1.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
2.
Circus Maximus
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The Circus Maximus is an ancient Roman chariot racing stadium and mass entertainment venue located in Rome, Italy. Situated in the valley between the Aventine and Palatine hills, it was the first and largest stadium in ancient Rome and it measured 621 m in length and 118 m in width and could accommodate over 150,000 spectators. In its fully developed form, it became the model for circuses throughout the Roman Empire, the site is now a public park. The Circus was Romes largest venue for ludi, public games connected to Roman religious festivals, ludi were sponsored by leading Romans or the Roman state for the benefit of the Roman people and gods. Most were held annually or at intervals on the Roman calendar. Others might be given to fulfill a vow, such as the games in celebration of a triumph. The earliest known triumph ludi at the Circus were vowed by Tarquin the Proud to Jupiter in the late Regal era for his victory over Pometia. The greater ludi at the Circus began with a flamboyant parade, much like the triumphal procession, during the Republic, the aediles organized the games. Although their original purpose was religious, the complexity of staging ludi became a way to display the competence, generosity, some Circus events, however, seem to have been relatively small and intimate affairs. In 167 BC, flute players, scenic artists and dancers performed on a temporary stage, others were enlarged at enormous expense to fit the entire space. A venatio held there in 169 BC, one of several in the 2nd century, employed 63 leopards and 40 bears and elephants, as Romes provinces expanded, existing ludi were embellished and new ludi invented by politicians who competed for divine and popular support. By the late Republic, ludi were held on 57 days of the year, on many other days, charioteers and jockeys would need to practice on its track. Otherwise, it would have made a convenient corral for the animals traded in the cattle market. Beneath the outer stands, next to the Circus multiple entrances, were workshops and shops, when no games were being held, the Circus at the time of Catullus was likely a dusty open space with shops and booths. A colourful crowded disreputable area frequented by prostitutes, jugglers, fortune tellers, Romes emperors met the ever-burgeoning popular demand for regular ludi and the need for more specialised venues, as essential obligations of their office and cult. Over the several centuries of its development, the Circus Maximus became Romes paramount specialist venue for chariot races, eventually,135 days of the year were devoted to ludi. With the advent of Christianity as the religion of the Empire. The last known beast-hunt at the Circus Maximus took place in 523, the Circus Maximus was sited on the level ground of the Valley of Murcia, between Romes Aventine and Palatine Hills
3.
Old St. Peter's Basilica
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Old St. Peters Basilica was the building that stood, from the 4th to 16th centuries, on the spot where the new St. Peters Basilica stands today in Vatican City. Construction of the basilica, built over the site of the Circus of Nero. The name old St. Peters Basilica has been used since the construction of the current basilica to distinguish the two buildings, construction began by orders of the Roman Emperor Constantine I between 318 and 322, and took about 30 years to complete. Over the next centuries, the church gradually gained importance. Papal coronations were held at the basilica, and in 800, in 846, Saracens sacked and damaged the basilica. The raiders seem to have known about Romes extraordinary treasures, some holy – and impressive – basilicas, such as St. Peters Basilica, were outside the Aurelian walls, and thus easy targets. They were filled to overflowing with rich liturgical vessels and with jeweled reliquaries housing all of the relics recently amassed, as a result, the raiders pillaged the holy shrine. In response Pope Leo IV built the Leonine wall and rebuilt the parts of St. Peters that had been damaged, in 1099, Urban II convened a council including St Anselm. Among other topics, it repeated the bans on lay investiture, by the 15th century the church was falling into ruin. Discussions on repairing parts of the structure commenced upon the return from Avignon. The whole stretch of wall has been pierced by too many openings, as a result, the continual force of the wind has already displaced the wall more than six feet from the vertical, I have no doubt that eventually some. Slight movement will make it collapse, at first Pope Julius II had every intention of preserving the old building, but his attention soon turned toward tearing it down and building a new structure. Many people of the time were shocked by the proposal, as the building represented papal continuity going back to Peter, the original altar was to be preserved in the new structure that housed it. Constantine went to pains to build the basilica on the site of Saint Peters grave. The Vatican Hill, on the west bank of the Tiber River, was leveled. Notably, since the site was outside the boundaries of the ancient city, the exterior however, unlike earlier pagan temples, was not lavishly decorated. The church was capable of housing from 3,000 to 4,000 worshipers at one time and it consisted of five aisles, a wide central nave and two smaller aisles to each side, which were each divided by 21 marble columns, taken from earlier pagan buildings. It was over 350 feet long, built in the shape of a Latin cross, and had a roof which was timbered on the interior
4.
St. Peter's Basilica
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The Papal Basilica of St. Peter in the Vatican, or simply St. Peters Basilica, is an Italian Renaissance church in Vatican City, the papal enclave within the city of Rome. While it is neither the church of the Catholic Church nor the cathedral of the Diocese of Rome. It has been described as holding a position in the Christian world. Catholic tradition holds that the Basilica is the site of Saint Peter, one of Christs Apostles. Saint Peters tomb is supposedly directly below the altar of the Basilica. For this reason, many Popes have been interred at St. Peters since the Early Christian period, construction of the present basilica, which would replace Old St. Peters Basilica from the 4th century AD, began on 18 April 1506 and was completed on 18 November 1626. St. Peters is famous as a place of pilgrimage and for its liturgical functions. The Pope presides at a number of liturgies throughout the year, drawing audiences of 15,000 to over 80,000 people, either within the Basilica or the adjoining St. Peters Square. St. Peters has many associations, with the Early Christian Church, the Papacy. As a work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age, St. Peters is one of the four churches in the world that hold the rank of Major Basilica, all four of which are in Rome. Contrary to popular misconception, it is not a cathedral because it is not the seat of a bishop, St. Peters is a church built in the Renaissance style located in the Vatican City west of the River Tiber and near the Janiculum Hill and Hadrians Mausoleum. Its central dome dominates the skyline of Rome, the basilica is approached via St. Peters Square, a forecourt in two sections, both surrounded by tall colonnades. The first space is oval and the second trapezoid, the basilica is cruciform in shape, with an elongated nave in the Latin cross form but the early designs were for a centrally planned structure and this is still in evidence in the architecture. The central space is dominated both externally and internally by one of the largest domes in the world, the entrance is through a narthex, or entrance hall, which stretches across the building. One of the bronze doors leading from the narthex is the Holy Door. The interior is of vast dimensions when compared with other churches and this in its turn overwhelms us. The nave which leads to the dome is in three bays, with piers supporting a barrel-vault, the highest of any church. The nave is framed by wide aisles which have a number of chapels off them, there are also chapels surrounding the dome
5.
Circus (building)
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The Roman circus was a large open-air venue used for public events in the ancient Roman Empire. The circuses were similar to the ancient Greek hippodromes, although circuses served varying purposes and differed in design, along with theatres and amphitheatres, Circuses were one of the main entertainment sites of the time. Circuses were venues for chariot races, horse races, and performances that commemorated important events of the empire were performed there, for events that involved re-enactments of naval battles, the circus was flooded with water. The Circus of Maxentius epitomises the design, the median strip was called the spina and usually featured ornate columns, statues and commemorative obelisks. The turning points on either end of the spina were usually marked by conical poles, one circus, that at Antinopolis, displays a distinct gap of some 50m between the carceres and the start of the ascending seating where there is apparently no structure. This appears to be an exception, the great majority of circuses fit the description above. These latter circuses are normally small, and should probably be considered stadiums, there are similar buildings, called stadia, which were used for Greek style athletics. These buildings were similar in design but typically smaller than circuses, however, an example of this type is the Stadium of Domitian. Although circuses such as the Circus Maximus may have existed in form from as early as around 500BC. The comparative dimensions of a circus may be measured in 2 basic ways, by the length of the track, other dimensions, such as the external dimensions of the structure may vary considerably depending on the location, the site, and on specific architectural characteristics. The simplest comparative measurement of a circus is its track length and this is the most easily measured dimension, as it only requires small excavations at either end of the centreline. It is very probable that this can be even when the circus is buried under subsequent constructions. Track lengths may vary from the 245m of the circus at Gerasa, the alternative comparative dimension is that of seating capacity. This is much more complex to measure as it requires that the dimensions of the vertical and horizontal extent of the inclined seating be re-established. Seating capacity may vary from around 15,000 people at Gerasa, Circuses do not appear to have been constructed with any special compass orientation. Those that are well identified can be found with their round ends oriented around the compass. Circuses can be found at 3 distinct locations relative to the towns to which belong, outside the city walls at anything up to 1.5 km distant, as at, Gerasa. Simply within the walls, as at, Thessalonica
6.
Ancient Rome
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In its many centuries of existence, the Roman state evolved from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate the Mediterranean region and then Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa and it is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world. Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond, its domain extended from the Atlantic to Arabia, the Roman Empire emerged with the end of the Republic and the dictatorship of Augustus Caesar. 721 years of Roman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia and it would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak, Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a prelude common to the rise of a new emperor. Splinter states, such as the Palmyrene Empire, would divide the Empire during the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of history from the pre-medieval Dark Ages of Europe. King Numitor was deposed from his throne by his brother, Amulius, while Numitors daughter, Rhea Silvia, because Rhea Silvia was raped and impregnated by Mars, the Roman god of war, the twins were considered half-divine. The new king, Amulius, feared Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, a she-wolf saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. Romulus became the source of the citys name, in order to attract people to the city, Rome became a sanctuary for the indigent, exiled, and unwanted. This caused a problem for Rome, which had a large workforce but was bereft of women, Romulus traveled to the neighboring towns and tribes and attempted to secure marriage rights, but as Rome was so full of undesirables they all refused. Legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins, after a long time in rough seas, they landed at the banks of the Tiber River. Not long after they landed, the men wanted to take to the sea again, one woman, named Roma, suggested that the women burn the ships out at sea to prevent them from leaving. At first, the men were angry with Roma, but they realized that they were in the ideal place to settle. They named the settlement after the woman who torched their ships, the Roman poet Virgil recounted this legend in his classical epic poem the Aeneid
7.
Vatican City
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Vatican City, officially Vatican City State or the State of Vatican City, is a walled enclave within the city of Rome. With an area of approximately 44 hectares, and a population of 842, however, formally it is not sovereign, with sovereignty being held by the Holy See, the only entity of public international law that has diplomatic relations with almost every country in the world. It is an ecclesiastical or sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Bishop of Rome – the Pope, the highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various national origins. Vatican City is distinct from the Holy See, which dates back to early Christianity and is the episcopal see of 1.2 billion Latin. According to the terms of the treaty, the Holy See has full ownership, exclusive dominion, within Vatican City are religious and cultural sites such as St. Peters Basilica, the Sistine Chapel and the Vatican Museums. They feature some of the worlds most famous paintings and sculptures, the unique economy of Vatican City is supported financially by the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos, fees for admission to museums, and the sale of publications. The name Vatican City was first used in the Lateran Treaty, signed on 11 February 1929, the name is taken from Vatican Hill, the geographic location of the state. Vatican is derived from the name of an Etruscan settlement, Vatica or Vaticum meaning garden, located in the area the Romans called vaticanus ager. The official Italian name of the city is Città del Vaticano or, more formally, Stato della Città del Vaticano, although the Holy See and the Catholic Church use Ecclesiastical Latin in official documents, the Vatican City officially uses Italian. The Latin name is Status Civitatis Vaticanæ, this is used in documents by not just the Holy See. The name Vatican was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for an area on the west bank of the Tiber across from the city of Rome. Under the Roman Empire, many villas were constructed there, after Agrippina the Elder drained the area and laid out her gardens in the early 1st century AD. In AD40, her son, Emperor Caligula built in her gardens a circus for charioteers that was completed by Nero, the Circus Gaii et Neronis, usually called, simply. Even before the arrival of Christianity, it is supposed that this originally uninhabited part of Rome had long considered sacred. A shrine dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele and her consort Attis remained active long after the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter was built nearby, the particularly low quality of Vatican water, even after the reclamation of the area, was commented on by the poet Martial. The Vatican Obelisk was originally taken by Caligula from Heliopolis in Egypt to decorate the spina of his circus and is thus its last visible remnant and this area became the site of martyrdom of many Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in AD64. Ancient tradition holds that it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down, opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia. Peters in the first half of the 4th century, the Constantinian basilica was built in 326 over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter, buried in that cemetery
8.
