1.
Pantin
–
Pantin is a commune in the northeastern suburbs of Paris, France. It is located 6.4 km from the centre of Paris and it is one of the most densely populated municipalities in Europe. The city is located on the edge of Paris and is formed by a plain crossed by national roadway 2 and 3. Pantin borders the Paris inner ring road and is traversed by national routes N2 and N3, as well as the Paris-Strasbourg railway line and the Ourcq canal. The name Pantin was recorded for the first time in 1067 as Pentini, perhaps from the Roman patronym Pentinus, a variant of Pantaenus or Repentinus, on 1 January 1860, the city of Paris was enlarged by annexing neighbouring communes. On that occasion, a part of the commune of Pantin was annexed to Paris. On 24 July 1867, a part of the territory of Pantin was detached and merged with a part of the territory of Romainville, by 1875, the Ourcq canal and new railway lines served to divide the town into two parts—the Village and the Quatre Chemins. This new municipality could be created as early as January 2010 and this project was implemented, it gathers nine communes. In 2016, Pantin was declared Frances most polluted town by the World Health Organization, Pantin was once the site of Motobecanes operations. 2000 companies are located in Pantin, including 21 of more than 100 employees, huge firms are located in the town, like Hermès, Bourjois, Chanel, Gucci, Agnès b. Sergent-Major, Elis, Forclum, UTB, Photovista Legrand, BNP Paribas, Boiron, Alliance Healthcare, Vetura, Fabio Lucci. and publishers as computer Software Arkeia Software and MT Software. 3000 employees of BNP Paribas Securities Services were installed in the historic building Grands Moulins de Pantin at the end of October 2009, Hermès finished an expansion project in the city center. The city has created a center to 4 Chemins especially with the House Revel to promote arts jobs. Since the French canton reform which came into effect in March 2015, Pantin is part of the canton of Pantin, the current mayor of Pantin is Bertrand Kern of the Parti Socialiste. Kern was re-elected in 2014 for a third 6-year mayoral term, Pantin is served by three stations on Paris Metro line 5, Hoche, Église de Pantin, and Bobigny – Pantin – Raymond Queneau. Pantin is also served by Aubervilliers – Pantin – Quatre Chemins station on Paris Metro line 7, Pantin is also served by Pantin station on Paris RER line E. Finally Pantin is served by bus lines. Outside the hours of public transport the town is served by the N13 and N142 Noctilien night bus services with stops outside the Centre de la Danse
Pantin
–
The town hall of Pantin
Pantin
–
Pantin Mills, headquarters of BNP Paribas Securities Services since 2009.
2.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
France
–
One of the
Lascaux paintings: a horse –
Dordogne, approximately 18,000 BC
France
–
Flag
France
–
The
Maison Carrée was a temple of the
Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day
Nîmes) and is one of the best preserved vestiges of the
Roman Empire.
France
–
With
Clovis ' conversion to Catholicism in 498, the
Frankish monarchy,
elective and
secular until then, became
hereditary and of
divine right.
3.
Geographic coordinate system
–
A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
–
Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Rural cemetery
–
The rural cemetery or garden cemetery is a style of burial ground that uses landscaping in a park-like setting. As a reaction to this, the first landscaped cemetery was opened in 1804, the garden cemetery in the US was a development of this style. Prior to this, urban burial grounds were generally located on small plots within cities. Its first manifestation in the US was Mount Auburn Cemetery near Boston, founded by Dr. Jacob Bigelow, supreme Court Justice Joseph Story delivered the dedication address on September 24,1831. Mount Auburn inspired dozens of rural cemeteries across New England, the northeast. Many were accompanied by dedication addresses similar to Storys, which linked the cemeteries to the mission of creating a Christian republic, Mount Auburn quickly grew as popular site for both burials and public recreation, attracting locals as well as tourists from across the country and Europe. These cemeteries often became the home of tall obelisks, spectacular mausoleums, the Ohlsdorf was transformed from a treeless, sandy plain into 92 acres of sculpted, wooded landscape by its first director, architect Wilhelm Cordes. In 2016 it stands as the largest rural cemetery in the world, as of 1911 rural cemeteries were still unusual in Germany. Other examples include the Waldfriedhof Dahlem in Berlin,1931, rural cemeteries, from their inception, were intended as civic institutions designed for public use. Today, many of historic cemeteries are designated landmarks and are cared for by non-profit organizations
Rural cemetery
–
Landscaping and tree planting at
Green-Wood Cemetery in
Brooklyn
Rural cemetery
–
Hunnewell family obelisk in
Mount Auburn Cemetery
Rural cemetery
–
1861 engraving showing a plan for a rural cemetery by N. B. Schubarth of Rhode Island, United States
Rural cemetery
–
Oak Hill Cemetery, a garden cemetery in Washington, D.C., in the United States.
5.
Find a Grave
–
Find a Grave is a website that allows the public to search and add to an online database of cemetery records. It is owned by Ancestry. com, the worlds largest for-profit genealogy company, the site was created in 1995 by Salt Lake City resident Jim Tipton to support his hobby of visiting the burial sites of celebrities. He later added an online forum, Find a Grave was launched as a commercial entity in 1998, first as a trade name and then incorporated in 2000. The site later expanded to include graves of non-celebrities, in order to allow visitors to pay respect to their deceased relatives or friends. In 2013, Tipton sold Find a Grave to Ancestry. com, burial information is a wonderful source for people researching their family history. In a September 30,2013, press release, Ancestry, as of March 2017, Find a Grave contained over 159 million burial records and 75 million photos. The website contains listings of cemeteries and graves from around the world, american cemeteries are organized by state and county, and many cemetery records contain Google Maps and photographs of the cemeteries and gravesites. Individual grave records may contain dates and places of birth and death, biographical information, cemetery and plot information, photographs, Interment listings are added by individuals, genealogical societies, and other institutions such as the International Wargraves Photography Project. Contributors must register as members to submit listings, called memorials, the submitter becomes the manager of the listing but may transfer management. Only the current manager of a listing may edit it, although any member may use the features to send correction requests to the listings manager. Managers may add links to other listings of deceased spouses, parents, members may post requests for photos of a specific grave, these requests will be automatically sent to other members who have registered their location as being near that grave. Find a Grave also maintains lists of memorials of famous persons by their claim to fame, such as Medal of Honor recipients, religious figures, Find a Grave exercises editorial control over these listings. Canadian Headstones Interment. net National Cemetery Administrations Nationwide Gravesite Locator Random Acts of Genealogical Kindness Tombstone tourist Colker, web site answers grave concerns about stars. Web site attracts millions of grave-seekers, Find VIPs who R. I. P. through online cemetery. Genealogy, Find a Grave tremendous on many different levels, terre Haute, Indiana, Community Newspaper Holdings Inc. Archived from the original on May 14,2011, tip, Find a Grave has info youre dying to know. Tracking Down Relatives, Visiting Graves Virtually, media related to Images from Find A Grave at Wikimedia Commons Official website
Find a Grave
Find a Grave
–
Find A Grave.com's current headquarters in
Provo, Utah
6.
