telmo de Sevilla, Instituto Andaluz del Patrimonio Histórico
Palace of San Telmo
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General view of the Palace of San Telmo, in 2010 after restoration by architect Guillermo Vázquez Consuegra.
Palace of San Telmo
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Palace of San Telmo. Principal façade.
