1.
Prime Minister of Italy
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The office of Prime Minister is established by Articles 92 through to 96 of the Constitution of Italy. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President of the Republic after each general election, prior to the establishment of the Italian Republic, the position was called President of the Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of Italy. King Victor Emmanuel III removed Mussolini from office in 1943 and the position was restored with Marshal Pietro Badoglio becoming Prime Minister in 1943, Alcide De Gasperi became the first Prime Minister of the Italian Republic in 1946. The Prime Minister is the President of the Council of Ministers—which holds executive power, the position is similar to those in most other parliamentary systems. The formal Italian order of precedence lists the office as being ceremonially the fourth most important Italian state office, as the President of the Council of Ministers the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet. In addition the Prime Minister leads a political party and generally commands the majority in the Parliament. Article 95 of the Italian constitution provides that the Prime Minister directs, the Prime Ministers activity has often consisted of mediating between the various parties in the majority coalition, rather than directing the activity of the Council of Ministers. The office was first established in 1848 in Italys predecessor state, the Kingdom of Sardinia—although it was not mentioned in its constitution, from 1848 to 1861 ten Prime Ministers governed the Kingdom, most of them being right-wing politicians. After the Unification of Italy and the establishment of the kingdom, in fact the candidate for office was appointed by the king, and presided over a very unstable political system. The first Prime Minister was Camillo Benso di Cavour, who was appointed on 23 March 1861, from 1861 to 1911 Historical Right and Left Prime Ministers alternatively governed the country. One of the most famous and influential Prime Ministers of this period was Francesco Crispi, a patriot and statesman. He led the country for six years, from 1887 until 1891, Crispi was internationally famous and often mentioned along with world statesmen such as Bismarck, Gladstone and Salisbury. Originally an enlightened Italian patriot and democrat liberal, he went on to become a bellicose authoritarian prime minister, ally, and admirer of Bismarck. His career ended amid controversy and failure due to becoming involved in a banking scandal. He is often seen as a precursor of the fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, in 1892 Giovanni Giolitti, a young leftist politician, was elected Prime Minister by king Umberto I, but after less than a year he was forced to resign and Crispi returned to power. In 1903 after a period of instability he was appointed head of the government. Giolitti was the Prime Minister five times between 1892 and 1921 and the second-longest serving Prime Minister in Italian history, after Mussolini, under his influence, the Italian Liberals did not develop as a structured party. They were instead a series of informal personal groupings with no links to political constituencies
2.
Francesco Cossiga
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Francesco Cossiga, OMRI was an Italian politician of the Christian Democracy party. He was the 42nd Prime Minister of Italy from 1979 to 1980 and he was also a professor of constitutional law at the University of Sassari. Cossiga was born in Sassari in northern Sardinia and he started his political career during World War II. His name is now pronounced, but it was originally pronounced, with the stress on the first syllable, meaning Corsica in Sardinian. He was the cousin of Enrico Berlinguer and he was a minister several times for the Democrazia Cristiana party, notably during his stay at Viminale where he re-structured the Italian police, civil protection and secret services. He was in office at the time of the kidnapping and murder of Aldo Moro by Red Brigades, and resigned as Minister of the Interior when Moro was found dead in 1978. According to Italian journalist Enrico Deaglio, Cossiga, to justify his lack of action, accused the leaders of CGIL, Cossiga was also minister of internal affairs when Fascist terrorists bombed Bologna station in 1980. Francesco Cossiga first assumed the explosion to have been caused by an accident, Cossiga was elected President of the Italian Senate 12 July 1983, a position he held until 24 June 1985, when he became the President of Italy. Following his resignation as president of the Senate in 1985, Cossiga was elected as President of Italy and this was the first time an Italian presidential candidate had won on the first ballot. It was not until his last two years as President that Cossiga began to some unusual opinions regarding the Italian political system. He opined that the Italian parties, especially the DC and Italian Communist Party, had to take account the deep changes brought about by the fall of the Berlin Wall. Cossiga suffered from bipolar disorder and depression in the last years of his life, tension developed between Cossiga and Prime Minister Giulio Andreotti. Cossiga acknowledged his involvement in the establishment of the organization, the Democratic Party of the Left started the procedure of impeachment. Although he threatened to prevent the impeachment procedure by dissolving Parliament, Cossiga resigned two months before the end of his term, on 25 April 1992. In February 1998, Cossiga created the Unione Democratica per la Repubblica, the UDR was a crucial component of the majority that supported the DAlema government in October 1998, after the fall of the Prodi government which lost a vote of confidence. Cossiga declared that his support for DAlema was intended to end the exclusion of the former Communist Party leaders from the premiership in Italy. In 1999 UDR was dissolved and Cossiga returned to his activities as a senator, on 27 November 2006, he resigned from his position as a lifetime senator. His resignation was, however, rejected on 31 January 2007 by a vote of the Senate, Cossiga died on 17 August 2010 from respiratory problems
3.