Communes of France
–
The commune is a level of administrative division in the French Republic. French communes are roughly equivalent to civil townships incorporated municipalities in the United States or Gemeinden in Germany, the United Kingdom has no exact equivalent, as communes resemble districts in urban areas, but are closer to parishes in rural areas where districts are much larger. Communes are based on historical geographic communities or villages and have received significant powers of governance to manage the populations, the communes are the fourth-level administrative divisions of France. A French commune may be a city of 2.2 million inhabitants like Paris, communes typically are based on pre-existing villages and facilitate local governance. All communes have names, but not all named geographic areas or groups of people residing together are communes, a commune is a town, city, or municipality. Use of commune in English is a habit, and one that might be corrected. There is nothing in commune in French that is different from town in English. The French word commune appeared in the 12th century, from Medieval Latin communia, as of January 2015, there were 36,681 communes in France,36,552 of them in metropolitan France and 129 of them overseas. This is a higher total than that of any other European country. The whole territory of the French Republic is divided into communes and this is unlike some other countries, such as the United States, where unincorporated areas directly governed by a county or a higher authority can be found. There are only a few exceptions, COM of Saint-Martin and it was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe région. The commune structure was abolished when Saint-Martin became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007, COM of Wallis and Futuna, which still is divided according to the three traditional chiefdoms. It was previously a commune inside the Guadeloupe region, the commune structure was abolished when Saint-Barthélemy became an overseas collectivity on 22 February 2007.88 square kilometres. The median area of metropolitan Frances communes at the 1999 census was even smaller, the median area is a better measure of the area of a typical French commune. This median area is smaller than that of most European countries. In Italy, the area of communes is 22 km2, in Belgium it is 40 km2, in Spain it is 35 km2, and in Germany. Switzerland and the Länder of Rhineland-Palatinate, Schleswig-Holstein, and Thuringia in Germany were the places in Europe where the communes had a smaller median area than in France. The communes of Frances overseas départements such as Réunion and French Guiana are large by French standards and they usually group into the same commune several villages or towns, often with sizeable distances among them
Communes of France
–
Road sign marking the end of the village of
Y in the
Somme department of
Picardy
Communes of France
–
Map of the 36,569 communes of metropolitan France
Communes of France
–
Mittelhausbergen in
Alsace
Communes of France
–
Vacqueyras in
Provence, showing double French/
Provençal name
7.
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Seine-Saint-Denis is a French department located in the Île-de-France region. Locally, it is referred to colloquially as quatre-vingt treize or neuf trois. The learned and rarely used demonym for the inhabitants is Séquano-Dionysiens, Seine-Saint-Denis is located to the northeast of Paris. It has an area of only 236 km², making it one of the smallest departments in France. Seine-Saint-Denis and two other departments, Hauts-de-Seine and Val-de-Marne, form a ring around Paris, known as the Petite Couronne. They form, together with Paris the Greater Paris since January 1st 2016, Seine-Saint-Denis is made up of three departmental arrondissements and 40 communes, Seine-Saint-Denis was created in January 1968, through the implementation of a law passed in July 1964. It was formed from the part of the Seine department to the north and north-east of the Paris ring road, Seine-Saint-Denis has a history as a veritable left-wing stronghold, belonging to the ceinture rouge of Paris. The French Communist Party especially has maintained a strong presence in the department. A commune of Seine-Saint-Denis, Clichy-sous-Bois, was the scene of the death of two youths which sparked the riots of autumn 2005. In October - November,9,000 cars were burned and 3,000 rioters were arrested, Seine-Saint-Denis is the French department with the highest proportion of immigrants,21. 7% at the 1999 census. This figure does not include the children of immigrants born on French soil as well as some native elites from former French colonies, the ratio of ethnic minorities is difficult to estimate accurately as French law prohibits the collection of ethnic data for census taking purposes. However estimates suggest there are 500,000 Muslims out of a population of 1.53 million. Saint-Denis is home to the Union of French Islamic Organizations in the Bourget district, in 2005,56. 7% of young people under 18 were of foreign origin including 38% of African origin. Islam is believed to be the most practiced religion in the department, Seine-Saint-Denis was scheduled to be the site of a 2004 International Exhibition. Website of the General council Prefecture website Seine-Saint-Denis Tourist Board
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Prefecture building of the Seine-Saint-Denis department, in Bobigny
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Memorial to King
Louis XVI and Queen
Marie Antoinette,in
Basilica of St Denis
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Aerospace Museum in
Le Bourget
Seine-Saint-Denis
–
Canal de l'Ourcq
8.
Departments of France
–
In the administrative divisions of France, the department is one of the three levels of government below the national level, between the administrative regions and the commune. There are 96 departments in metropolitan France and 5 overseas departments, each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council. From 1800 to April 2015, they were called general councils, the departments were created in 1791 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity, the title department is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after geographical features rather than after historical or cultural territories which could have their own loyalties. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1764 in the writings of dArgenson and they have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. Most French departments are assigned a number, the Official Geographical Code. Some overseas departments have a three-digit number, the number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. For example, inhabitants of Loiret might refer to their department as the 45 and this reform project has since been abandoned. The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René dArgenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées infrastructure administration, before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces, during the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. Their boundaries served two purposes, Boundaries were chosen to break up Frances historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences, Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a days ride of the capital of the department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the national territory under close control. This measure was directly inspired by the Great Terror, during which the government had lost control of rural areas far from any centre of government. The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments, most were named after an areas principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine, the number of departments, initially 83, was increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeats in 1814-1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size, in 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice, the 89 departments were given numbers based on their alphabetical order. The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following Frances defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
Departments of France
–
Geometrical proposition rejected
Departments of France
–
The 101 departments of France
Departments of France
–
The three Algerian departments in 1848
9.