St. Peter's Square
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St. Peters Square is a large plaza located directly in front of St. Peters Basilica in the Vatican City, the papal enclave inside Rome, directly west of the neighbourhood or rione of Borgo. Both the square and the basilica are named after Saint Peter, an apostle of Jesus, at the centre of the square is an ancient Egyptian obelisk, erected at the current site in 1586. Gian Lorenzo Bernini designed the square almost 100 years later, including the massive Tuscan colonnades, four columns deep, a granite fountain constructed by Bernini in 1675 matches another fountain designed by Carlo Maderno in 1613. Bernini had been working on the interior of St, there were many constraints from existing structures. The massed accretions of the Vatican Palace crowded the space to the right of the basilicas façade, the colossal Tuscan colonnades, four columns deep, frame the trapezoidal entrance to the basilica and the massive elliptical area which precedes it. The ovato tondos long axis, parallel to the basilicas façade, the elliptical center of the piazza, which contrasts with the trapezoidal entrance, encloses the visitor with the maternal arms of Mother Church in Berninis expression. On the south side, the colonnades define and formalize the space, on the north side, the colonnade masks an assortment of Vatican structures, the upper stories of the Vatican Palace rise above. The obelisk was erected at Heliopolis, Egypt, by an unknown pharaoh. The Emperor Augustus had the moved to the Julian Forum of Alexandria, where it stood until 37 AD, when Caligula ordered the forum demolished. He had it placed on the spina which ran along the center of the Circus of Nero, the Vatican Obelisk is the only obelisk in Rome that has not toppled since ancient Roman times. During the Middle Ages, the ball on top of the obelisk was believed to contain the ashes of Julius Caesar. Fontana later removed the ancient metal ball, now in a Rome museum, Christopher Hibbert writes that the ball was found to be solid. Though Bernini had no influence in the erection of the obelisk, he did use it as the centerpiece of his magnificent piazza, the paving is varied by radiating lines in travertine, to relieve what might otherwise be a sea of cobblestones. In 1817 circular stones were set to mark the tip of the shadow at noon as the sun entered each of the signs of the zodiac. Below is a view of St. Peters Square from the cupola which was taken in June,2007, St. Peters Square today can be reached from the Ponte SantAngelo along the grand approach of the Via della Conciliazione. The spina which once occupied this grand avenue leading to the square was demolished ceremonially by Benito Mussolini himself on October 23,1936 and was demolished by October 8,1937. St. Peters Basilica was now visible from the Castel SantAngelo. After the spina, almost all the south of the passetto were demolished between 1937 and 1950, obliterating one of the most important medieval and renaissance quarters of the city
9.
Caligula
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Caligula, properly Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus was Roman emperor from AD 37–41. Born Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus, Caligula was a member of the house of rulers known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Caligulas biological father was Germanicus, and he was the great-nephew, the young Gaius earned the nickname Caligula from his fathers soldiers while accompanying him during his campaigns in Germania. When Germanicus died at Antioch in AD19, his wife Agrippina the Elder returned with her six children to Rome, the conflict eventually led to the destruction of her family, with Caligula as the sole male survivor. Untouched by the intrigues, Caligula accepted the invitation to join the Emperor in AD31 on the island of Capri. With the death of Tiberius in AD37, Caligula succeeded his grand uncle, there are few surviving sources about the reign of Emperor Caligula, although he is described as a noble and moderate ruler during the first six months of his reign. After this, the focus upon his cruelty, sadism, extravagance. He directed much of his attention to construction projects and luxurious dwellings for himself. During his reign, the empire annexed the Kingdom of Mauretania as a province, in early AD41, Caligula was assassinated as a result of a conspiracy by officers of the Praetorian Guard, senators, and courtiers. Gaius Julius Caesar was born in Antium on 31 August 12 AD, Gaius had two older brothers, Nero and Drusus, as well as three younger sisters, Agrippina the Younger, Julia Drusilla and Julia Livilla. He was also a nephew of Claudius, Germanicus younger brother, Agrippina the Elder was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. She was a granddaughter of Augustus and Scribonia on her mothers side, through Agrippina, Augustus was the maternal great-grandfather of Gaius. As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus, on campaigns in the north of Germania, the soldiers were amused that Gaius was dressed in a miniature soldiers outfit, including boots and armour. He was soon given his nickname Caligula, meaning little boot in Latin, Gaius, though, reportedly grew to dislike this nickname. Suetonius claims that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius, after the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until her relations with Tiberius deteriorated. Tiberius would not allow Agrippina to remarry for fear her husband would be a rival, Agrippina and Caligulas brother, Nero, were banished in 29 AD on charges of treason. The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live with his great-grandmother Livia, after her death, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia. In 30 AD, his brother, Drusus Caesar, was imprisoned on charges of treason, Suetonius writes that after the banishment of his mother and brothers, Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than prisoners of Tiberius under the close watch of soldiers
10.
Agrippina the Elder
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Vipsania Agrippina, most commonly known as Agrippina Major or Agrippina the Elder, was a distinguished and prominent Roman woman of the first century CE. Agrippina was the wife of the general and statesman Germanicus and a relative to the first Roman Emperors, Agrippina was born as the second daughter and fourth child to Roman statesman and Augustus’ ally Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. Agrippina’s mother Julia was the natural child born to Augustus from his second marriage to noblewoman Scribonia. Her father’s marriage to Julia was his third marriage, from Agrippa’s previous two marriages, Agrippina had at least two half-sisters, Vipsania Agrippina and Vipsania Marcella Agrippina. Vipsania Agrippina was Agrippa’s second child from his first marriage to Pomponia Caecilia Attica She became Tiberiuss first wife and was the mother of his natural son Drusus Julius Caesar. Vipsania Agrippina later married senator and consul Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus after Tiberius was forced to divorce her, less well known is Agrippa’s oldest daughter - Vipsania Marcella. She was the first wife Publius Quinctilius Varus, Agrippa likely had more children, some of whom did not survive, from his second marriage to Augustus’ niece and cousin to Julia the Elder, Claudia Marcella Major. No son is attested, but a daughter is possibly the mother of Dec. Haterius Agrippa and her mother’s marriage to Agrippa was her second marriage, as Julia the Elder was widowed from her first marriage, to her paternal cousin Marcus Claudius Marcellus and they had no children. From the marriage of Julia and Agrippa, Agrippina had four full-blood siblings, Agrippina was born in Athens, as in the year of her birth Agrippa was in that city completing official duties on behalf of Augustus. Her mother and her siblings had traveled with Agrippa, later Agrippina’s family returned to Rome. In 12 BCE, Agrippina’s father died, Augustus had forced his first stepson Tiberius to end his happy first marriage to Vipsania Agrippina to marry Julia the Elder. The marriage of Julia and Tiberius was not a happy one, in 2 BC Augustus exiled Agrippina’s mother on the grounds that she had committed adultery, thereby causing a major scandal. Julia was banished for her years and Agrippina never saw her again. Tiberius had left Rome for the Greek island of Rhodes ca.6 BC allegedly to avoid any scandal, in his absence, Augustus arranged the divorce between Tiberius and Julia and sent word of it to Rhodes. With her siblings, Agrippina was raised in Rome by her maternal grandfather, Livia was the first Roman Empress and was Augustus’ second wife. Livia had two sons by her first marriage to praetor Tiberius Nero, the future emperor Tiberius and the general Nero Claudius Drusus. According to Suetonius, as a member of the family, Agrippina was expected to display frugality, chastity and domesticity. Agrippina and Augustus had a close relationship, between 1 BC-5, Agrippina married her second maternal cousin Germanicus
11.
Borgo (rione of Rome)
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Borgo, is the 14th historic district of Rome, Italy. It lies on the west bank of the Tiber, within Municipio I and its coat of arms shows a lion, lying in front of three mounts and a star. These - together with a lion rampant - are also part of the coat of arms of Pope Sixtus V who annexed Borgo as fourteenth rione to the city of Rome. The Borgo is bordered by Vatican City to the west, the Tiber to the east, Prati to the north, the quartiere Aurelio to the southwest and Trastevere to the south. The territory of the quarter includes a part, which is made of the alluvial sands of Tiber, and a hilly zone. In administrative terms, the Borgo, following the city decree n.11 issued on 11 March 2013, before then, he was part of the XVII Municipio, together with the rione of Prati and the quartieri Trionfale and Della Vittoria. The main roads run east-west and are not named Vie, although heavily transformed during the first half of the 20th century, the Borgo maintains its historical importance as a forecourt to Saint Peters Basilica and the Vatican Palace. The territory of the Borgo during the Roman age was part of the fourteenth Regio, Transtiberim, and was named Ager Vaticanus, after the auguries, since it lay outside the Pomerium, and was plagued by malaria, this territory was used as a burial place. Some tombs reached notable proportions, among them, the so-called Terebinthus Neronis, which was a round tomb surmounted by a narrow tower, while the Meta Romuli, was demolished only in 1499. At the foot of the Vatican Hill, two roads started, the Via Cornelia, which joined the Via Aurelia near Tarquinii, and the Via Triumphalis, which met the Via Cassia a few kilometers north. The latter was so named because, beginning with Titus, the Roman Emperors used it to enter the city when celebrating their Triumphs, Emperor Gaius built on the Vatican a circus, which was then enlarged by Nero. The obelisk standing today in St. Peters Square was erected along its raised median, the circus was connected to the city through an archway. Nero also substituted the timber bridge of the Via Triumphalis with a stone bridge, Emperor Hadrian built near the Tiber his huge Mausoleum, which he connected to the left bank of the river with another Bridge, the Pons Ælius. But what changed forever the destiny of the zone was the martyrdom of St. Peter at the foot of the Vatican hill in 67, the saint was buried nearby, and this turned the Vatican into a place of pilgrimage. Above the tomb of the saint, Pope Anacletus built an oratory and this church, known today as Old Saint Peters, soon became one of the centers of Christianity. During the early Middle Ages the bridge of Nero fell into ruins, while the Mausoleum of Hadrian was converted into a stronghold, despite the wars and invasions that plagued Rome during those centuries, the flood of pilgrims to the tomb of the apostle never stopped. Pilgrims of the same nationality gathered together in associations named Scholae, whose task was to host, the most famous were those of the Franks, Saxons, Frisians and Lombards. Each Schola had its own hospice and church, one of the first – the Schola Saxonum - was built during the 8th century by Ina or Ine, king of the West Saxons
12.
Claudius
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Claudius was Roman emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and he was born at Lugdunum in Gaul, the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy. Claudius infirmity probably saved him from the fate of other nobles during the purges of Tiberius and Caligulas reigns. His survival led to his being declared Emperor by the Praetorian Guard after Caligulas assassination, despite his lack of experience, Claudius proved to be an able and efficient administrator. He was also a builder, constructing many new roads, aqueducts. During his reign the Empire began the conquest of Britain, having a personal interest in law, he presided at public trials, and issued up to twenty edicts a day. He was seen as vulnerable throughout his reign, particularly by elements of the nobility, Claudius was constantly forced to shore up his position, this resulted in the deaths of many senators. These events damaged his reputation among the ancient writers, though more recent historians have revised this opinion, many authors contend that he was murdered by his own wife. After his death in 54 AD, his grand-nephew and adopted son Nero succeeded him as Emperor, Claudius was born on 1 August 10 BC at Lugdunum. He had two siblings, Germanicus and Livilla. His mother, Antonia, may have had two children who died young. His maternal grandparents were Mark Antony and Octavia Minor, Augustus sister and his paternal grandparents were Livia, Augustus third wife, and Tiberius Claudius Nero. During his reign, Claudius revived the rumor that his father Drusus was actually the son of Augustus. In 9 BC, his father Drusus unexpectedly died on campaign in Germania, Claudius was then left to be raised by his mother, who never remarried. When Claudius disability became evident, the relationship with his family turned sour, Antonia referred to him as a monster, and used him as a standard for stupidity. She seems to have passed her son off on his grandmother Livia for a number of years, Livia was a little kinder, but nevertheless often sent him short, angry letters of reproof. He was put under the care of a former mule-driver to keep him disciplined, under the logic that his condition was due to laziness, however, by the time he reached his teenage years his symptoms apparently waned and his family took some notice of his scholarly interests. In 7 AD, Livy was hired to tutor him in history and he spent a lot of his time with the latter and the philosopher Athenodorus
13.