Giovanni Goria
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Giovanni Giuseppe Goria was a right-wing Italian politician. He served as the 46th Prime Minister of Italy from 1987 until 1988, Goria joined the Democrazia Cristiana in 1960 and entered local politics. He was elected to the chamber of deputies in 1976 and he was undersecretary of the budget from 1981 until 1983 and then became treasury minister. He became known for his style and his adeptness at television appearances. Following the elections of 1987, in which his party did well, Goria became Prime Minister and he was forced to resign in 1988 after the Parliament refused to pass his budget. Goria was elected to the European Parliament in 1989 and he resigned in 1991 to become Italian minister of agriculture. He remained in position until 1992 when he became finance minister. He resigned in 1993 during a scandal which ruined his party. Goria himself was charged with corruption and his trial began in early 1994. He was acquitted of one charge, but his trial was still in progress when he died suddenly of cancer in his native Asti
4.
Giulio Andreotti
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Andreotti is widely considered the most powerful and prominent politician of the so-called First Republic. In foreign policy, he guided Italys European Union integration, admirers of Andreotti saw him as having mediated political and social contradictions, enabling the transformation of a substantially rural country into the fifth-biggest economy in the world. Critics said he had nothing against a system of patronage that had led to pervasive corruption. At the height of his prestige as a statesman, Andreotti was subjected to damaging criminal prosecutions, charged with colluding with Cosa Nostra, courts found he had broken the links by the 1980s, and ruled the case out of time. The most sensational allegation came from prosecutors in Perugia, who charged him with ordering the murder of a journalist and he was found guilty at a trial, which led to complaints that the justice system had gone mad. Definitively acquitted by the court, Andreotti remarked, Apart from the Punic Wars, for which I was too young. Andreotti served as the 41st Prime Minister of Italy from 1972 to 1973, from 1976 to 1979 and he also served as Minister of the Interior, Defence Minister and Foreign Minister and was a Senator for life from 1991 until his death in 2013. He was also a journalist and author, Andreotti was sometimes called Divo Giulio. During the 16th term of the Senate in 2008–13, he opted to join the parliamentary group UDC – independence, Giulio Andreotti, the youngest of three children, was born on 14 January 1919 in Rome. His father was a school teacher from Segni, a small town in Lazio. Andreotti attended the Liceo Torquato Tasso in Rome and graduated in Law at the University of Rome and he showed some ferocity as a youth, once stubbing out a lit taper in the eye of another altar boy who was ridiculing him. His mother was described as not very affectionate, and an aunt is said to have advised him to remember that few things in life are important, as an adult he was described as having a somewhat unusual demeanor for an Italian politician, being mild-mannered and unassuming. Andreotti did not use his influence to advance his children to prominence, see all, tolerate much, and correct one thing at a time, was a quote that emphasised what has been called his art of the possible view of politics. Andreotti was known for his discretion and retentive memory, and also a sense of humour, Andreotti did not shine at his school and started work in a tax office while studying law at the University of Rome. In this period he became a member of the Italian Catholic Federation of University Students and its members included many of the future leaders of the Italian Christian Democracy. In 1938 while researching the papal navy in the Vatican library, he met Alcide De Gasperi, De Gasperi asked Andreotti if he had nothing better to do with his time, inspiring him to become politically active. Speaking of De Gasperi, Andreotti said, He taught us to search for compromise, in July 1939, while Aldo Moro was president of FUCI, Andreotti became director of its magazine Azione Fucina. In 1942, when Moro was enrolled in the Italian Army, Andreotti succeeded him as president of FUCI, during his early years Andreotti suffered violent migraines that forced him to sporadically make use of psychoactive drugs and opiates
5.
Flaminio Piccoli
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In 1997, he started the Rebirth of Christian Democracy. Piccoli was born in Austria, where his family had been deported during World War I and he was elected for the first time to the Italian Chamber of Deputies in 1958. He was elected secretary of the Christian Democracy party in January 1969. From 1946 to 1977 he was the editor in chief of the local newspaper lAdige
6.