Regions of France
–
France is divided into 18 administrative regions, including 13 metropolitan regions and 5 overseas regions. The current legal concept of region was adopted in 1982, the term région was officially created by the Law of Decentralisation, which also gave regions their legal status. The first direct elections for representatives took place on 16 March 1986. In 2016, the number of regions was reduced from 27 to 18 through amalgamation, in 2014, the French parliament passed a law reducing the number of metropolitan regions from 22 to 13 with effect from 1 January 2016. However, the region of Upper and Lower Normandy is simply called Normandy. Permanent names were to be proposed by the new regional councils by 1 July 2016, the legislation defining the new regions also allowed the Centre region to officially change its name to Centre-Val de Loire with effect from January 2015. Two regions, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes and Bourgogne-Franche-Comté, opted to retain their interim names, between 1982 and 2015, there were 22 regions in Metropolitan France. Before 2011, there were four regions, in 2011 Mayotte became the fifth. Regions lack separate legislative authority and therefore cannot write their own statutory law and they levy their own taxes and, in return, receive a decreasing part of their budget from the central government, which gives them a portion of the taxes it levies. They also have considerable budgets managed by a council made up of representatives voted into office in regional elections. A regions primary responsibility is to build and furnish high schools, in March 2004, the French central government unveiled a controversial plan to transfer regulation of certain categories of non-teaching school staff to the regional authorities. Critics of this plan contended that tax revenue was insufficient to pay for the costs. In addition, regions have considerable power over infrastructural spending, e. g. education, public transit, universities and research. This has meant that the heads of regions such as Île-de-France or Rhône-Alpes can be high-profile positions. Number of regions controlled by each coalition since 1986, Overseas region is a recent designation, given to the overseas departments that have similar powers to those of the regions of metropolitan France. Radio France Internationale in English Overseas regions Ministère de lOutre-Mer some explanations about the past and current developments of DOMs and TOMs
Regions of France
10.
Necropolis
–
A necropolis is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek νεκρόπολις nekropolis, literally meaning city of the dead, the term usually implies a separate burial site at a distance from a city, as opposed to tombs within cities, which were common in various places and periods of history. They are different from fields, which did not have remains above the ground. While the word is most commonly used for ancient sites, the name was revived in the early 19th century and applied to planned city cemeteries, such as the Glasgow Necropolis. Aside from the pyramids which were reserved for the burial of Pharaohs the Egyptian necropoleis included mastabas, naqsh-e Rustam is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars Province, Iran. The oldest relief at Naqsh-i Rustam dates to c.1000 BC, though it is severely damaged, it depicts a faint image of a man with unusual head-gear and is thought to be Elamite in origin. The depiction is part of an image, most of which was removed at the command of Bahram II. Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the face at a considerable height above the ground. The tombs are known locally as the Persian crosses, after the shape of the facades of the tombs, later, Sassanian kings added a series of rock reliefs below the tombs. In the Mycenean Greek period pre-dating ancient Greece burials could be performed inside the city, in Mycenae for example the royal tombs were located in a precinct within the city walls. This changed during the ancient Greek period when necropoleis usually lined the roads outside a city, there existed some degree of variation within the ancient Greek world however. Sparta was notable for continuing the practice of burial within the city, the Etruscans took the concept of a city of the dead quite literally. The typical tomb at the Banditaccia necropolis at Cerveteri consists of a tumulus which covers one or more rock-cut subterranean tombs and these tombs had multiple chambers and were elaborately decorated like contemporary houses. The arrangement of the tumuli in a grid of streets gave it a similar to the cities of the living. The art historian Nigel Spivey considers the name cemetery inadequate and argues that only the term necropolis can do justice to these burial sites. Etruscan necropoleis were located on hills or slopes of hills. In ancient Rome families originally buried deceased relatives in their own homes because of the Roman practice of ancestor worship, the enactment of the Twelve Tables in 449 BC forbade this, which made the Romans adopt the practice of burial in necropoleis. List of necropoleis Funerary art Catacombs
Necropolis
–
Mastabas in the
Giza Necropolis with the
Pyramid of Khafre in the background.
Necropolis
–
Naqsh-e Rustam. The order of the tombs in Naqshe-e Rustam, from left to right is:
Darius II,
Artaxerxes I,
Darius I,
Xerxes I.
Necropolis
–
Tumuli are placed along a street in the Banditaccia necropolis of
Cerveteri.
11.
Jews
–
The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
Jews
–
Baruch Spinoza
Jews
–
Map of
Canaan
Jews
–
David Ben-Gurion
Jews
–
George Gershwin
12.
Europe
–
Europe is a continent that comprises the westernmost part of Eurasia. Europe is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, yet the non-oceanic borders of Europe—a concept dating back to classical antiquity—are arbitrary. Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometres, or 2% of the Earths surface, politically, Europe is divided into about fifty sovereign states of which the Russian Federation is the largest and most populous, spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a population of about 740 million as of 2015. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable than close to the coast, Europe, in particular ancient Greece, was the birthplace of Western civilization. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, during the period, marked the end of ancient history. Renaissance humanism, exploration, art, and science led to the modern era, from the Age of Discovery onwards, Europe played a predominant role in global affairs. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers controlled at times the Americas, most of Africa, Oceania. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe. During the Cold War, Europe was divided along the Iron Curtain between NATO in the west and the Warsaw Pact in the east, until the revolutions of 1989 and fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1955, the Council of Europe was formed following a speech by Sir Winston Churchill and it includes all states except for Belarus, Kazakhstan and Vatican City. Further European integration by some states led to the formation of the European Union, the EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. The European Anthem is Ode to Joy and states celebrate peace, in classical Greek mythology, Europa is the name of either a Phoenician princess or of a queen of Crete. The name contains the elements εὐρύς, wide, broad and ὤψ eye, broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and the poetry devoted to it. For the second part also the divine attributes of grey-eyed Athena or ox-eyed Hera. The same naming motive according to cartographic convention appears in Greek Ανατολή, Martin Litchfield West stated that phonologically, the match between Europas name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor. Next to these there is also a Proto-Indo-European root *h1regʷos, meaning darkness. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to the continent, in some Turkic languages the originally Persian name Frangistan is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa
Europe
–
Reconstruction of
Herodotus ' world map
Europe
Europe
–
A medieval
T and O map from 1472 showing the three continents as domains of the sons of
Noah — Asia to Sem (
Shem), Europe to Iafeth (
Japheth), and Africa to Cham (
Ham)
Europe
–
Early modern depiction of
Europa regina ('Queen Europe') and the mythical
Europa of the 8th century BC.