Saint Peter's tomb
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Saint Peters tomb is a site under St. Peters Basilica that includes several graves and a structure said by Vatican authorities to have been built to memorialize the location of Saint Peters grave. St. Peters tomb is near the west end of a complex of mausoleums that date between about AD130 and AD300. The complex was torn down and filled with earth to provide a foundation for the building of the first St. Peters Basilica during the reign of Constantine I in about AD330. Following the discovery of bones that had transferred from a second tomb under the monument. The grave claimed by the Church to be that of Saint Peter lies at the foot of the aedicula beneath the floor, the remains of four individuals and several farm animals were found in this grave. Subsequent testing indicated that these were the bones of a 60-70-year-old man, antonio Ferrua, the archaeologist who headed the excavation that uncovered what is known as Saint Peters Tomb, said that he wasnt convinced that the bones that were found were those of Saint Peter. The upper image shows the area of the floor of St. Peters Basilica that lies above the site of Saint Peters tomb. A portion of the aedicula that was part of Peters tomb rose above level of floor and was made into the Niche of the Pallium which can be seen in the center of the image. The earliest reference to Saint Peters death is in a letter of Clement, bishop of Rome, letter to the Corinthians, written c.96 AD.254 AD. St. Peters martyrdom is traditionally depicted in iconography as crucifixion with his head pointed downward. Peters place and manner of death are mentioned by Tertullian in Scorpiace. Tacitus describes the persecution of Christians in his Annals, though he does not specifically mention Peter and they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt. Furthermore, Tertullian says these events took place in the gardens near the Circus of Nero. No other area would have available for public persecutions after the Great Fire of Rome destroyed the Circus Maximus. This account is supported by other sources, in the The Passion of Peter and Paul, dating to the fifth century, the crucifixion of Peter is recounted. While the stories themselves are apocryphal, they were based on earlier material, took down his body secretly and put it under the terebinth tree near the Naumachia, in the place which is called the Vatican. The place called Naumachia would be a lake within the Circus of Nero where naval battles were reenacted for an audience. The place called Vatican was at the time a hill next to the complex and also next to the Tiber River, featuring a cemetery of both Christian and pagan tombs
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Vatican Necropolis
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The Vatican Necropolis lies under the Vatican City, at depths varying between 5–12 meters below Saint Peters Basilica. The Vatican sponsored archeological excavations under Saint Peters in the years 1940–1949 which revealed parts of a dating to Imperial times. The work was undertaken at the request of Pope Pius XI who wished to be buried as close as possible to Peter the Apostle and it is also home to the Tomb of the Julii, which has been dated to the third or fourth century. The necropolis was not originally one of the underground Catacombs of Rome, the Vatican necropolis was originally a burial ground built on the southern slope of the Vatican Hill, adjacent to a circus built by Emperor Caligula. In accordance with the Roman law, it was forbidden to bury the dead within the city walls, for this reason, burial grounds sprang up along the roads outside of the city cemeteries. One of these streets, the Via Cornelia, ran north along the Vatican hill, at the top of the circus that Caligula built, an Egyptian obelisk had been placed. The obelisk had been there since ancient times, in 1586 it was moved from its place by Domenico Fontana on the orders of Pope Sixtus V when St. Peters Square was added. The original location, just before the current excavation Office of the Fabbrica di San Pietro, is marked by a plaque in the ground, according to tradition, the Apostle Peter was martyred in the year 64 or 67 during the reign of Emperor Nero. Peter is said to be buried in the necropolis because of its proximity to the Circus of Nero where he was martyred, after the Edict of Milan the Emperor Constantine began construction of the first St. Peters Church, also known as Old St. Peters Basilica. At this time, the Roman necropolis was still in use and this is known because a coin was found inside an urn dating from 318 AD. During this time, the necropolis was protected by law and was untouchable, however, Emperor Constantine I decided to build a basilica, which would be located just above the supposed grave of the Apostle Peter. To obtain the amount of flat area for the planned construction, Emperor Constantine I excavated part of the necropolis of the Vatican hill. This caused the necropolis to be filled with soil and building debris, with the exception of St. Peters tomb, the first excavations of the Necropolis occurred from 1940–1949 during the pontificate of Pius XII. The purpose of these excavations was to locate the grave of St. Peter, a series of mausoleums were unearthed. The mausoleums were initially labeled with the Greek alphabet letters Φ, Χ and Ψ, the Mausoleum M had already been described in 1574, and Mausoleum O was discovered when it was unearthed during the construction of the foundation for the statue of Pope Pius VI. Mausoleums R and S were discovered when the part of the foundation for the canopy of Gian Lorenzo Bernini was created. First, the A mausoleum was built, in later years, in rapid succession, the mausoleums B, C, D and E were built next to each other. The Mausoleum G is very likely from the time as Mausoleum B
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Via Cornelia
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Via Cornelia is an ancient Roman Road that supposedly ran east—west along the northern wall of the Circus of Nero on land now covered by the southern wall of St. Peters Basilica. The location is associated with the Via Aurelia and the Via Triumphalis. There is some belief amongst archeologists that the Via Cornelia did not exist and these citizens also would have had no idea of the topography of the Imperial period. Contrary to these likely unfounded notations, well-authenticated documents from the fourth century state that Saint Peter was buried along the Via Triumphalis. The inscription on the stone mentions a commander of the eighth Augustinian legion under Vespasian and Titus who had been a supervisor of the Via Aurelia, excavations of the basilica and surrounding area, however, have shown that this was not entirely correct. An excavation in 1936 in the Piazza San Pietro discovered traces of a road that may be the post-Constantinian Via Cornelia, a fragment of pre-Constantinian paved road along the same alignment also was found at the southwest corner of the basilica. It now is believed that the Via Cornelia came from the east and ran west, slightly before this point the Via Aurelia forked off from it and headed southwest, while the Via Cornelia continued westward just south of façade of the basilica and eventual on toward Caere. Via Triumphalis is believed to have come from Pons Neronis toward the Piazza San Pietro, the present day Via della Conciliazione follows approximately the same path as the Via Cornelia did. Recently, the Vatican has reopened excavations of the Via Triumphalis necropolis that first was uncovered during the 1950s and it is an extensive ancient Roman cemetery. It is possible that the Via Cornelia may have built by Caligula to improve the approach to the imperial gardens. Therefore, it may have formed the boundary of the gardens in Nero’s time. It also would have connected the Circus of Nero to the basilica and to a double row of mausoleums
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Pope Alexander VII
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Pope Alexander VII, born Fabio Chigi, was pope from 7 April 1655 to his death in 1667. He began his career as a legate, and he held various diplomatic positions in the Holy See. He was ordained as a priest in 1634, and he became Bishop of Nardo in 1635 and he was later transferred in 1652, and he became Bishop of Imola. Pope Innocent X made him Secretary of State in 1651, and in 1652, he was appointed as a Cardinal. Early in his papacy, Alexander, who was seen as anti-Nepotist at the time of his election, lived simply, later, however, he gave jobs to his relatives and his administration worked to support the Jesuits. However, his administrations relations with France were strained due to his frictions with French diplomats, Alexander was interested in architecture and supported various urban projects in Rome. He also wrote poetry and patronized artists who expanded the decoration of churches and his theological writings included discussions of heliocentrism and the Immaculate Conception. Fabios elder brother, Mario, married Berenice, the daughter of Tiberio della Ciala, producing four children, Flavio was created cardinal by his uncle on April 9,1657. His brother, Augusto Chigi, married Olimpia della Ciaia and continued the line as the parents of Agostino Chigi. Fabios sister Onorata Mignanelli married Firmano Bichi, their son Antonio was named Bishop of Montalcino and then Osimo, in 1627 he began his apprenticeship as vice-papal legate at Ferrara, and on recommendations from two cardinals he was appointed Inquisitor of Malta. Chigi was ordained a priest in December 1634 and he was appointed Referendarius utriusque signaturae, which made him a prelate and gave him the right to practice before the Roman courts. On 8 January 1635, Chigi was named Bishop of Nardò in southern Italy and consecrated on 1 July 1635 by Miguel Juan Balaguer Camarasa, on 13 May 1652 he was transferred to the Bishopric of Imola. Bishop Chigi was named nuncio in Cologne on 11 June 1639, there, he supported Urban VIIIs condemnation of the heretical book Augustinus by Cornelius Jansen, Bishop of Ypres, in the papal Bull In eminenti of 1642. Though expected to take part in the negotiations which led in 1648 to the Peace of Westphalia, negotiations therefore took place in two cities, Osnabrück and Münster in Westphalia, with intermediaries travelling back and forth between the Protestant and the Catholic delegates. Chigi, of course, protested on behalf of the Papacy, Pope Innocent himself stated that the Peace is null, void, invalid, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time. The Peace ended the Thirty Years War and established the balance of European power that lasted until the wars of the French Revolution, Pope Innocent X recalled Chigi to Rome. In December 1651 Pope Innocent named Cardinal Chigi Secretary of State and he was created cardinal by Innocent X in the Consistory of 19 February 1652, and on 12 March was granted the title of Cardinal-Priest of Santa Maria del Popolo. In December 1651 Pope Innocent named Cardinal Chigi Cardinal Secretary of State
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini
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Gian Lorenzo Bernini was an Italian sculptor and architect. While a major figure in the world of architecture, he was the sculptor of his age. Bernini was also a figure in the emergence of Roman Baroque architecture along with his contemporaries, the architect Francesco Borromini. Early in their careers they had all worked at the time at the Palazzo Barberini, initially under Carlo Maderno and, following his death. Later on, however, they were in competition for commissions, Peters Basilica, completed under Pope Paul V with the addition of Madernos nave and facade and finally re-consecrated by Pope Urban VIII on 18 November 1626, after 150 years of planning and building. Berninis design of the Piazza San Pietro in front of the Basilica is one of his most innovative, during his long career, Bernini received numerous important commissions, many of which were associated with the papacy. At an early age, he came to the attention of the nephew, Cardinal Scipione Borghese. Although he did not fare so well during the reign of Innocent X, under Alexander VII, he again regained pre-eminent artistic domination. Bernini and other artists fell from favor in later neoclassical criticism of the Baroque, the art historian Howard Hibbard concludes that, during the seventeenth century, there were no sculptors or architects comparable to Bernini. Bernini was born in Naples in 1598 to Angelica Galante and Mannerist sculptor Pietro Bernini and he was the sixth of their thirteen children. Gianlorenzo Bernini was the definition of childhood genius and he was “recognized as a prodigy when he was only eight years old, he was consistently encouraged by his father, Pietro. His precocity earned him the admiration and favor of powerful patrons who hailed him as ‘the Michelangelo of his century’” and his father was so impressed by his son’s obvious talent that he took him to Rome to showcase him to the cardinals and Pope. Bernini was presented before Pope Paul V, for whom he did a sketch of Saint Paul, once he was brought to Rome, he never left. “For Bernini there could be only one Rome, ‘You are made for Rome, ’ said Pope Urban VIII to him, ‘and Rome for you’”. It was in world of 17th century Rome and religious power. Under the patronage of the wealthy and most powerful Cardinal Scipione Borghese. By the time he was twenty-two, he was considered talented enough to have given a commission for a papal portrait. Berninis reputation, however, was established by four masterpieces
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Pope Gregory XIII