Arnaldo Forlani
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This article is about the Italian legislator. For the similar name used as an alias by terrorist Ramzi Yousef for Philippine Airlines Flight 434, arnaldo Forlani is an Italian politician who served as the 43rd Prime Minister of Italy from 18 October 1980 to 28 June 1981. He was previously a member of the right-wing of the Italian Christian Democratic Party, at age 91, Forlani is currently the oldest living former Italian prime minister. Forlani was born in Pesaro, Marche, after the degree in law, Forlani began his career as politician in 1948, holding the position of provincial leader of Italian Christian Democratic Party in Pesaro and Urbino. In 1954 he became a member of the directive of DC. He was first elected to the chamber of deputies in 1958, in 1969 he had been elected as president of DC. As prime minister he had to deal with corruption scandals within his party, an earthquake in southern Italy and he was known as an unflamboyant politician who attempted to stay out of the factionalism in his party. During his presidency, the list of who belonged to the secret lodge P2 was published, however, the lateness with which they were published gained Forlani heavy criticism. He was therefore compelled to resign from the position, staying away from spotlight of politics for a certain period, with his resignation, the unbroken line since 1945 of DC Prime Ministers came to an end. In the two led by Bettino Craxi in the 1980s, Forlani was the Vice Prime Minister. In 1992, Forlani was a candidate for President of Italy, however, he did not get elected. During the Tangentopoli scandal, Forlani was charged of having received illegal funds and his former spokesman, Pier Ferdinando Casini, is considered Forlanis politics direct heir
7.
Minister without portfolio
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A minister without portfolio is either a government minister with no specific responsibilities or a minister who does not head a particular ministry. Stanley Bruce was given the title of Minister without Portfolio when he took up his position in 1932 as the Commonwealth Minister in London and he was given the title by Lyons Cabinet so that he could better represent the PM and his colleagues free from the limitations of a portfolio. In this case the title was a promotion and carried considerable responsibilities, bangladesh appoints ministers without portfolio during cabinet reshuffles or fresh appointments. Ministers are not usually appointed without portfolio as a coalition negotiation – all long run ministers end up with a portfolio, suranjit Sengupta was a minister without portfolio in Sheikh Hasinas second government. Notable Conservatives who filled the role include R. B, bennett, and Arthur Meighen, however, Meighen served this role after he had been prime minister. The practice has continued under the guise of ministers of state without responsibilities in the ministers titles, three control ministers served as ministers without portfolio during World War I. After the Liberation of Denmark in May 1945, the first Danish cabinet included four ministers without portfolio, kauffmann served in this capacity from 12 May to 7 November 1945. The three other holders of this title had joined the cabinet a few days before – Aksel Larsen, lise Østergaard held a position as minister without portfolio with special attention to foreign policy issues in Anker Jørgensens cabinet from 26 February 1977 to 28 February 1980. Anders Fogh Rasmussen appointed Bertel Haarder to Minister without Portfolio, Haarder served in this capacity from 27 November 2001 to 18 February 2005. The reason for appointing a minister without a ministry was the Danish European Union Presidency of 2002, Haarder was considered the most experienced Danish politician on European affairs. Tamás Fellegi Kunwar Natwar Singh Since the inception of the state, Indonesia had ministers without portfolio, the number was not fixed, entirely depended on the behest of the President. Below is the list of Ministers without Portfolio in each Cabinet, Mohammad Amir Abdul Wahid Hasyim Sartono Alexander Andries Maramis Mohammad Amir Oto Iskandar di Nata Rasjidi Wikana Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX Abdul Wahid Hasyim Wikana Dr. Such a minister may nevertheless be given a specific title, the only substantive minister without portfolio has been Frank Aiken, the Minister for the Co-ordination of Defensive Measures during World War II. By the Emergency Powers Act 1939 then in force, the Minister for Defence was able to delegate some competences to him, such delegation is now done instead with Ministers of State, junior ministers who are not members of the government. Junior ministers can be given a right to sit at cabinet and this allows the Government to circumvent the Constitutional limit on the number of Senior Ministers. On several occasions a minister has been appointed to a government with the title of a new Department of State. Between the date of appointment and the date of creation of the department, examples include, It is common practice in Israel to appoint ministers without portfolio as part of the coalition negotiations. All cabinets in recent years have had at least some such appointment, departments on equalities, European affairs and relations with regions, for example, are usually led by ministers without portfolio
8.