13.
Overseas Chinese
–
Overseas Chinese are people of Chinese birth or descent who live outside the Peoples Republic of China and Republic of China. People of partial Chinese ancestry living outside the Greater China Area may also consider themselves overseas Chinese, Overseas Chinese can be of the Han Chinese ethnic majority, or from any of the other ethnic groups in China. The Chinese language has various terms equivalent to the English Overseas Chinese which refers to Chinese citizens residing in other than China. The term haigui refers to returned overseas Chinese and guīqiáo qiáojuàn to their returning relatives, huáyì refers to ethnic Chinese residing outside of China. Literally, it means Tang people, a reference to Tang dynasty China when it was ruling China proper. It should be noted that this term is used by the Cantonese, Hoochew, Hakka and Hokkien as a colloquial reference to the Chinese people. The term shǎoshù mínzú is added to the terms for overseas Chinese to indicate those in the diaspora who would be considered ethnic minorities in China. The terms shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén, shǎoshù mínzú huáqiáo huárén, the Overseas Chinese Affairs Office of the PRC does not distinguish between Han and ethnic minority populations for official policy purposes. For example, members of the Tibetan diaspora may travel to China on passes granted to certain overseas Chinese. Various estimates of the overseas Chinese minority population include 3.1 million,3.4 million,5.7 million, cross-border ethnic groups are not considered overseas Chinese minorities unless they left China after the establishment of an independent state on Chinas border. Some ethnic groups who have connections with China, like the Hmong or Mongolians may not associate themselves as overseas Chinese. The Chinese people have a history of migrating overseas. One of the dates back to the Ming dynasty when Zheng He became the envoy of Ming. He sent people - many of them Cantonese and Hokkien - to explore and trade in the South China Sea, when China was under the imperial rule of the Qing Dynasty, subjects who left the Qing Empire without the Administrators consent were considered to be traitors and were executed. Their family members faced consequences as well, however, the establishment of the Lanfang Republic in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, as a tributary state of Qing China, attests that it was possible to attain permission. The republic lasted until 1884, when it fell under Dutch occupation as Qing influence waned and these migrations are considered to be among the largest in Chinas history. Most of the nationalist and neutral refugees fled Mainland China to Southeast Asia as well as Taiwan, many nationalists who stayed behind were persecuted or even executed. Kuomintang members who settled in Malaysia and Singapore played a role in the establishment of the Malaysian Chinese Association
Overseas Chinese
–
1967 photo of Indonesian-Chinese family from Hubei ancestry, the second and third generations
Overseas Chinese
–
Hakka people in a wedding in
East Timor, 2006
Overseas Chinese
–
Overseas Chinese Museum, Xiamen, China
14.
Buddhism
–
Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
Buddhism
–
Standing Buddha statue at the
Tokyo National Museum. One of the earliest known representations of the
Buddha, 1st–2nd century CE.
Buddhism
–
The Dharmachakra
Buddhism
–
Relic depicting Gautama leaving home. The Great Departure, c.1–2nd century. (
Musée Guimet)
Buddhism
–
Ascetic
Gautama with his five companions, who later comprised the first
Sangha. (Painting in
Laotian temple)
15.
Murder
–
A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation
Murder
–
Murder in the House,
Jakub Schikaneder.
Murder
–
Aaron Alexis holding shotgun during his rampage.
Murder
–
A group of
Thugs strangling a traveller on a highway in India in the early 19th century.
16.
Capital punishment in France
–
Capital punishment was practised in France from the Middle Ages until 1977, when the last execution took place by guillotine, being the only legal method since the French Revolution. The last person to be executed in France was Hamida Djandoubi, the death penalty was abolished in French law in 1981. It is now forbidden by the French constitution, and by several human rights treaties to which France is a party. Prior to 1791, under the Ancien Régime, there existed a variety of means of punishment in France, depending on the crime. Hanging was the most common punishment, decapitation by sword was reserved for nobles. The convict was occasionally discreetly strangled, breaking wheel for brigands and murderers. The convict could be strangled before having his limbs broken or after, dismemberment for high treason, parricides, regicides. The first campaign towards the abolition of the death penalty began on 30 May 1791, however, they did abolish torture, and also declared that there would now be only one method of execution, Tout condamné à mort aura la tête tranchée. The guillotine had been proposed as a means of execution in 1789 by Joseph-Ignace Guillotin, the French Revolution marked the end of hanging by requiring all executions to be accomplished by means of the blade, rather than reserving it only for nobles. The device was first used on Nicolas Jacques Pelletier on 25 April 1792, guillotine usage then spread to other countries such as Germany, Italy, Sweden, and French colonies in Africa, French Guyana and French Indochina. Public executions were the norm and continued until 1939, from the mid-19th century, the usual time of day for executions changed from around 3 pm to morning and then to dawn. Executions had been carried out in large public spaces such as market squares. In the early 20th century, the guillotine was set up just outside the prison gates, the last person to be publicly guillotined was six-time murderer Eugen Weidmann who was executed on 17 June 1939 outside the St-Pierre prison. Following the law, the first to be guillotined inside a prison was Jean Dehaene, the 1940s and the wartime period saw an increase in the number of executions, including the first executions of women since the 19th century. President Valéry Giscard dEstaing oversaw the last executions, up to 1981, the French penal code stated that, Article 12, Any person sentenced to death shall have his head cut off. Article 13, By exception to article 12, when the penalty is handed down for crimes against the safety of the State. Article 14, If the families of the persons wish to reclaim the bodies, they shall have them. The exclusive right to commute the death sentence belonged to the President of the Republic, there were no executions during two-term Interim President Alain Poher, in 1969 and 1974
Capital punishment in France
–
Public execution by guillotine in
Lons-le-Saunier, 1897
17.