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Pope Gregory XIII, born Ugo Boncompagni, was Pope of the Catholic Church from 13 May 1572 to his death in 1585. He is best known for commissioning and being the namesake for the Gregorian calendar, during his pontificate, Gregory fostered cultural patronages associated with his papacy. He strengthened many ecclesiastical and diplomatic envoys to Asia, namely the islands of Japan and he was also the first Pope to bestow the Immaculate Conception as Patroness to the Philippine Islands on 9 February 1579 through the Papal Bull Ilius Fulti Præsido. Ugo Boncompagni was born the son of Cristoforo Boncompagni and of his wife Angela Marescalchi in Bologna and he later taught jurisprudence for some years, and his students included notable figures such as Cardinals Alexander Farnese, Reginald Pole and Charles Borromeo. He had a son after an affair with Maddalena Fulchini, Giacomo Boncompagni. At the age of thirty-six he was summoned to Rome by Pope Paul III, under whom he held appointments as first judge of the capital, abbreviator. Pope Paul IV attached him as datarius to the suite of Cardinal Carlo Carafa, Pope Pius IV made him Cardinal-Priest of San Sisto Vecchio and he also served as a legate to Philip II of Spain, being sent by the Pope to investigate the Cardinal of Toledo. It was there that he formed a lasting and close relationship with the Spanish King, upon the death of Pope Pius V, the conclave chose Cardinal Boncompagni, who assumed the name of Gregory XIII in homage to the great reforming Pope, Gregory I, surnamed the Great. It was a very brief conclave, lasting less than 24 hours, many historians have attributed this to the influence and backing of the Spanish King. Gregory XIIIs character seemed to be perfect for the needs of the church at the time, unlike some of his predecessors, he was to lead a faultless personal life, becoming a model for his simplicity of life. Additionally, his brilliance and management abilities meant that he was able to respond and deal with major problems quickly and decisively. Once in the chair of Saint Peter, Gregory XIIIs rather worldly concerns became secondary and he committed himself to putting into practice the recommendations of the Council of Trent. He allowed no exceptions for cardinals to the rule that bishops must take up residence in their sees and he was the patron of a new and greatly improved edition of the Corpus juris canonici. In a time of considerable centralisation of power, Gregory XIII abolished the Cardinals Consistories, replacing them with Colleges and he was renowned for having a fierce independence, some confidants noted that he neither welcomed interventions nor sought advice. The power of the papacy increased under him, whereas the influence, a central part of the strategy of Gregory XIIIs reform was to apply the recommendations of Trent. He was a patron of the recently formed Society of Jesus throughout Europe. The Roman College of the Jesuits grew substantially under his patronage and it is now named the Pontifical Gregorian University. Pope Gregory XIII also founded numerous seminaries for training priests, beginning with the German College at Rome, in 1575 he gave official status to the Congregation of the Oratory, a community of priests without vows, dedicated to prayer and preaching
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Martyr
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A martyr is somebody who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, refusing to renounce, or refusing to advocate a belief or cause as demanded by an external party. This refusal to comply with the presented demands results in the punishment or execution of the martyr by the oppressor, originally applied only to those who suffered for their religious beliefs, the term is now often used in connection with people imprisoned or killed for espousing a political cause. Most martyrs are considered holy or are respected by their followers, becoming symbols of exceptional leadership, Martyrs play significant roles in religions. Similarly, martyrs have had effects in secular life, including specific figures such as Socrates, as well as in politics. In its original meaning, the martyr, meaning witness, was used in the secular sphere as well as in the New Testament of the Bible. The term, in this sense, entered the English language as a loanword. The death of a martyr or the value attributed to it is called martyrdom, the early Christians who first began to use the term martyr in its new sense saw Jesus as the first and greatest martyr, on account of his crucifixion. The early Christians appear to have seen Jesus as the archetypal martyr, the word martyr is used in English to describe a wide variety of people. However, the table presents a general outline of common features present in stereotypical martyrdoms. Examples of this are found in the Mahabharata, during the great war which commenced, even Arjuna was brought down with doubts, e. g. attachment, sorrow, fear. This is where Krishna instructs Arjuna how to carry out his duty as a righteous warrior, Martyrdom in Judaism is one of the main examples of Kiddush Hashem, meaning sanctification of Gods name through public dedication to Jewish practice. Religious martyrdom is considered one of the significant contributions of Hellenistic Judaism to Western Civilization. Frend, Judaism was itself a religion of martyrdom and it was this Jewish psychology of martyrdom that inspired Christian martyrdom. In Christianity, a martyr, in accordance with the meaning of the original Greek martys in the New Testament, is one who brings a testimony, in particular, the testimony is that of the Christian Gospel, or more generally, the Word of God. A Christian witness is a biblical witness whether or not death follows, however, over time many Christian testimonies were rejected, and the witnesses put to death, and the word martyr developed its present sense. Where death ensues, the follow the example of Jesus in offering up their lives for truth. The concept of Jesus as a martyr has recently received greater attention, analyses of the Gospel passion narratives have led many scholars to conclude that they are martyrdom accounts in terms of genre and style. Several scholars have concluded that Paul the Apostle understood Jesus death as a martyrdom
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Saint Peter
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Saint Peter, also known as Simon Peter, Simeon, or Simōn pronunciation, according to the New Testament, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ, leaders of the early Christian Great Church. Hippolytus of Rome, a 3rd-century theologian, gave him the title of Apostle of the Apostles, according to Catholic teaching, Peter was ordained by Jesus in the Rock of My Church dialogue in Matthew 16,18. He is traditionally counted as the first Bishop of Rome and by Eastern Christian tradition also as the first Patriarch of Antioch. The ancient Christian churches all venerate Peter as a saint and as founder of the Church of Antioch. The New Testament indicates that Peter was the son of John and was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis and his brother Andrew was also an apostle. According to New Testament accounts, Peter was one of twelve apostles chosen by Jesus from his first disciples, originally a fisherman, he played a leadership role and was with Jesus during events witnessed by only a few apostles, such as the Transfiguration. According to the gospels, Peter confessed Jesus as the Messiah, was part of Jesuss inner circle, thrice denied Jesus and wept bitterly once he realised his deed, according to Christian tradition, Peter was crucified in Rome under Emperor Nero Augustus Caesar. It is traditionally held that he was crucified upside down at his own request, Tradition holds that he was crucified at the site of the Clementine Chapel. His remains are said to be contained in the underground Confessio of St. Peters Basilica. According to Catholic doctrine, the direct successor to Saint Peter is the incumbent pope. Two general epistles in the New Testament are ascribed to Peter, the Gospel of Mark was traditionally thought to show the influence of Peters preaching and eyewitness memories. Peters original name was Shimon or Simeon and he was later given the name Peter, New Testament Greek Πέτρος derived from πέτρα, which means rock. In the Latin translation of the Bible this became Petrus, a form of the feminine petra. Another version of this name is Aramaic, , after his name in Hellenised Aramaic. The English, Dutch and German Peter, French Pierre, the Italian Pietro, the Spanish and Portuguese Pedro, the Syriac or Aramaic word for rock is kepa, which in Greek became Πέτρος, also meaning rock. He is also known as Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha, both Cephas and Kepha also mean rock. In the New Testament, he is among the first of the disciples called during Jesus ministry, Peter became the first listed apostle ordained by Jesus in the early church. Peter was a fisherman in Bethsaida and he was named Simon, son of Jonah or John
21.
Tacitus
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Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and an historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors. These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus, in AD14, to the years of the First Jewish–Roman War, There are substantial lacunae in the surviving texts, including a gap in the Annals that is four books long. Tacitus is considered to be one of the greatest Roman historians, details about his personal life are scarce. What little is known comes from scattered hints throughout his work, the letters of his friend and admirer Pliny the Younger, and an inscription found at Mylasa in Caria. Tacitus was born in 56 or 57 to an equestrian family, one scholars suggestion of Sextus has gained no approval. Most of the aristocratic families failed to survive the proscriptions which took place at the end of the Republic. The claim that he was descended from a freedman is derived from a speech in his writings which asserts that many senators and knights were descended from freedmen, but this is generally disputed. His father may have been the Cornelius Tacitus who served as procurator of Belgica and Germania, Pliny the Elder mentions that Cornelius had a son who aged rapidly, which implies an early death. There is no mention of Tacitus suffering such a condition, the friendship between the younger Pliny and Tacitus leads some scholars to conclude that they were both the offspring of wealthy provincial families. The province of his birth remains unknown, though various conjectures suggest Gallia Belgica, Gallia Narbonensis and his marriage to the daughter of Narbonensian senator Gnaeus Julius Agricola implies that he came from Gallia Narbonensis. Tacitus dedication to Fabius Iustus in the Dialogus may indicate a connection with Spain, no evidence exists, however, that Plinys friends from northern Italy knew Tacitus, nor do Plinys letters hint that the two men had a common background. Pliny Book 9, Letter 23 reports that, when he was asked if he was Italian or provincial, he gave an unclear answer, since Pliny was from Italy, some infer that Tacitus was from the provinces, probably Gallia Narbonensis. His ancestry, his skill in oratory, and his depiction of barbarians who resisted Roman rule have led some to suggest that he was a Celt. This belief stems from the fact that the Celts who had occupied Gaul prior to the Roman invasion were famous for their skill in oratory, and had been subjugated by Rome. As a young man, Tacitus studied rhetoric in Rome to prepare for a career in law and politics, like Pliny, in 77 or 78, he married Julia Agricola, daughter of the famous general Agricola. Little is known of their life, save that Tacitus loved hunting. He started his career under Vespasian, but entered political life as a quaestor in 81 or 82 under Titus
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Annals (Tacitus)
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The Annals by Roman historian and senator Tacitus is a history of the Roman Empire from the reign of Tiberius to that of Nero, the years AD 14–68. Historian Ronald Mellor calls it Tacituss crowning achievement which represents the pinnacle of Roman historical writing, Tacitus Histories and Annals together amounted to 30 books, although some scholars disagree about which work to assign some books to, traditionally 14 are assigned to Histories and 16 to Annals. Of the 30 books referred to by Jerome about half have survived, modern scholars believe that as a Roman senator, Tacitus had access to Acta Senatus—the Roman senates records—which provided a solid basis for his work. Although Tacitus refers to part of his work as my annals, the title of the work Annals used today was not assigned by Tacitus himself, the name of the current manuscript seems to be Books of History from the Death of the Divine Augustus. Tacitus wrote the Annals in at least 16 books, but books 7–10, the period covered by the Histories starts at the beginning of the year AD69, i. e. six months after the death of Nero and continues to the death of Domitian in 96. It is not known when Tacitus began writing the Annals, modern scholars believe that as a senator, Tacitus had access to Acta Senatus, the Roman senates records, thus providing a solid basis for his work. Together the Histories and the Annals amounted to 30 books and these thirty books are referred to by Saint Jerome, and about half of them have survived. Although some scholars differ on how to assign the books to work, traditionally fourteen are assigned to Histories. Tacitus friend Pliny referred to your histories when writing to him about his earlier work, although Tacitus refers to part of his work as my annals, the title of the work Annals used today was not assigned by Tacitus himself, but derives from its year-by-year structure. Of the sixteen books in Annals, the reign of Tiberius takes up six books and these books are neatly divided into two sets of three, corresponding to the change in the nature of the political climate during the period. The next six books are devoted to the reigns of Caligula, Books 7 through 10 are missing. Books 11 &12 cover the period from the treachery of Messalina to the end of Claudius reign, the final four books cover the reign of Nero and Book 16 cuts off in the middle of the year AD66. This leaves the material that would have covered the two years of Neros reign lost. Tacitus documented a Roman imperial system of government that originated with the Battle of Actium in September 31 BC, yet Tacitus chose not to start then, but with the death of Augustus Caesar in AD14, and his succession by Tiberius. As in the Histories, Tacitus maintains his thesis of the necessity of the principate and he says again that Augustus gave and warranted peace to the state after years of civil war, but on the other hand he shows us the dark side of life under the Caesars. The history of the Empire is also the history of the sunset of the freedom of the senatorial aristocracy, which he saw as morally decadent, corrupt. During Neros reign there had been a widespread diffusion of literary works in favor of this suicidal exitus illustrium virorum, again, as in his Agricola, Tacitus is opposed to those who chose useless martyrdom through vain suicides. In the Annals, Tacitus further improved the style of portraiture that he had used so well in the Historiae
23.