Aldo Moro
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Aldo Romeo Luigi Moro was an Italian statesman and politician, and a prominent member of the Christian Democracy party. He served as 38th Prime Minister of Italy, from 1963 to 1968 and he was one of Italys longest-serving post-war Prime Ministers, holding power for a combined total of more than seven years. A leader of Christian Democracy, Moro was considered an intellectual and he was kidnapped on 16 March 1978 by the Red Brigades and killed after 55 days of captivity. Moro was born in Maglie, in the province of Lecce, at age 4, he moved with his family to Milan, but they soon moved back to Apulia, where he gained a classical high school degree at Archita lyceum in Taranto. Until 1939, he studied Law at the University of Bari, in 1935, he joined the Catholic university students association of Bari. In 1939, under approval of Giovanni Battista Montini whom he had befriended, Moro was chosen as president of the association, he kept the post till 1942, succeeded by Giulio Andreotti. During his university years, Italy was under the Fascist government and he then founded the periodical La Rassegna, published in 1943–1945. In 1945, he married Eleonora Chiavarelli, with whom he had four children, Maria Fida, Agnese, Anna, Moro developed his interest in politics between 1943 and 1945. Initially, he seemed to be interested in the social-democratic component of the Italian Socialist Party. In the DC, he took part in the work of the leftist trend, in 1945 he became director of the magazine Studium and president of the Graduated Movement of the Azione Cattolica. In 1946, he was nominated vice-president of the Democrazia Cristiana and elected member of the Constitutional Assembly, in 1948 he was elected to the Italian Parliament and nominated vice-minister of Foreign Affairs in the 5th De Gasperi cabinet. In 1953 Moro, was re-elected to the Italian Chamber of Deputies and he was chosen as Minister of Grace and Justice in the Antonio Segni 1st cabinet in 1955. Minister of Education in the following Adone Zoli and Amintore Fanfani-II cabinets, in 1959, at the 6th partys congress he gained the post of National Secretary of the DC. In 1963, he was nominated Prime Minister of Italy for the first time and his government was unevenly supported by the DC, but also by the Italian Socialist Party, along with the minor Italian Republican Party and Italian Democratic Socialist Party. The centre-left coalition, a first for the Italian post-war political panorama and his 3rd cabinet stayed in power for 833 days, a record for Italys so-called First Republic. In the 1968 DCs congress, Moro yielded the Secretariat and passed to internal opposition, from 1974 to 1976, he re-gained the post of Prime Minister, and concluded the Osimo Treaty with Yugoslavia, defining the official partition of the Free Territory of Trieste. In 1976 he was elected President of the DC National Council, a wide range of social reforms were carried out during Moros periods as prime minister. The 1967 Ponte Law introduced urgent housing provisions as part of a reform of the entire sector, such as the introduction of minimum standards for housing
9.
Mariano Rumor
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Mariano Rumor was an Italian politician. A member of the Democrazia Cristiana, he served as Prime Minister of Italy from 1968 to 1970, during his periods as Prime Minister, a number of progressive reforms were carried out. A law of 11 December 1969 extended access to education to all students holding a higher secondary school diploma (formerly limited to students who came from classical curricula. A law of 30 April 1969 introduced broad provisions covering pensions under the general scheme, the multiplying coefficient was increased to 1. 85%, applied to average earnings of the best 3 years in the last 5 years of work. A social pension was introduced for people over the age of 65 with low incomes. In addition, cost of living indexation for all pensions was introduced, a law of 2 February 1970 extended earnings replacement benefits to artisan undertakings in the construction industry. Under a law of 2 March 1974, the minimum for pensions was raised to 27. 75% of the average industrial wage for 1973. A law of 16 July 1974 extended family allowances to INPS pensioners, a law of August 1974 extended hospital assistance to all those not previously covered by any scheme. He was born in Vicenza, Veneto and he graduated in Letters and was elected to the Constituent Assembly, which was opening the way for the new Italian Parliament of the Italian Republic, in 1946. In 1973, Interior Minister Mariano Rumor was attacked by Gianfranco Bertoli, four were killed during the bombing, and 45 injured, while Rumor escaped alive from it. Bertoli was given a life-term in 1975, Bertoli was an informant of SIFAR at the time. Court proceedings later showed that this connection was one of mistaken identity
10.