Ilan Halimi
–
Halimi was a cell phone salesman in Paris. He lived there with his mother and his two sisters. It began when a girl came to Ilan Halimis workplace and started flirting with him, after exchanging phone numbers, Ilan comes home and decides he will give it a shot with that girl. Arriving at the point, Ilan understands too late this date was a trap. For exactly 24 days, the 36 quai des Orfèvres of Paris will try vainly to understand the abductors, catch them, the importance of secrecy the police emphasized and the obviousness of this antisemite act that was not understood by them at that time, led to Ilans undoing. The abductors, who called themselves the Gang of Barbarians, tortured him and sent phone, during the 24 days of abduction, the leader of the gang called Youssouf Fofana, managed to travel back and forth to the Ivory Cost, his home country, with no trouble. There even was a time when he was suspected of being related to the gang and was taken to the police station, which later released him with no proof of him leading this group at that time. The demand for ransom, initially elevated at 450 thousand Euros, many people who lived nearby the basement where Ilan was tortured knew something wrong was happening, but did not take any action. Many said that they did not go to the station out of fear. After three never ending weeks of suspicions, investigations, hatred and threatening messages, the family, Ilan was taken naked, burnt on more than 80% of his body and with torture marks on February 13,2006 and thrown away next to a road at Sainte-Geneviève-Des-Bois. He was found by a woman passing there, who called for an ambulance. He died on his way to the hospital, the lack of understanding the profoundly antisemitic nature of these actions against Ilan Halimi by the police department was one of the major reasons which made this rescue operation a catastrophe. Some will later claim they never knew what was the fate of man, even Emma. A lot of them immigrated to Israel later that year, Ilan Halimi was initially buried in the Cimetière parisien de Pantin near Paris. The funeral in Paris drew a large Jewish crowd and he was reburied in Har HaMenuchot cemetery in Jerusalem, Israel on February 9,2007. A garden in the Jerusalem Forest was named after him, tens of thousands of people marched through the streets of Paris, demanding justice for Halimi, on Sunday February 26,2006. In May 2011, a garden in the 12th arrondissement of Paris was renamed after him, Halimi used to play in this garden as a child. In late April 2014, a movie by French filmmaker Alexandre Arcady about this case was released, entitled 24 Jours, La vérité sur l’affaire Ilan Halimi, it is based on the above-mentioned book
Ilan Halimi
–
Ilan Halimi
Ilan Halimi
–
Paris, Jardin Ilan Halimi, Sign
Ilan Halimi
–
Ilan Halimi garden in the
Jerusalem Forest.
Ilan Halimi
–
Paris demonstration in honor of Ilan Halimi and against anti-Semitism In 2006.
18.
Har HaMenuchot
–
Har HaMenuchot is the largest cemetery in Jerusalem, Israel. Opened in 1951 on 300 dunams of land, it has expanded into new sections on the northern and western slopes of the hill. As of 2008, the cemetery encompasses 580 dunams in which over 150,000 people are buried, until 1948, Jewish burials in Jerusalem were conducted in the centuries-old Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives. In 1948, the Arab siege of Jerusalem cut off access to the Mount of Olives, in 1948 several temporary cemeteries opened to handle wartime deaths in Jerusalem, including the Sanhedria cemetery, Sheikh Badr Cemetery, and the Shaare Zedek Cemetery. After the establishment of the state, however, these were deemed inadequate for the needs of a growing city, in late summer 1948, developers identified a 300 dunams hilltop located between Givat Shaul and Motza and overlooking Highway 1. It was outside the boundaries of Jerusalem at that time, yet accessible to the city and they calculated that each dunam would accommodate 200 graves and estimated a need for 1,000 graves per year. At the time, the city of Jerusalem had 150,000 Jewish residents with a mortality rate of 1,000 annually, at that rate, the new cemetery was expected to suffice for the next 40 years. The developers received permission to build the cemetery a month later, with the opening of the new cemetery, civilian graves were transferred here from the temporary cemeteries at Sheikh Badr and the old Shaare Zedek Hospital. In 1951 a new cemetery was established at Mount Herzl, dedicated by government decision as Israels national cemetery, by 1988 Har HaMenuchot had about 50,000 graves. In the 1990s developers began expanding the cemetery onto the northern and western slopes of the hill, by 2008 the cemetery spanned 580 dunams in which more than 150,000 people are interred. In November 2012 the Jerusalem municipality approved a plan to shield the view of the cemetery from Highway 1, the plan would allow for continued expansion of the cemetery to the north and west. The graves on Har HaMenuchot are divided into sections operated by various chevrei kadisha, the Kehillat Yerushalayim burial society was allotted more than 50% of the land when the cemetery opened. Other sections were apportioned to burial societies serving the Ashkenazim, Sephardim, in the late 1990s other chevrei kadisha opened, serving the Kurdish, Georgian, Yemenite, and Bukharan Jewish communities. The Kehillat Yerushalayim burial society also operates a section reserved for those whose Jewish identity is questionable. Both the Kehillat Yerushalayim and the Sephardi burial societies maintain an on-site funeral parlor, however, the choice of plot is left to the burial society, and if a spouse wishes to be buried in the adjacent plot, he or she must pay for the second plot. According to the law, the society must reserve the plots on both sides of a newly-dug grave for 90 days in order to give the spouse and relatives of the deceased the option to purchase them. According to the Kehillat Yerushalayim burial society,90 percent of the burials at Har HaMenuchot involve couples, stone monuments must be paid for by the family of the deceased. Burials from abroad constitute an estimated one-fifth to one-third of all burials, the name, date and praises of the deceased are inscribed on the top panel and occasionally on the sides
Har HaMenuchot
–
Aerial view of the mountain, August 2013
Har HaMenuchot
–
The cemetery with
Har Nof in the background
Har HaMenuchot
–
The names of family members killed in the
Holocaust are engraved on the side of the grave of Chava Esther Wachtfogel (right), wife of Rabbi
Nosson Meir Wachtfogel (grave at left).
Har HaMenuchot
–
A man prays at the grave of the
Belzer Rebbe.
19.