Vatican Obelisk
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The city of Rome harbours the most obelisks in the world. There are eight ancient Egyptian and five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome, together with a number of more modern obelisks, the Romans used special heavy cargo carriers called obelisk ships to transport the monuments down the Nile to Alexandria and from there across the Mediterranean Sea to Rome. On site, large Roman cranes were employed to erect the monoliths, at least eight obelisks created in antiquity by the Egyptians were taken from Egypt after the Roman conquest and brought to Rome. At least five obelisks were manufactured in Egypt in the Roman period at the request of the wealthy Romans, there was also an Ethiopian obelisk in Rome, the Obelisk of Axum,24 m, placed in the Piazza di Porta Capena. It had been taken from Axum by the Italian Army during the Italian occupation of Ethiopia in 1937 and it was struck by lightning in May 2002. After being restored, it was disassembled and returned to Ethiopia in April 2005, there are five well-known modern obelisks in Rome, Villa Medici, 19th century copy of the original, found in the gardens and taken to Florence. Two obelisks in the Villa Torlonia,1842, Baveno granite Foro Italico,1932,17,92 panels in white marble contain illustrations of Marconis career and allegorical scenes
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Domenico Fontana
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Domenico Fontana was an Italian architect of the late Renaissance, born in todays Ticino. He worked primarily in Italy, at Rome and Naples and he was born at Melide, a village on the Lake Lugano, at that time joint possession of Swiss cantons of the old Swiss Confederacy, and presently part of Ticino, Switzerland, and died at Naples. He went to Rome in 1563, before the death of Michelangelo and it is a marvellously well-balanced structure, notwithstanding the profusion of detail and overloading of rich ornamentation, which in no way interferes with the main architectural scheme. It is crowned by a dome in the style of S. Mario at Montepulciano. After the cardinals accession as Sixtus V, he appointed Fontana Architect Of St. Peters, bestowing him, among other distinctions. He added the lantern to the dome of St. Peters, Fontana also designed the transverse arms separating the courts of the Vatican. In 1586 he erected the 327 ton obelisk in the Square of St. Peters and this feat of engineering took the concerted effort of 900 men,75 horses and countless pulleys and meters of rope. He gives an account of it in Della transportatione dellobelisco Vaticano e delle fabriche di Sisto V. The astronomer Ignazio Danti is known to have assisted Fontana in this work, after his patrons death, he continued for some time in the service of his successor, Pope Clement VIII. Soon, however, dissatisfaction with his style, envy, and the charge that he had misappropriated public moneys, caused him to be dismissed from his post, there he accepted the appointment of architect to the Viceroy, the count of Miranda. In addition to designing canals, he erected the Palazzo Reale and he died in 1607, and was buried in the church of SantAnna dei Lombardi. Domenicos brother Giovanni Fontana was also an architect, and his son Giulio Cesare succeeded him as Royal Architect in Naples, Della transportatione dellobelisco Vaticano e delle fabriche di Sisto V. Online edition, from New York Public Library, online edition, from Rare Book Room
25.
Apse
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In architecture, an apse is a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault or semi-dome, also known as an Exedra. Smaller apses may also be in other locations, especially shrines, an apse is a semicircular recess covered with a hemispherical vault. Commonly, the apse of a church, cathedral or basilica is the semicircular or polygonal termination to the choir or sanctuary, in relation to church architecture it is generally the name given to where the altar is placed or where the clergy are seated. An apse is occasionally found in a synagogue, e. g. Maoz Haim Synagogue, the apse is separated from the main part of the church by the transept. Smaller apses are sometimes built in other than the east end. The domed apse became a part of the church plan in the early Christian era. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the apse is known as diaconicon. Various ecclesiastical features of which the apse may form part are drawn here, The chancel, directly to the east beyond the choir contains the High Altar. This area is reserved for the clergy, and was formerly called the presbytery. Hemi-cyclic choirs, first developed in the East, came to use in France in 470, famous northern French examples of chevets are in the Gothic cathedrals of Amiens, Beauvais and Reims. The word ambulatory refers to an aisle in the apse that passes behind the altar and choir. An ambulatory may refer to the passages that enclose a cloister in a monastery, or to other types of aisles round the edge of a church building
26.
Necropolis
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A necropolis is a large, designed cemetery with elaborate tomb monuments. The name stems from the Ancient Greek νεκρόπολις nekropolis, literally meaning city of the dead, the term usually implies a separate burial site at a distance from a city, as opposed to tombs within cities, which were common in various places and periods of history. They are different from fields, which did not have remains above the ground. While the word is most commonly used for ancient sites, the name was revived in the early 19th century and applied to planned city cemeteries, such as the Glasgow Necropolis. Aside from the pyramids which were reserved for the burial of Pharaohs the Egyptian necropoleis included mastabas, naqsh-e Rustam is an ancient necropolis located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars Province, Iran. The oldest relief at Naqsh-i Rustam dates to c.1000 BC, though it is severely damaged, it depicts a faint image of a man with unusual head-gear and is thought to be Elamite in origin. The depiction is part of an image, most of which was removed at the command of Bahram II. Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the face at a considerable height above the ground. The tombs are known locally as the Persian crosses, after the shape of the facades of the tombs, later, Sassanian kings added a series of rock reliefs below the tombs. In the Mycenean Greek period pre-dating ancient Greece burials could be performed inside the city, in Mycenae for example the royal tombs were located in a precinct within the city walls. This changed during the ancient Greek period when necropoleis usually lined the roads outside a city, there existed some degree of variation within the ancient Greek world however. Sparta was notable for continuing the practice of burial within the city, the Etruscans took the concept of a city of the dead quite literally. The typical tomb at the Banditaccia necropolis at Cerveteri consists of a tumulus which covers one or more rock-cut subterranean tombs and these tombs had multiple chambers and were elaborately decorated like contemporary houses. The arrangement of the tumuli in a grid of streets gave it a similar to the cities of the living. The art historian Nigel Spivey considers the name cemetery inadequate and argues that only the term necropolis can do justice to these burial sites. Etruscan necropoleis were located on hills or slopes of hills. In ancient Rome families originally buried deceased relatives in their own homes because of the Roman practice of ancestor worship, the enactment of the Twelve Tables in 449 BC forbade this, which made the Romans adopt the practice of burial in necropoleis. List of necropoleis Funerary art Catacombs
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Holy See
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The Holy See, also referred to as the See of Rome, is the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome, the episcopal see of the Pope, and an independent sovereign entity. It serves as the point of reference for the Catholic Church everywhere. Today, it is responsible for the governance of all Catholics, organised in their Particular Churches, Patriarchates, as an independent sovereign entity, holding the Vatican City enclave in Rome as sovereign territory, it maintains diplomatic relations with other states. Diplomatically, the Holy See acts and speaks for the whole church and it is also recognised by other subjects of international law as a sovereign entity, headed by the Pope, with which diplomatic relations can be maintained. The creation of the Vatican City state was meant to ensure the diplomatic, in Greek, the adjective holy or sacred is constantly applied to all such sees as a matter of course. The word see comes from the Latin word sedes, meaning seat, while Saint Peters basilica in Vatican City is perhaps the church most associated with the Papacy, the actual cathedral of the Holy See is the church of Saint John Lateran within the city of Rome. The Pope governs the Catholic Church through the Roman Curia, the Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State, directs and coordinates the Curia. The incumbent, Archbishop Pietro Parolin, is the Sees equivalent of a prime minister, Archbishop Paul Gallagher, Secretary of the Section for Relations with States of the Secretariat of State, acts as the Holy Sees minister of foreign affairs. Parolin was named in his role by Pope Francis On 31 August 2013, mamberti was named in his role by Pope Benedict XVI in September 2006. The Secretariat of State is the body of the Curia that is situated within Vatican City. The others are in buildings in different parts of Rome that have rights similar to those of embassies. The Roman Rota handles normal judicial appeals, the most numerous being those that concern alleged nullity of marriage and it also oversees the work of other ecclesiastical tribunals at all levels. The most important of these is the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See, the Prefecture of the Papal Household is responsible for the organization of the papal household, audiences, and ceremonies. The Holy See does not dissolve upon a Popes death or resignation and it instead operates under a different set of laws sede vacante. The government of the See, and therefore of the Catholic Church, canon law prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the Church during this period. In 2001, the Holy See had a revenue of 422.098 billion Italian lire, the Guardian newspaper described Mennini and his role in the following manner. Paolo Mennini, who is in effect the popes merchant banker, Mennini heads a special unit inside the Vatican called the extraordinary division of APSA – Amministrazione del Patrimonio della Sede Apostolica – which handles the patrimony of the Holy See. The Holy See has been recognized, both in practice and in the writing of modern legal scholars, as a subject of public international law, with rights
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History of Vatican City
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Vatican City, officially Vatican City State or the State of Vatican City, is a walled enclave within the city of Rome. With an area of approximately 44 hectares, and a population of 842, however, formally it is not sovereign, with sovereignty being held by the Holy See, the only entity of public international law that has diplomatic relations with almost every country in the world. It is an ecclesiastical or sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Bishop of Rome – the Pope, the highest state functionaries are all Catholic clergy of various national origins. Vatican City is distinct from the Holy See, which dates back to early Christianity and is the episcopal see of 1.2 billion Latin. According to the terms of the treaty, the Holy See has full ownership, exclusive dominion, within Vatican City are religious and cultural sites such as St. Peters Basilica, the Sistine Chapel and the Vatican Museums. They feature some of the worlds most famous paintings and sculptures, the unique economy of Vatican City is supported financially by the sale of postage stamps and tourist mementos, fees for admission to museums, and the sale of publications. The name Vatican City was first used in the Lateran Treaty, signed on 11 February 1929, the name is taken from Vatican Hill, the geographic location of the state. Vatican is derived from the name of an Etruscan settlement, Vatica or Vaticum meaning garden, located in the area the Romans called vaticanus ager. The official Italian name of the city is Città del Vaticano or, more formally, Stato della Città del Vaticano, although the Holy See and the Catholic Church use Ecclesiastical Latin in official documents, the Vatican City officially uses Italian. The Latin name is Status Civitatis Vaticanæ, this is used in documents by not just the Holy See. The name Vatican was already in use in the time of the Roman Republic for an area on the west bank of the Tiber across from the city of Rome. Under the Roman Empire, many villas were constructed there, after Agrippina the Elder drained the area and laid out her gardens in the early 1st century AD. In AD40, her son, Emperor Caligula built in her gardens a circus for charioteers that was completed by Nero, the Circus Gaii et Neronis, usually called, simply. Even before the arrival of Christianity, it is supposed that this originally uninhabited part of Rome had long considered sacred. A shrine dedicated to the Phrygian goddess Cybele and her consort Attis remained active long after the Constantinian Basilica of St. Peter was built nearby, the particularly low quality of Vatican water, even after the reclamation of the area, was commented on by the poet Martial. The Vatican Obelisk was originally taken by Caligula from Heliopolis in Egypt to decorate the spina of his circus and is thus its last visible remnant and this area became the site of martyrdom of many Christians after the Great Fire of Rome in AD64. Ancient tradition holds that it was in this circus that Saint Peter was crucified upside-down, opposite the circus was a cemetery separated by the Via Cornelia. Peters in the first half of the 4th century, the Constantinian basilica was built in 326 over what was believed to be the tomb of Saint Peter, buried in that cemetery
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History of the papacy