Campania
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Campania is a region in Southern Italy. Located on the Italian Peninsula, with the Mediterranean Sea to the west, it includes the small Phlegraean Islands, Campania was colonised by Ancient Greeks and was part of Magna Græcia. During the Roman era, the area maintained a Greco-Roman culture, the capital city of Campania is Naples. Campania is rich in culture, especially in regard to gastronomy, music, architecture, archeological and ancient sites such as Pompeii, Herculaneum, Paestum and Velia. The name of Campania itself is derived from Latin, as the Romans knew the region as Campania felix, the rich natural sights of Campania make it highly important in the tourism industry, especially along the Amalfi Coast, Mount Vesuvius and the island of Capri. During the 8th century BC, people from Euboea in Greece, known as Cumaeans, another Oscan tribe, the Samnites, moved down from central Italy into Campania. The Roman consul Quintus Publilius Filo recaptured Neapolis by 326 BC, the Second Samnite War ended with the Romans controlling southern Campania and additional regions further to the south. Campania was a part of the Roman Republic by the end of the 4th century BC, valued for its pastures. Its Greek language and customs made it a centre of Hellenistic civilization, during the Pyrrhic War the battle took place in Campania at Maleventum in which the Romans, led by consul Curius Dentatus, were victorious. They renamed the city Beneventum, which grew in stature until it was only to Capua in southern Italy. During the Second Punic War in 216 BC, Capua, in a bid for equality with Rome, the rebellious Capuans were isolated from the rest of Campania, which remained allies of Rome. Naples resisted Hannibal due to the imposing walls, Capua was eventually starved into submission in the Roman retaking of 211 BC, and the Romans were victorious. The rest of Campania, with the exception of Naples, adopted the Latin language as official and was Romanised. As part of the Roman Empire, Campania, with Latium, Roman Emperors chose Campania as a holiday destination, among them Claudius and Tiberius, the latter of whom is infamously linked to the island of Capri. It was also during this period that Christianity came to Campania, Two of the apostles, St. Peter and St. Paul, are said to have preached in the city of Naples, and there were also several martyrs during this time. Unfortunately, the period of calm was violently interrupted by the epic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 which buried the cities of Pompeii. The area had many duchies and principalities during the Middle Ages, in the hands of the Byzantine Empire, under the Normans, the smaller independent states were brought together as part of the Kingdom of Sicily, before the mainland broke away to form the Kingdom of Naples. It was during this period elements of Spanish, French
11.
Kingdom of Italy
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The state was founded as a result of the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom of Sardinia, which can be considered its legal predecessor state. Italy declared war on Austria in alliance with Prussia in 1866, Italian troops entered Rome in 1870, ending more than one thousand years of Papal temporal power. Italy entered into a Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1882, victory in the war gave Italy a permanent seat in the Council of the League of Nations. Fascist Italy is the era of National Fascist Party rule from 1922 to 1943 with Benito Mussolini as head of government, according to Payne, Fascist regime passed through several relatively distinct phases. The first phase was nominally a continuation of the parliamentary system, then came the second phase, the construction of the Fascist dictatorship proper from 1925 to 1929. The third phase, with activism, was 1929–34. The war itself was the phase with its disasters and defeats. Italy was allied with Nazi Germany in World War II until 1943 and it switched sides to the Allies after ousting Mussolini and shutting down the Fascist party in areas controlled by the Allied invaders. Shortly after the war, civil discontent led to the referendum of 1946 on whether Italy would remain a monarchy or become a republic. Italians decided to abandon the monarchy and form the Italian Republic, the Kingdom of Italy claimed all of the territory which is modern-day Italy. The development of the Kingdoms territory progressed under Italian re-unification until 1870, the state for a long period of time did not include Trieste or Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol, which are in Italy today, and only annexed them in 1919. After the Second World War, the borders of present-day Italy were founded, the Kingdom of Italy was theoretically a constitutional monarchy. Executive power belonged to the monarch, as executed through appointed ministers, two chambers of parliament restricted the monarchs power—an appointive Senate and an elective Chamber of Deputies. The kingdoms constitution was the Statuto Albertino, the governing document of the Kingdom of Sardinia. In theory, ministers were responsible to the king. However, in practice, it was impossible for an Italian government to stay in office without the support of Parliament, members of the Chamber of Deputies were elected by plurality voting system elections in uninominal districts. A candidate needed the support of 50% of those voting, and of 25% of all enrolled voters, if not all seats were filled on the first ballot, a runoff was held shortly afterwards for the remaining vacancies. After a brief multinominal experimentation in 1882, proportional representation into large, regional, Socialists became the major party, but they were unable to form a government in a parliament split into three different factions, with Christian Populists and classical liberals