Vincent Delerm
–
Vincent Delerm is a French singer-songwriter, pianist and composer. He is the son of the writer Philippe Delerm and illustrator Martine Delerm and his first album was released in 2002, the second, Kensington Square, in 2004, the third Les Piqûres daraignée in 2006, the fourth Quinze Chansons in 2008. All were released by the Tôt ou tard record label, songbook Vincent Delerm –11 titres piano chant, ed. Lili Louise Musique 2003, Victoires de la musique. 2003, Prix Francis Lemarque from Sacem Official website
Vincent Delerm
–
Vincent Delerm
Vincent Delerm
–
This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in French. (December 2013) Click [show] for important translation instructions.
20.
Pierre Perret
–
Pierre Perret is a French singer and composer. Pierre Perret resides in the city of Nangis and he spent a long part of his childhood in the café which his parents owned, where he learned to work with jargon and slang. At the age of 14 he signed up to the conservatoire de musique de Toulouse, but he wasnt admitted to the Conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris because he had some problems with military justice during his military service. In the meantime, he set up his first band of four musicians in his own name, in 1957, he was snapped up by Eddie Barclay who signed him on. It was in the studio of Barclay where he met his future wife, in 1958, Perret carried on touring round Parisian cabaret bars and crossed France and Africa as a part of the American group, The Platters. In November that year, a pleurisy forced him to two years off in a sanatorium. In 1995, he recorded in duet with Sophie Darel the French song Maître Pierre for the album Cétait les Années Bleues and he participated in the committee for the simplification of the administrative language. 2008, A capella, éditions Le cherche midi, official site Le Café du Pont, biographical film at the IMDB
Pierre Perret
–
Pierre Perret
Pierre Perret
–
Le Tord Boyaux, café à
Montrouge.
Pierre Perret
–
Pierre Perret during Festival de la chanson française du Pays d'Aix 2010
21.
Mano Solo
–
Mano Solo, born Emmanuel Cabut, was a French singer. He was born in Châlons-sur-Marne on 24 April 1963 to the illustrator Cabu and Isabelle Monin, co-founder of the ecology-related magazine, from the age of 17, Mano Solo played guitar in a punk rock group, les Chihuahuas. He began singing his own compositions in the early nineties and he then sang regularly at the Tourtour theatre in Paris, alongside singers Marousse and Ptit Louis. His first album, La Marmaille Nue, was released in 1993 and his second album, Les Années Sombres, a somber album that also went gold in its first months was released in 1995. In 1996, he regrouped with part of the Chihuahuas for the album Frères Misère and its rhythms are closer to punk, and the texts are more topical than his solo albums. With little media attention, the failed to meet immediate success. The release of a new album, Je sais pas trop was in 1997, recorded live and featuring, once again, original melodies and sounds, it was a Gold record in France. Two years later, Mano Solo recorded the double album Internationale Shalala, live at the Tourtour and he sings and plays guitar on the album, accompanied only by another guitarist, Jean-Louis Solans. His second live album, La Marche, was released in 2002 and it consists mostly of songs from the album Dehors, released earlier. With the album comes a DVD featuring photos and videos from concerts, in 2004, Les animals was released. As with other Solo albums the sound was new, the lyrics contained much poetic language, some titles were new recordings of old songs. The song Botzaris, recorded with Les Têtes Raides, was featured on the album, Solo appeared on two tracks on the album Dans le caillou by Karpatt. In 2006, Mano Solo did not renew his contract with his label and he self-produced his new album In the Garden, announced for March 2007. He offered this record by subscription sale starting on 18 September 2006, the subscription fee goes towards the albums promotional costs. Parallel to his career, Solo developed other talents, including art. He designed the covers of some of his albums and he founded his own publishing imprint, which released two of his own books, a poetry anthology, Je suis là, and a novel, Joseph sous la pluie. Solo had been HIV positive for years secondary to his drug use. He was rushed to hospital after a concert in Paris on 12 November 2009, there he died at the age of 46 on 10 January 2010
Mano Solo
–
Mano Solo in 2007
Mano Solo
–
Mano Solo gravesite, Paris
22.
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
–
The Commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II. The Commission was founded by Fabian Ware and constituted through Royal Charter in 1917 named the Imperial War Graves Commission, the change to the present name took place in 1960. The Commission, as part of its mandate, is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally, to this end, the war dead are commemorated by name on a headstone, at an identified site of a burial, or on a memorial. War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally, irrespective of military or civil rank, the Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1.7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries. Since its inception, the Commission has constructed approximately 2,500 war cemeteries, the Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23,000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide. The Commission operates through the financial support of the member states, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India. The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is Prince Edward, at the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Fabian Ware, a director of the Rio Tinto Company, found that he was too old, at age 45, to join the British Army. He used the influence of Rio Tinto chairman, Viscount Milner, the new Graves Registration Commission had over 31,000 graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50,000 registered by May 1916. When municipal graveyards began to overfill Ware began negotiations with local authorities to acquire land for further cemeteries. Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British, similar negotiations began with the Belgian government. As reports of the grave registration work became public, the Commission began to receive letters of enquiry, by 1917,17,000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives. In March 1915, the Commission, with the support of the Red Cross, began to dispatch photographic prints, the directorates work was also extended beyond the Western Front and into other theatres of war, with units deployed in Greece, Egypt and Mesopotamia. As the war continued, Ware and others concerned about the fate of the graves in the post-war period. The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves Registration, the government felt that it was more appropriate to entrust the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department. By early 1917, a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves. With the help of Edward, Prince of Wales, Ware submitted a memorandum to the Imperial War Conference in 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted, the Commissions undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War. Once land for cemeteries and memorials had been guaranteed, the task of recording the details of the dead could begin. By 1918, some 587,000 graves had been identified, the scale, and associated high number of casualties, of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
–
Canadian war graves near
Ypres, Belgium. The crosses identify the graves as those of soldiers of the
14th Canadian Battalion who were killed over several days in May 1916.
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
–
Logo of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
–
Carving of headstones by hand would take a week
Commonwealth War Graves Commission
–
Cover page of Graves of the Fallen
23.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
World War I
–
Clockwise from the top: The aftermath of shelling during the
Battle of the Somme,
Mark V tanks cross the
Hindenburg Line,
HMS Irresistible sinks after hitting a
mine in the
Dardanelles, a British
Vickers machine gun crew wears
gas masks during the Battle of the Somme,
Albatros D.III fighters of
Jagdstaffel 11
World War I
–
Sarajevo citizens reading a poster with the proclamation of the
Austrian annexation in 1908.