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The history of the papacy, the office held by the pope as head of the Roman Catholic Church, according to Catholic doctrine, spans from the time of Peter to the present day. During the Early Church, the bishops of Rome enjoyed no temporal power until the time of Constantine, over time, the papacy consolidated its territorial claims to a portion of the peninsula known as the Papal States. Thereafter, the role of neighboring sovereigns was replaced by powerful Roman families during the saeculum obscurum, the Crescentii era, from 1048 to 1257, the papacy experienced increasing conflict with the leaders and churches of the Holy Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. The latter culminated in the East–West Schism, dividing the Western Church, from 1257–1377, the pope, though the bishop of Rome, resided in Viterbo, Orvieto, and Perugia, and then Avignon. The return of the popes to Rome after the Avignon Papacy was followed by the Western Schism, the Renaissance Papacy is known for its artistic and architectural patronage, forays into European power politics, and theological challenges to papal authority. After the start of the Protestant Reformation, the Reformation Papacy, the popes during the Age of Revolution witnessed the largest expropriation of wealth in the churchs history, during the French Revolution and those that followed throughout Europe. The Roman Question, arising from Italian unification, resulted in the loss of the Papal States, Catholics recognize the pope as the successor to Saint Peter, whom Jesus designated as the rock upon which the Church was to be built. Although Peter never bore the title of pope, Catholics recognize him as the first pope and Bishop of Rome, because he had the office, protestants tend to deny that Peter and those claimed to be his immediate successors had universally recognized supreme authority over all the early churches. Many popes in the first three centuries of the Christian era are obscure figures, several suffered martyrdom along with members of their flock in periods of persecution. Most of them engaged in intense arguments with other bishops. None of this, however, has much to do with the pope, who did not even attend the Council, in fact. The Donation of Constantine, an 8th-century forgery used to enhance the prestige, the legend of the Donation claims that Constantine offered his crown to Sylvester I, and even that Sylvester baptized Constantine. In reality, Constantine was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian bishop, although the Donation never occurred, Constantine did hand over the Lateran Palace to the bishop of Rome, and began the construction of Old St. Peters Basilica. The gift of the Lateran probably occurred during the reign of Miltiades, predecessor to Sylvester I, Old St. Peters was begun between 326 and 330 and took three decades to complete. The Ostrogothic Papacy period ran from 493 to 537, the papal election of March 483 was the first to take place without the existence of a Western Roman emperor. The papacy was strongly influenced by the Ostrogothic Kingdom, if the pope was not outright appointed by the Ostrogothic King, the selection and administration of popes during this period was strongly influenced by Theodoric the Great and his successors Athalaric and Theodahad. This period terminated with Justinian Is conquest of Rome during the Gothic War, the role of the Ostrogoths became clear in the first schism, when, on November 22,498, two men were elected pope. The subsequent triumph of Pope Symmachus over Antipope Laurentius is the first recorded example of simony in papal history, Theodoric was tolerant towards the Catholic Church and did not interfere in dogmatic matters
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Papal States
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The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were territories in the Italian Peninsula under the sovereign direct rule of the pope, from the 8th century until 1870. They were among the states of Italy from roughly the 8th century until the Italian Peninsula was unified in 1861 by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia. At their zenith, they covered most of the modern Italian regions of Lazio, Marche, Umbria and Romagna and these holdings were considered to be a manifestation of the temporal power of the pope, as opposed to his ecclesiastical primacy. By 1861, much of the Papal States territory had been conquered by the Kingdom of Italy, only Lazio, including Rome, remained under the Popes temporal control. In 1870, the pope lost Lazio and Rome and had no physical territory at all, Italian Fascist leader Benito Mussolini ended the crisis between unified Italy and the Vatican by signing the Lateran Treaty, granting the Vatican City State sovereignty. The Papal States were also known as the Papal State, the territories were also referred to variously as the State of the Church, the Pontifical States, the Ecclesiastical States, or the Roman States. For its first 300 years the Catholic Church was persecuted and unrecognized and this system began to change during the reign of the emperor Constantine I, who made Christianity legal within the Roman Empire, and restoring to it any properties that had been confiscated. The Lateran Palace was the first significant new donation to the Church, other donations followed, primarily in mainland Italy but also in the provinces of the Roman Empire. But the Church held all of these lands as a private landowner, the seeds of the Papal States as a sovereign political entity were planted in the 6th century. Beginning In 535, the Byzantine Empire, under emperor Justinian I, launched a reconquest of Italy that took decades and devastated Italys political, just as these wars wound down, the Lombards entered the peninsula from the north and conquered much of the countryside. While the popes remained Byzantine subjects, in practice the Duchy of Rome, nevertheless, the pope and the exarch still worked together to control the rising power of the Lombards in Italy. As Byzantine power weakened, though, the took a ever larger role in defending Rome from the Lombards. In practice, the papal efforts served to focus Lombard aggrandizement on the exarch, a climactic moment in the founding of the Papal States was the agreement over boundaries embodied in the Lombard king Liutprands Donation of Sutri to Pope Gregory II. When the Exarchate of Ravenna finally fell to the Lombards in 751, the popes renewed earlier attempts to secure the support of the Franks. In 751, Pope Zachary had Pepin the Younger crowned king in place of the powerless Merovingian figurehead king Childeric III, zacharys successor, Pope Stephen II, later granted Pepin the title Patrician of the Romans. Pepin led a Frankish army into Italy in 754 and 756, Pepin defeated the Lombards – taking control of northern Italy – and made a gift of the properties formerly constituting the Exarchate of Ravenna to the pope. The cooperation between the papacy and the Carolingian dynasty climaxed in 800, when Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne Emperor, the precise nature of the relationship between the popes and emperors – and between the Papal States and the Empire – is disputed. Events in the 9th century postponed the conflict, the Holy Roman Empire in its Frankish form collapsed as it was subdivided among Charlemagnes grandchildren
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Duchy of Rome
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The Duchy of Rome was a state within the Byzantine Exarchate of Ravenna. Like other Byzantine states in Italy, it was ruled by a functionary with the title dux. The duchy often came into conflict with the Papacy over supremacy within Rome, the duchy was founded by the conquest of Emperor Justinian I in 533 AD. After the founding of the Papal States in 751, the title of Duke of Rome fell into disuse, the Duchy of Rome was founded by Justinian in approximately 533 AD as part of the Byzantine conquest of Italy. The Duchy was secured in the outcome of the Gothic War, the city of Rome itself was the subject of multiple battles before the campaign ended in Byzantine victory and possession of most of the Italian peninsula. There the Pope led the opposition to the Lombards, because of his restoration activities, Justinian has sometimes been called the last Roman in modern historiography. This ambition was expressed by the recovery of the territories of the defunct western Roman empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal kingdom in North Africa, if this strategic connection were broken, it was evident that Rome and Ravenna could not singly maintain themselves for any length of time. This was also recognized by the Lombards, the same narrow strip of land broke the connection between their Duchies of Spoleto and Benevento and the main portion of the kings territories in the north. The Lombards made multiple attacks against this front to wrest control of the peninsula from the Byzantines, in the beginning the popes were able repeatedly to repel these attacks and secure territory for Rome. In 728 the Lombard King Liutprand took the Castle of Sutri, however, Liutprand, softened by the entreaties of Pope Gregory II, restored Sutri as a gift to the blessed Apostles Peter and Paul. This expression of the Liber pontificalis was erroneously interpreted to mean that in this gift the beginning of the States of the Church was to be recognized. This is incorrect inasmuch as the Popes continued to acknowledge the imperial government and it is true, however, that here for the first time the association of ideas on which the States of the Church were to be constructed is met. The Pope asked the Lombards for the return of Sutri for the sake of the Princes of the Apostles, the pious Liutprand was undoubtedly susceptible to such pleas, but never to any consideration for the Greeks. For this reason he gave Sutri to Peter and Paul, that he might not expose himself to their punishment, what the Pope then did with it would be immaterial to him. The belief that the Roman territory was defended by the Prince of the Apostles became more and more prevalent, in 738 the Lombard duke Transamund II of Spoleto captured the Castle of Gallese, which protected the road to Perugia to the north of Nepi. Pope Gregory III made a payment to the duke to restore the castle to him. The pope then sought an alliance with Duke Transamund to protect himself against Liutprand, however, Liutprand conquered Spoleto, besieged Rome, laid waste the Duchy of Rome, and seized four important frontier fortresses, thereby cutting off communication with Perugia and Ravenna
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Donation of Pepin
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The Donation of Pepin in 756 provided a legal basis for the erection of the Papal States, which extended the temporal rule of the Popes beyond the duchy of Rome. In 751, Aistulf, king of the Lombards, conquered what remained of the exarchate of Ravenna, in 752, Aistulf demanded the submission of Rome and a tribute of one gold solidus per capita. Pope Stephen II and a Roman envoy, John the Silentiary, tried by negotiations and bribes to convince Aistulf to back down. When this failed, Stephen sent envoys to Pepin the Short, king of the Franks, with a letter requesting his support, at the time, the Franks were on good terms with the Lombards. In 753, John the Silentiary returned to Rome with an order that Pope Stephen accompany him to meet Aistulf in the Lombard capital of Pavia. The pope duly requested and received a safe-conduct from the Lombards, with the Frankish envoys who had by then arrived, the pope and the imperial envoy set out for Pavia on 14 October 753. The Roman magnates did not accompany them past the border, John the Silentiary did not accompany them. This was the first time a pope had crossed the Alps, Pope Stephen met Pepin the Short at Quierzy-sur-Oise in 753. The Pope was first met by Pepins eleven-year-old son, Charles, at Quierzy the Frankish nobles finally gave their consent to a campaign in Lombardy. Roman Catholic tradition asserts that it was then and there that Pepin executed in writing a promise to convey to the Papacy certain territories that were going to be wrested from the Lombards. No original document has been preserved, but later 8th century sources quote from it, the gift included Lombard conquests in the Romagna and in the Duchy of Spoleto and Benevento, and the Pentapolis in the Marche. The Donations made the Pope for the first time as a temporal ruler and this strip of territory extended diagonally across Italy from the Tyrrhenian to the Adriatic. Pepin confirmed his Donations in Rome in 756, and in 774 his son Charlemagne again confirmed and reasserted the Donation
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Prisoner in the Vatican
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A prisoner in the Vatican or prisoner of the Vatican is how Pope Pius IX was described following the capture of Rome by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy on 20 September 1870. Part of the process of Italian unification, the citys capture ended the millennial temporal rule of the popes over central Italy, the appellation is also applied to Piuss successors through Pope Pius XI. The Papal States were able to fend off efforts to conquer them largely through the influence over the leaders of stronger European powers such as France. One week after entering Rome, the Italian troops had taken the city save for the Apostolic Palace. For the next 59 years, the popes refused to leave the Vatican in order to any appearance of accepting the authority wielded by the Italian government over Rome as a whole. During this period, popes also refused to appear at Saint Peters Square or at the balcony of the Vatican Basilica facing it, as the square in front of the Basilica was occupied by Italian troops. During this period, popes granted the Urbi et Orbi blessings from a balcony facing a courtyard, or from inside the Basilica, the period ended in 1929, when the Lateran Treaty created the modern state of Vatican City. They claimed that sovereignty was needed so that a civil government would never attempt to interfere in the governance of the universal Roman Church. As a result of the crisis, Pope Pius IX excommunicated the King of Italy, especially in the strongly Roman Catholic rural areas of Italy, there was great tension between Church and State. The newly unified Kingdom of Italy did not recognize the validity of Church weddings, while the Church maintained that the Kingdom was illegitimate, however, no diplomatic relations existed between the Holy See and the Italian state. The stand-off was ended on 11 February 1929, when the Lateran Pacts created a new microstate, that of Vatican City, and opened the way for diplomatic relations between Italy and the Holy See. The Holy See in turn recognized the Kingdom of Italy, with Rome as its capital, properties of the Holy See Index of Vatican City-related articles Kertzer, David
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Lateran Palace