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Italians
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Italians are a nation and ethnic group native to Italy who share a common culture, ancestry and speak the Italian language as a native tongue. The majority of Italian nationals are speakers of Standard Italian. Italians have greatly influenced and contributed to the arts and music, science, technology, cuisine, sports, fashion, jurisprudence, banking, Italian people are generally known for their localism and their attention to clothing and family values. The term Italian is at least 3,000 years old and has a history that goes back to pre-Roman Italy. According to one of the common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The Etruscan civilization reached its peak about the 7th century BC, but by 509 BC, when the Romans overthrew their Etruscan monarchs, its control in Italy was on the wane. By 350 BC, after a series of wars between Greeks and Etruscans, the Latins, with Rome as their capital, gained the ascendancy by 272 BC, and they managed to unite the entire Italian peninsula. This period of unification was followed by one of conquest in the Mediterranean, in the course of the century-long struggle against Carthage, the Romans conquered Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Finally, in 146 BC, at the conclusion of the Third Punic War, with Carthage completely destroyed and its inhabitants enslaved, octavian, the final victor, was accorded the title of Augustus by the Senate and thereby became the first Roman emperor. After two centuries of rule, in the 3rd century AD, Rome was threatened by internal discord and menaced by Germanic and Asian invaders. Emperor Diocletians administrative division of the empire into two parts in 285 provided only temporary relief, it became permanent in 395, in 313, Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity, and churches thereafter rose throughout the empire. However, he moved his capital from Rome to Constantinople. The last Western emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed in 476 by a Germanic foederati general in Italy and his defeat marked the end of the western part of the Roman Empire. During most of the period from the fall of Rome until the Kingdom of Italy was established in 1861, Odoacer ruled well for 13 years after gaining control of Italy in 476. Then he was attacked and defeated by Theodoric, the king of another Germanic tribe, Theodoric and Odoacer ruled jointly until 493, when Theodoric murdered Odoacer. Theodoric continued to rule Italy with an army of Ostrogoths and a government that was mostly Italian, after the death of Theodoric in 526, the kingdom began to grow weak
13.
Christian Democracy (Italy)
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Christian Democracy was a Christian democratic political party in Italy. The DC was founded in 1943 as the successor of the Italian Peoples Party, which had the same symbol. The party was nicknamed the White Whale, from 1946 until 1994 the DC was the largest party in Parliament, governing in successive coalitions. It originally supported governments based on political positions, before moving to centre-left coalitions. The party was succeeded by a string of parties, including the Italian Peoples Party, the Christian Democratic Centre, the United Christian Democrats. Former Christian Democrats are also spread among other parties, including the centre-right Forza Italia and the New Centre-Right, the DC was a founding member of the European Peoples Party in 1976. The party was founded as the revival of the Italian Peoples Party, a party created in 1919 by Luigi Sturzo. In December 1945 Christian Democrat Alcide De Gasperi was appointed Prime Minister of Italy, in the 1946 general election the DC won 35. 2% of the vote. In May 1947 De Gasperi broke decisively with his Communist and Socialist coalition partners under pressure from U. S. President Harry Truman. This opened the way for a centrist coalition that included the Italian Workers Socialist Party, a centrist break-away from the PSI, as well as its allies, the PLI. In the 1948 general election the DC went on to win a victory, with the support of the Catholic Church and the United States. Under De Gasperi, major reforms were carried out in the poorer rural regions in the early postwar years, with farms appropriated from the large landowners. De Gasperi served as Prime Minister until 1953 and would die a year later. No Christian Democrat would match his longevity in office and, despite the fact that DCs share of vote was always between 38 and 43% from 1953 to 1979, the party was more and more fractious, as a result, Prime Ministers changed more frequently. From 1954 the DC was led by progressive Christian Democrats, such as Amintore Fanfani, Aldo Moro and Benigno Zaccagnini, supported by the influential left-wing factions. In 1963 the party, under Prime Minister Aldo Moro, formed a coalition with the PSI, which returned to ministerial roles after 16 years, the PSDI, similar Organic Centre-left governments became usual through the 1960s and the 1970s. From 1976 to 1979 the DC governed with the support of the PCI. Moro, who was the party leader and who had inspired the Compromise, was abducted and murdered by the Red Brigades
14.