World War I
–
This picture is usually associated with the arrest of
Gavrilo Princip, although some believe it depicts Ferdinand Behr, a bystander.
World War I
–
Serbian Army
Blériot XI "Oluj", 1915.
24.
Western Front (World War I)
–
The Western Front or Western Theater was the main theatre of war during World War I. Following the outbreak of war in August 1914, the German Army opened the Western Front by invading Luxembourg and Belgium, the tide of the advance was dramatically turned with the Battle of the Marne. Following the Race to the Sea, both sides dug in along a line of fortified trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier with France. This line remained unchanged for most of the war. Between 1915 and 1917 there were several major offensives along this front, the attacks employed massive artillery bombardments and massed infantry advances. However, a combination of entrenchments, machine gun emplacements, barbed wire, as a result, no significant advances were made. In an effort to break the deadlock, this front saw the introduction of new technology, including poison gas, aircraft. But it was only after the adoption of improved tactics that some degree of mobility was restored, the German Armys Spring Offensive of 1918 was made possible by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that marked the end of the conflict on the Eastern Front. In spite of the stagnant nature of this front, this theatre would prove decisive. The terms of peace were agreed upon with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919, belgiums neutrality was guaranteed by Britain under the 1839 Treaty of London, this caused Britain to join the war at the expiration of its ultimatum at 11 pm GMT on 4 August. Armies under German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow attacked Belgium on 4 August 1914, Luxembourg had been occupied without opposition on 2 August. The first battle in Belgium was the Siege of Liège, which lasted from 5–16 August, Liège was well fortified and surprised the German Army under von Bülow with its level of resistance. German heavy artillery was able to demolish the main forts within a few days. Following the fall of Liège, most of the Belgian field army retreated to Antwerp, leaving the garrison of Namur isolated, with the Belgian capital, Brussels, although the German army bypassed Antwerp, it remained a threat to their flank. Another siege followed at Namur, lasting from about 20–23 August, for their part, the French had five armies deployed on their borders. The pre-war French offensive plan, Plan XVII, was intended to capture Alsace-Lorraine following the outbreak of hostilities, on 7 August the VII Corps attacked Alsace with its objectives being to capture Mulhouse and Colmar. The main offensive was launched on 14 August with 1st and 2nd Armies attacking toward Sarrebourg-Morhange in Lorraine, in keeping with the Schlieffen Plan, the Germans withdrew slowly while inflicting severe losses upon the French. The French advanced the 3rd and 4th Armies toward the Saar River and attempted to capture Saarburg, attacking Briey and Neufchateau, before being driven back
Western Front (World War I)
–
A German trench occupied by
British troops near the Albert-Bapaume road at
Ovillers-La Boisselle, July 1916 during the
Battle of the Somme. The men are from A Company, 11th (Service) Battalion,
Cheshire Regiment. Photo by
Ernest Brooks.
Western Front (World War I)
–
French
bayonet charge
Western Front (World War I)
–
German infantry on the battlefield, 7 August 1914
Western Front (World War I)
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Map of the Western Front, 1915–16
25.
Marie-Louise Damien
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Marie-Louise Damien, better known by the stage name Damia, was a French singer and actress. Born in Paris, Marie-Louise Damien was 18 years old when she met the singer/songwriter Robert Hollard who gave her lessons that led to her professional debut, at the time, Hollard was married to the singer, Fréhel, but the marriage was a difficult one and soon ended. After leaving his wife, Hollard began an affair with his protégé, after being seen by Félix Mayol, one of the leading male singing stars at the time, he hired her to perform at his concerts. At the beginning of World War I she opened Le Concert Damia, in Montmartre, from this point in her career she became the most important exponent of the chanson réaliste genre until Édith Piaf came along in 1936. In 1927, she appeared in the film, Napoléon directed by Abel Gance with early silent film stars Antonin Artaud, Philippe Hériat, Annabella and her other film successes included Sola and Notre Dame De Paris, alongside Anthony Quinn. Damia had enduring appeal that stretched to audiences as far away as Japan where she toured in 1953, a few years later she did a farewell tour, ending her more than forty-year career in a double bill with Marie Dubasin front of a full house at the Paris Olympia. Her actual swansong, however, was singing Les Croix on La joie de vivre dEdith Piaf, when asked in 1974 by the Anglo-French biographer David Bret to divulge the secret of her long life and fabulous voice, Damia replied, Three packs of Gitanes a day. Damia died at La Celle-Saint-Cloud, a suburb of Paris. Today, she is considered to be the third greatest singer of chansons réalistes, after Edith Piaf, calais-Dover Damia at the Internet Movie Database
Marie-Louise Damien
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Damia in 1920
26.
Fratellini family
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The Fratellini Family was a famous European circus family in the late 1900s and 1920s. An engagement at the Circus Medrano in Paris, France, after World War I was so successful that it sparked a resurgence of interest in the circus. By 1923, the Fratellini brothers had become the darlings of the Parisian intellectuals and they were lauded in print and worshiped by adoring fans who would show up at the circus just in time for the Fratellini entree, which sometimes ran as long as forty-five minutes. The Fratellinis success has been attributed to many factors, but above all they succeeded because of their talent, gustavo Fratellini took part in the unification of Italy. Some of the later settled in France. Other members of the include, Annie Fratellini Fratellini Family in the Encyclopædia Britannica Online Fratellini Academy
Fratellini family
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The Fratellini brothers in 1930
Fratellini family
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As clowns, 1932
27.