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The Lateran Palace, formally the Apostolic Palace of the Lateran, is an ancient palace of the Roman Empire and later the main papal residence in southeast Rome. Located on St. Johns Square in Lateran on the Caelian Hill, the edifice is adjacent to the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, the cathedral church of Rome. From the fourth century, the palace was the residence of the popes. The palace is now used by the Vatican Historical Museum, which illustrates the history of the Papal States. The palace also houses the offices of the Vicariate of Rome, as well as the apartments of the Cardinal vicar. Until 1970, the palace was home to the important collections of the Lateran Museum. Following the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the palace and adjoining basilica are extraterritorial properties of the Holy See, the site on which the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano sits was occupied during the early Roman Empire by the domus of the Plautii Laterani family. The Laterani served as administrators for several emperors, their ancestor Lucius Sextius Lateranus is said to have been the first plebeian to attain the rank of consul, one of the Laterani, Consul-designate Plautius Lateranus, became famous for being accused by Nero of conspiracy against the emperor. The accusation resulted in the confiscation and redistribution of his properties, the Domus Laterani fell into the hands of the emperor when Constantine I married his second wife Fausta, sister of Maxentius. Known by that time as the Domus Faustae or House of Fausta, the equites singulares had allegedly supported Maxentius against Constantine. He commissioned the construction of the Basilica di San Giovanni in Laterano the site, the domus was eventually given to the Bishop of Rome by Constantine. As Byzantium grew less able to help prevent Lombard incursions, the became more independent of the Empire. Author Erik Thunø notes that the incentive to refurbish the Lateran Palace was to create a residence from which the pope could exercise not only spiritual. The pope’s palace at the Lateran in Rome was extensively added to in the eighth century by Pope Hadrian I. Leo III, built an enormous Triclinium and it was one of the most famous halls of the ancient palace and was the state banqueting hall, lined with mosaics. Nothing remains of this, but in 1743 copies of the mosaics were made from drawings, the Triclinium and the sala del concilio, an oblong hall with apse mosaic and five ornate niches on each side, were built around 800 to serve as the heart of papal ceremonial. Architecturally they were reminiscent of Byzantine imperial buildings in Constantinople, in the tenth Century Sergius III restored it after a disastrous fire, and later it was greatly embellished by Innocent III. This was the period of its greatest magnificence, when Dante speaks of it as all human achievements
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First Vatican Council
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The Vatican Council was convoked by Pope Pius IX on 29 June 1868, after a period of planning and preparation that began on 6 December 1864. This, the ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, held three centuries after the Council of Trent, opened on 8 December 1869 and adjourned on 20 October 1870. Unlike the five earlier General Councils held in Rome, which met in the Lateran Basilica and are known as Lateran Councils, it met in the Vatican Basilica and its best-known decision is its definition of papal infallibility, strongly promoted by the Archbishop Luigi Natoli. The council was convoked to deal with the problems of the rising influence of rationalism, liberalism. Its purpose was, besides this, to define the Catholic doctrine concerning the Church of Christ, the first matter brought up for debate was the dogmatic draft of Catholic doctrine against the manifold errors due to rationalism. This council was summoned by Pope Pius IX by the bull Aeterni Patris of 29 June 1868, the first session was held in St. Peters Basilica on 8 December 1869. Preliminary sessions dealt with administrative matters and committee assignments. Bishop Bernard John McQuaid complained of rainy weather, inadequate heating facilities, Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley of Newark, New Jersey noted the high prices in Rome. The doctrine of infallibility was not new and had been used by Pope Pius in defining as dogma, in 1854, the Immaculate Conception of Mary. Richard McBrien divides the bishops attending Vatican I into three groups, the first group, which McBrien calls the active infallibilists, was led by Henry Edward Manning and Ignatius von Senestréy. Those who held this view included most of the German and Austro-Hungarian bishops, nearly half of the Americans, one third of the French, most of the Chaldaeans and Melkites, only a few bishops appear to have had doubts about the dogma itself. On 24 April 1870, the constitution on the Catholic faith Dei Filius was adopted unanimously. The constitution thus set forth the teaching of the Holy Catholic Apostolic Roman Church on God, revelation and it was decided to postpone discussion of everything in the draft except infallibility. The Pope rejected Guidis view of the bishops as witnesses to the tradition, on 13 July 1870, the section on infallibility was voted on,451 voted simply in favour,88 against, and 62 in favour but on condition of some amendment. This made evident what the outcome would be, and some 60 members of the opposition left Rome so as not to be associated with approval of the document. The two votes against were cast by Bishop Aloisio Riccio, and Bishop Edward Fitzgerald, none of the bishops who had argued that proclaiming the definition was inopportune refused to accept it. Discussion of the rest of the document on the nature of the Church was to continue when the bishops returned after a summer break, however, in the meanwhile the Franco-Prussian War broke out. With the swift German advance and the capture of Emperor Napoleon III, consequently, on 20 September 1870, the Kingdom of Italy captured Rome and annexed it
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Lateran Treaty
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The Lateran Treaty was one of the Lateran Pacts of 1929 or Lateran Accords, agreements made in 1929 between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, settling the Roman Question. They are named after the Lateran Palace, where they were signed on February 11,1929, the Italian parliament ratified them on June 7,1929. Italy was then under a Fascist government, but the democratic governments have all upheld the treaty. It recognized the Vatican as an independent state, with Prime Minister Benito Mussolini agreeing to give the church financial refund, in 1947, the Lateran Pacts were incorporated into the democratic Constitution of Italy. The Lateran Pacts are often presented as three treaties, a 27-article treaty of conciliation, a 3-article financial convention, and a 45-article concordat, however, the website of the Holy See presents the pacts as two, making the financial convention an annex of the treaty of conciliation. Peters Basilica did not come to pass, the nascent Kingdom of Italy invaded and occupied Romagna in 1860, leaving only Latium in the Popes domains. Latium, including Rome itself, was occupied and annexed in 1870, for the following sixty years, relations between the Papacy and the Italian government were hostile, and the status of the Pope became known as the Roman Question. The agreements were signed in the Lateran Palace, hence the name by which they are known, the agreements included a political treaty which created the state of the Vatican City and guaranteed full and independent sovereignty to the Holy See. The Pope was pledged to perpetual neutrality in international relations and to abstention from mediation in a controversy unless specifically requested by all parties. The attached financial agreement was accepted as settlement of all the claims of the Holy See against Italy arising from the loss of power of the Papal States in 1870. To commemorate the conclusion of the negotiations, Mussolini commissioned the Via della Conciliazione. The Constitution of the Italian Republic, adopted in 1947, states that relations between the State and the Catholic Church are regulated by the Lateran Treaties, in 1984, an agreement was signed, revising the concordat. As of 2013, there are ten other groups with access. The revised concordat regulated the conditions under which civil effects are accorded to church marriages, in 2008, it was announced that the Vatican would no longer immediately adopt all Italian laws, citing conflict over right-to-life issues following the trial and ruling of the Eluana Englaro case. Italys anti-Jewish laws of 1938 prohibited marriages between Jews and non-Jews, including Catholics, the Vatican viewed this as a violation of the Concordat, which gave the church the sole right to regulate marriages involving Catholics. Article 34 of the Concordat had also specified that marriages performed by the Catholic Church would always be considered valid by civil authorities, the Holy See understood this to apply to all Catholic Church marriages in Italy regardless of the faith of those being married. Properties of the Holy See List of Sovereigns of the Vatican City State Reichskonkordat, Christianity In a Revolutionary Age A History of Christianity in the 19th and 20th Century, Vol 4 The 20th Century In Europe pp 32–35,153,156,371 Riccards, Michael. Vicars of Christ, Popes, Power, and Politics in the Modern World, under His Very Windows, The Vatican and the Holocaust in Italy
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Second Vatican Council
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The Second Vatican Council, fully the Second Vatican Ecumenical Council and informally known as Vatican II, addressed relations between the Catholic Church and the modern world. It was the twenty-first and most recent ecumenical council of the Catholic Church, many of these changes remain divisive among the Catholic faithful. At the same time, the worlds bishops faced challenges driven by political, social, economic, some of these bishops sought new ways of addressing those challenges. The First Vatican Council had been nearly a century before but had been cut short when the Italian Army entered the city of Rome at the end of Italian unification. Pope John XXIII, however, gave notice of his intention to convene the Council on 25 January 1959 and this sudden announcement, which caught the Curia by surprise, caused little initial official comment from Church insiders. In various discussions before the Council actually convened, John XXIII often said that it was time to open the windows and he invited other Christians outside the Catholic Church to send observers to the Council. Acceptances came from both the Eastern Orthodox Church and Protestant denominations as internal observers, but these observers did not cast votes in the approbation of the conciliar documents. Pope John XXIIIs announcement on 25 January 1959 of his intention to call a general council came as an even to the cardinals present. The Pontiff pre-announced the council under a full moon when the faithful with their candlelights gathered in St. Peters square, after which, he instructed the people to go back home and give their children a kiss of goodnight, from the Pope himself. He had tested the idea only ten days before one of them, his Cardinal Secretary of State Domenico Tardini. Although the Pope later said the idea came to him in a flash in his conversation with Tardini, two cardinals had earlier attempted to interest him in the idea. They were two of the most conservative, Ernesto Ruffini and Alfredo Ottaviani, who had already in 1948 proposed the idea to Pope Pius XII and who put it before John XXIII on 27 October 1958. These groups, composed mostly of members of the Roman Curia, produced 987 proposed constituting sessions, attendance varied in later sessions from 2,100 to over 2,300. In addition, a number of periti were available for theological consultation—a group that turned out to have a major influence as the council went forward. Seventeen Orthodox Churches and Protestant denominations sent observers, more than three dozen representatives of other Christian communities were present at the opening session, and the number grew to nearly 100 by the end of the 4th Council Sessions. Pope John XXIII opened the Council on 11 October 1962 in a public session, what is needed is that this certain and immutable doctrine, to which the faithful owe obedience, be studied afresh and reformulated in contemporary terms. For this deposit of faith, or truths which are contained in our time-honored teaching is one thing, roncalli, Angelo Giuseppe, Opening address, Council, Rome, IT.13 October 1962 marked the initial working session of the Council. That days agenda included the election for members of the ten conciliar commissions, each would have sixteen elected and eight appointed members, and were expected to do most of the work of the Council
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Coats of arms of the Holy See and Vatican City
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The coats of arms of the Holy See and Vatican City State in the form that combines two crossed keys and a tiara used as a coat of arms of the Holy See have origins attested from the 14th century. The combination of one gold and one key is somewhat later. Ecclesiastical heraldry appears first in seals, nearly all vesica-shaped, the earliest blazoning of the arms of the Holy See is that found in Froissarts Chronicles of 1353, which describes them as gules two keys in saltire argent. The practice by which the key is placed in bend and the silver in bend sinister, was slow in establishing itself. The practice of placing a key in bend over another in bend sinister of silver is not found with any certainty before the time of Pius II. In his 1978 book, Heraldry in the Catholic Church, Archbishop Bruno Heim described the same arrangement. The arrangement of the keys in the Holy Sees coat of arms as was described in these sources distinguished it from that of Vatican City State by a reversing of the gold and silver keys. The Vatican itself now only uses the Holy See coat of arms in monochrome, and Insegne e simboli, araldica pubblica e privata medievale e moderna. Claudio Ceresa, on the hand, says the earliest known evidence of its adoption dates from the following century. The distinction between the coat of arms of the papacy and that of the territory ruled by it back at least to the 16th century. This statement is quoted with approval by Heim, the arms of the Papal States differed in having the umbraculum in place of the tiara, and were incorporated as the first quartering of the royal coat of arms of the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. This coat of arms was not resumed for the territory over which the Popes temporal powers were restored in 1929 with the creation of Vatican City State. The holder of the title of Gonfalonier of the Church was entitled to include in his own arms the same design of the crossed keys, the coat of arms of Vatican City State is officially described, under the heading Annex B. The tiara is represented as white with golden crowns, galbreath and Insegne e simboli, araldica pubblica e privata medievale e moderna say it is attested from the previous century. The keys refer to the promise of Christ to Peter, I will entrust to you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, whatever you declare bound on earth shall be bound in heaven, whatever you declare loosed on earth shall be loosed in heaven. While actual wearing of the Papal tiara has been discontinued by Pope John Paul I and his successors, a crown was added to the headgear of the Pope in 1130 to symbolize sovereignty over the Papal States. In 1301, Pope Boniface VIII, at time in conflict with Philip the Fair of France. In 1342, Pope Benedict XII added a crown to symbolize the superiority of papal religious authority over that of non-religious monarchs