Wiera Gran
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Wiera Gran, real name Dwojra Grynberg was a Polish singer and actress. Wiera Gran had a low alto voice even in early 1934, when at the age of 17 when—using the pseudonym Sylvia Green—she made her first recording and she sang in the Cafe Paradis in Warsaw in the early 1930s. While most of her recordings are in the Polish language, she sang in Yiddish in the movie On a heym with Shimon Dzigan and she escaped from the Warsaw Ghetto during World War II and was hiding in Warsaw-Babice. In 1950, she moved to France and she was associated with Maurice Chevaliers stage theater, Alhambra. She performed in Paris in the charity concert with Charles Aznavour, the first song which made her popular was composed in 1937 by Adolf Kurc to Grans lyrics. She traveled to Poland in 1965, some of her best known songs include List, Wir tańca nas porwał, Gdy odejdziesz, Trzy listy, Fernando, Cicha jest noc, Varsovie de mon enfance, Ma Patrie and Mazowiecki wiatr. After the war, in 1945, Gran was accused in Poland by Jonas Turkow, władysław Szpilman said in the court that he had heard of her collaboration in aryan Warsaw during the war since August 1943. Marek Edelman said on 5 May 1945 that he heard about the collaboration of Wiera Gran with the Gestapo and he heard also that a death sentence was imposed against her by the Home Army, but Gran was not found, and therefore it did not come to an enforcement. In 1947, the Citizens Court of the Central Committee of Polish Jews heard the case, Wiera Gran later tried to emigrate to Israel where she had to face similar accusations by Jonas Turkow, Adolf Berman, and Pesach Burstein and was boycotted. She attempted to clear her name in there but the trial was finally suspended in 1982. Marianowicz claims Wiera Gran was a singer and only a singer and was known to him for her philanthropy, in her book Sztafeta Oszczerców published in 1980 in Paris, Gran gives her own account of events and argues her innocence accusing Jonas Turkow of collaboration with Gestapo. Joanna Szczęsna in 2010 Gazeta Wyborcza Szczęsna posits that the accusations against Gran were based on personal animosities between Gran and Jonas Turkow and Władyslaw Szpilman
Wiera Gran
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Wiera Gran
28.
Constantin Guys
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Constantin Guys, Ernest-Adolphe-Hyacinthe-Constantin, was a Dutch-born Crimean War correspondent, water color painter and illustrator for British and French newspapers. His subjects were Second French Empire life, in the Dutch novel Au pair by W. F. Hermans, one of the main characters is fascinated by Constantin Guys. Guys died in Paris, aged 90, les Champs Élysées,1922, Pavillon de Marsan du musée du Louvre, LIllustration n°4123, 10/06/1922. Promenade en carosse,1863 ca. plume, encre, aquarel sur papier beige,255 x 339 mm, Museo Cantonale d’Arte de Lugano Constantin Guys, Constantin Guys, lhistorien du Second Empire. Artcyclopedia article on Constantin Guys Merriam-Websters Biographical Dictionary, merriam-Webster Incorporated,1995. in Biography Resource Center
Constantin Guys
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Constantin Guys by
Nadar
Constantin Guys
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Man on Horseback
Constantin Guys
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Meeting on the Promenade
Constantin Guys
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The
Loge at the Opera
29.
Alphonse Halimi
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Alphonse Halimi was a French boxer. He was nicknamed la Petite Terreur, time wrote of him, Alphonse went to work with a street fighters will. A grown-up guttersnipe from the alleys of Algeria. He worked like a heavyweight, swung looping haymakers, careless of where they landed and he was born in Constantine, the last of 13 children – only seven of whom reached adulthood. His father was a postal inspector, at the age of 10, he ran away from home for the first time, living for long periods of time on the streets of a nation torn by war. A tailor named Dianoux, of Algiers, took him under his wing, after he got involved in a fight on the streets of Algiers, Dianoux encouraged him to train at the Mouloudia gymnasium. Halimi was an excellent swimmer, but he chose boxing as his calling and he was Jewish, and sewed a star of David on his red and green training shorts. Halimis hero was the Algerian-born Marcel Cerdan, and he would carry a photo of his idol at the bottom of his suitcase from the beginning to the end of his career. He won more than 100 matches before being noticed by a trainer and he became French amateur bantamweight champion in 1953,1954, and 1955. In 1955, he was champion of the Mediterranean Games and turned professional, on April 1,1957, at the Vélodrome dhiver in Paris, Halimi became world bantamweight champion by defeating the Italian deaf-mute boxer Mario dAgata. Special lights had been set specially for this fight, so that dAgata and these lights would flash the moment the bell rang. There was a storm on the day of the fight, dAgata was struck by sparkles, suffering a burned neck and back. It was decided the fight would go on, and dAgata tried to defy the odds for the remainder of the fight, but he lost the title by a fifteen-round decision. On the June 4,1957 he had a fight against Jimmy Carson it was not a fight but he lost to jimmy carson by way of TKO. On November 6,1957, at Wrigley Field, Los Angeles and he defeated Raul Macias before a crowd of 20,000 spectators who for the most part had favored Macias. Macias lost his belt by a 15 round split decision with scores of 144–141 for Macias and 148–141, the fights decision was controversial as many thought Macias had done enough to win it. In 1960 in London, after defeating Freddie Gilroy for the title of European Champion, he proclaimed, Today, during this period, Halimi was adulated in France and in his town of origin. His personal life during this period was characterized by dubious friendships, excessive betting and he lost his crown in 1959 to Jose Becerra, at the Memorial Sports Arena
Alphonse Halimi
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Alphonse Halimi
30.
Ludwik de Laveaux (painter)
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Stanisław Ludwik de Laveaux was a Polish painter. Born November 21,1868 in Jaronowice, he came from a French Protestant family who emigrated to Poland in the 18th century. He studied at the Kraków School of fine arts from 1884 to 1890, under Józef Mehoffer and he then went to Paris on a permanent basis, but he travelled to Brittany, London and Oxford. Often living in poverty, contributed to the development of tuberculosis, known for his many romances, the most famous of which was his affair with a counts daughter Iwona Prośnieńska from the town of Olkusz. He also had a fiancee, Maria Pareńska and he died April 5,1894, in Paris and was buried at the Cimetière parisien de Pantin
Ludwik de Laveaux (painter)
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self portrait, 1892
Ludwik de Laveaux (painter)
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Do miasta (To Town)
Ludwik de Laveaux (painter)
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Góralczyk
Ludwik de Laveaux (painter)
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Praczki
The cemetery is a short walk from the Aubervilliers – Pantin – Quatre Chemins or Fort d'Aubervilliers métro stations, which can be reached by taking line 7. The nearest railway station is Pantin which is served by line E.
The cemetery is also served by bus lines 151 and 152.