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Geography of Vatican City
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The geography of Vatican City is unique due to the countrys position as an urban, landlocked enclave of Rome, Italy. With an area of 0.17 sq mi, it is the worlds smallest independent state, outside the Vatican City, thirteen buildings in Rome and Castel Gandolfo enjoy extraterritorial rights. The country contains no natural resources, and no known natural hazards other than those that affect Rome in general. The city state has the climate as Rome, temperate, mild, rainy winters with hot. Vatican City sits on a low hill, the hill has been called the Vatican Hill since long before Christianity existed. This is a list of the points of Vatican City. The highest point is another unnamed location at 250 feet, the tallest building is St. Peters Basilica, at 452 feet. The nature of the estate is fundamentally urban and none of the land is reserved for significant agriculture or other exploitation of natural resources, the city state displays an impressive degree of land economy, born of necessity due to its extremely limited territory. Thus, the development is optimized to occupy less than 50% of the total area, while the rest is reserved for open space. In July 2007, the Vatican accepted an offer that would make it the only carbon neutral state for the year, the forest was to be sized to offset the years carbon dioxide emissions. This article incorporates public domain material from the CIA World Factbook website https, //www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index. html
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Apostolic Palace
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The Apostolic Palace is the official residence of the Pope, which is located in Vatican City. It is also known as the Papal Palace, Palace of the Vatican and Vatican Palace, the Vatican itself refers to the building as the Palace of Sixtus V in honor of Pope Sixtus V. The modern tourist can see these last and other parts of the palace, the Scala Regia can be seen into from one end but not entered. In the fifth century, Pope Symmachus built a palace close to the Old St. Peters Basilica which served an alternative residence to the Lateran Palace. The construction of a fortified palace was sponsored by Pope Eugene III. The Vatican Palace had fallen into disrepair from lack of upkeep, in 1447, Pope Nicholas V razed the ancient fortified palace of Eugene III to erect a new building, the current Apostolic Palace. In the 15th century, the Palace was placed under the authority of a prefect and this position of Apostolic Prefect lasted from the 15th century till the 1800s, when the Papal States fell into economic difficulties. In 1884, when this post was reviewed in light of saving money, the major additions and decorations of the palace are the work of the following popes for 150 years. In the 20th century, Pope Pius XI built an art gallery. Construction of the Papal Palace at the Vatican in Vatican City, covering 162, 000m squared, it contains the Papal Apartments, offices of the Roman Catholic Church and Holy See, chapels, Vatican Library, museums and art galleries. The Apostolic Palace is run by the Prefecture of the Pontifical Household, the palace is more accurately a series of self-contained buildings within the well-recognized outer structure which is arranged around the Courtyard of Sixtus V. It is located northeast of St Peters Basilica and adjacent to the Bastion of Nicholas V, the Apostolic Palace houses both residential and support offices of various functions as well as administrative offices not focused on the life and functions of the Pope himself. Perhaps the best known of the Palace chapels is the Sistine Chapel named in honor of Sixtus IV and it is famous for its decoration that was frescoed throughout by Renaissance artists including Michelangelo, Sandro Botticelli, Pietro Perugino, Pinturicchio, Domenico Ghirlandaio, and others. One of the functions of the chapel is as a venue for the election of each successive Pope in a conclave of the College of Cardinals. In this closed-door election, the cardinals choose a successor to the first pope, St. Peter and this suite of rooms is famous for its frescos by a large team of artists working under Raphael. They were originally intended as a suite of apartments for Pope Julius II and he commissioned Raphael, then a relatively young artist from Urbino, and his studio in 1508 or 1509 to redecorate the existing interiors of the rooms entirely. It was possibly Julius intent to outshine the apartments of his predecessor Pope Alexander VI and they are on the third floor, overlooking the south side of the Belvedere Courtyard. After the death of Julius in 1513, with two rooms frescoed, Pope Leo X continued the program, following Raphaels death in 1520, his assistants Gianfrancesco Penni, Giulio Romano and Raffaellino del Colle finished the project with the frescoes in the Sala di Costantino
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Papal Apartments
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Since the 17th century the Papal Apartments have been the official residence of the Pope in his religious capacity. Prior to 1870, the Popes official residence in his temporal capacity was the Quirinal Palace, the Papal Apartments are referred to in Italian by several terms, including appartamento nobile and appartamento pontificio. There is a garden and staff quarters for the nuns who run the Prefecture of the Pontifical Household. It is from the window of his study that the pope greets. The private library has been described as a vast room with two windows overlooking Saint Peters Square. The popes private chapel has a piece of art, by I. H. Rosen, the pope usually lives at the Papal Apartments except for the months of July to September, when the Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo is the official summer residence. However, Pope Francis, after his election, declined to stay in the Papal Apartments in favor of his residence in the Domus Sanctae Marthae. Similarly, he stayed in an apartment instead of the Bishops Palace during his tenure as Archbishop of Buenos Aires, the Papal Apartments are customarily renovated according to each new popes preferences. The heating system was repaired and the kitchen was refurbished, reportedly with new ovens, ranges, the floors, which are 16th-century marble slabs and inlay, were restored. The medical studio was renovated and expanded to include dental facilities, wallpaper and other furnishings were put in throughout. The project was carried out by over 200 architects, engineers, benedict also moved personal possessions to the Papal Apartments, including an upright piano. On October 21,2016, it was reported that Castel Gandolfo was no longer operating as a papal palace, the palace was the final part of the Papal Apartments to open to the public over a two-year period
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Raphael Rooms
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The four Raphael Rooms form a suite of reception rooms in the palace, the public part of the papal apartments in the Palace of the Vatican. They are famous for their frescoes, painted by Raphael and his workshop, together with Michelangelos ceiling frescoes in the Sistine Chapel, they are the grand fresco sequences that mark the High Renaissance in Rome. The Stanze, as they are called, were originally intended as a suite of apartments for Pope Julius II. He commissioned Raphael, then a young artist from Urbino. It was possibly Julius intent to outshine the apartments of his predecessor Pope Alexander VI and they are on the third floor, overlooking the south side of the Belvedere Courtyard. After the death of Julius in 1513, with two rooms frescoed, Pope Leo X continued the program, following Raphaels death in 1520, his assistants Gianfrancesco Penni, Giulio Romano and Raffaellino del Colle finished the project with the frescoes in the Sala di Costantino. The scheme of the works is as follows, The largest of the rooms is the Sala di Costantino. Its paintings were not begun until Pope Julius and, indeed Raphael himself, had died, the room is dedicated to the victory of Christianity over paganism. Its frescoes represent this struggle from the life of the Roman Emperor Constantine, because they are not by the master himself, the frescos are less famous than works in the neighboring rooms. Continuing a long tradition of flattery, Raphaels assistants gave the features of the current pontiff, Clement VII, the fresco of The Vision of the Cross depicts the legendary story of a great cross appearing to Constantine as he marched to confront his rival Maxentius. The vision in the sky is painted with the words in Greek Εν τούτω νίκα written next to it, the Battle of Milvian Bridge shows the battle that took place on October 28,312, following Constantines vision. The next room, going from East to West, is the Stanza di Eliodoro, painted between 1511 and 1514, it takes its name from one of the paintings. The theme of this private chamber – probably an audience room – was the protection granted by Christ to the Church. The four paintings are, The Expulsion of Heliodorus from the Temple, The Mass at Bolsena, The Meeting of Pope Leo I and Attila, Raphaels style changed here from the Stanza della Segnatura. Instead of the images of the Popes library, he had dramatic narratives to portray. The composition is more dramatic than Raphaels earlier frescoes in the Stanza della Segnatura. Although the focal point is the figure of the priest at prayer, Heliodorus. At the left Julius II, carried by the Swiss Guard in a chair and his inclusion here refers to his battles to prevent secular leaders from usurping papal territories
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Papal Palace of Castel Gandolfo
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Now a museum, it had served for centuries as a summer residence and vacation retreat for the pope, the leader of the Catholic Church. Although situated within Castel Gandolfo, the residence was afforded status as one of the properties of the Holy See and was not under the jurisdiction of Castel Gandolfo or Italy. The building ceased to be a palace in October 2016. “The oldest parts of the date back to the 13th century, ” said Saverio Petrillo. “It was acquired by the Vatican in 1596 when the Savelli family, the palace was designed by Swiss-Italian architect Carlo Maderno for Pope Urban VIII. Pope Pius XI had the facilities modernized and began using the retreat again in 1934, in accordance with the Lateran Treaty of 1929, the palace and the adjoining Villa Barberini added to the complex by Pope Pius XI are extraterritorial properties of the Holy See. Pope Pius XII died at the palace in 1958 as did Pope Paul VI in 1978, Pope John Paul II had a swimming pool built at the Palace, which was criticized by some. Paparazzi used the opportunity to take photos of him, Pope Benedict XVI flew to the palace at the conclusion of his papacy on 28 February 2013 and spent several weeks there before returning to Vatican City on 2 May. On 23 March 2013, Pope Francis visited Benedict XVI at the palace for lunch, on 7 December 2013, Pope Francis named Osvaldo Gianoli as the Director of the Pontifical Villas of Castel Gandolfo. In March 2014, the Vatican opened the Barberini Gardens to paid visitors on guided tours during morning hours every day but Sunday, on October 21,2016, it was opened to the public for viewing. 17th century in architecture List of palaces in Italy Petrillo, Saverio, velletri, Edizioni Tra 8 &9. Dalla leggendaria Alba Longa a Castel Gandolfo, Castel Gandolfo, Il Vecchio Focolare
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Domus Sanctae Marthae
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The Domus Sanctae Marthae is a building adjacent to St. Peters Basilica in Vatican City. Completed in 1996, during the reign of Pope John Paul II, it is named after Saint Martha the hospitable, outside the Papal bedroom are two Pontifical Swiss Guards guarding the vicinity, operating day and night shifts. Laymen have stayed there as well, Italian environmental groups, joined by Italian politicians, protested against the construction because it would block the view of St. Peters Basilica enjoyed from some nearby apartments. Connelly did not fulfill his financial commitment after his business encountered financial setbacks. His art contract was rescinded after he failed to extend his marketing efforts beyond Pittsburgh. Connelly proposed Louis D. Astorino, a Pittsburgh-based architect, to design the building, when his design was rejected, Astorino remained as supervisory architect and designed the adjacent Chapel of the Holy Spirit. The chapel occupies a site between the Leonine Wall and the guesthouse proper, the five-story building contains 106 suites,22 single rooms and one apartment. It is run by the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul and its amenities include furnished bedrooms, lavatories, and studies for each occupant. Dining facilities and personal services are also offered, Mary Ann Glendon, U. S. Ambassador to the Holy See from 2008 to 2009, described the accommodations as comfortable, but by no means deluxe. Pope Leo XIII had the St. Martha Hospice built in 1891, on the now occupied by the Domus. After it did not, the building was used to provide services to the sick of Romes Borgo and Trastevere neighborhoods, electricity was provided in 1901, and a chapel added in 1902. Medical services expanded to cover priests and Swiss Guards, during World War II the building was used by refugees, Jews, and ambassadors from countries that had severed diplomatic relations with Italy. At the end of the war, Pope Pius XII greeted 800 Roman children who breakfasted at St. Martha Hospice after receiving their First Communion and it served as a home where senior clerics could live their last years. Increasingly it served as a residence for clerics assigned to Vatican offices, after participants were sealed there under lock and key, the electors lived in makeshift rooms built throughout the palace, some within hallways and offices. The rooms, assigned to each cardinal by lot, were divided from one another by a sheet hanging on a rope. Each room was equipped with a crucifix and prie-dieu, a desk, the cardinals shared common bathrooms, often with ten cardinals assigned to each. The situation was difficult for the elderly among them. The Domus Sanctae Marthae housed the conclaves of 2005 and 2013, as with previous practice, the cardinal electors were assigned rooms by lot