Democratic Party (Italy)
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The Democratic Party is a social-democratic political party in Italy. The partys acting leader is Matteo Orfini, who replaced Matteo Renzi after his resignation in February 2017, in April–May the party will hold a leadership election and Renzi is again running for secretary. The PD was founded on 14 October 2007 upon the merger of various centre-left parties which had part of The Olive Tree list. The PDs main ideological trends are thus social democracy and the Italian Christian leftist tradition, the party has been also influenced by social liberalism, which was already present in some of the founding components of the DS and DL, and more generally by a Third Way progressivism. Following the 2013 general election and the 2014 European Parliament election, the PD was the largest party in the Chamber of Deputies, the Senate and the European Parliament. From 2013 the Italian government has been led by three successive Democratic Prime Ministers, Enrico Letta, Matteo Renzi, and Paolo Gentiloni. As of 2017, other than the government, Democrats head fourteen regional governments out of twenty and function as coalition partner in Tuscany. Former bigwigs include Giorgio Napolitano, Sergio Mattarella, Romano Prodi, Giuliano Amato, Massimo DAlema, Pier Luigi Bersani, Francesco Rutelli, the coalition, in alliance with the Communist Refoundation Party, won the 1996 general election and Prodi became Prime Minister. In February 1998 the PDS merged with minor parties to become the Democrats of the Left, while in March 2002 the PPI, RI. In the summer of 2003 Prodi suggested that the forces would participate in the 2004 European Parliament election with a common list. Whereas the Union of Democrats for Europe and the far-left parties refused, four parties accepted, the DS, DL, the Italian Democratic Socialists and the European Republicans Movement. They launched a joint list named United in the Olive Tree, the project was later abandoned in 2005 by the SDI. In the 2006 general election the list obtained 31. 3% of the vote for the Chamber of Deputies, eight parties agreed to merge into the PD, Democrats of the Left Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy. Southern Democratic Party, Sardinia Project, European Republicans Movement, Democratic Republicans, Middle Italy, while the DL agreed to the merger with virtually no resistance, the DS experienced a more heated final congress. On 19 April 2007 approximately 75% of party members voted in support of the merger of the DS into the PD, the left-wing opposition, led by Fabio Mussi, obtained just 15% of the support within the party. A third motion, presented by Gavino Angius and supportive of the PD only within the Party of European Socialists, during and following the congress, both Mussi and Angius announced their intention not to join the PD and founded a new party called Democratic Left. On 22 May 2007 the composition of the committee of the nascent party was announced. On 18 June the committee met to decide the rules for the election of the 2,400 members of the partys constituent assembly
15.
Union of the Centre (2002)
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The Union of the Centre, whose complete name is Union of Christian and Centre Democrats, is a Christian democratic political party in Italy. Lorenzo Cesa is the current secretary, hence its leader. Pier Ferdinando Casini who, for years, was the most recognisable figure and de facto leader of the party, the UdC is a member of the European Peoples Party and the Centrist Democrat International, of which Casini was president from 2004 to 2015. The party was formed as Union of Christian and Centre Democrats in December 2002 upon the merger of the Christian Democratic Centre, the UDC was part of the Pole/House of Freedoms from its establishment through 2008. Later it has been affiliated neither to the centre-right nor the centre-left at the national level, in the 2013 general election the UdC was part of With Monti for Italy, the coalition formed around Mario Montis Civic Choice. More recently the party, which sits in the Renzi Cabinet, has sided with the Angelino Alfanos New Centre-Right within the so-called Popular Area, the UdC left the alliance, while suffering an internal split, in December 2016. The party was founded on 6 December 2002 by the merger of three parties, the Christian Democratic Centre, the United Christian Democrats and European Democracy, at the 2001 Italian general election the three precursors of the UDC had scored 5. 6%. Follini and Buttiglione became respectively national secretary and president of the new party, at the 2004 European Parliament election the UDC won 5. 9% of the vote and five MEPs. The partys growth was reflected by Follinis entry in Berlusconis second cabinet as Deputy Prime Minister with the goal of strengthening the government while diminishing the influence of Lega Nord. At the 2005 regional elections the UDC and the House of Freedoms faced a defeat by winning only 2 regions out of 14. Follini asked Silvio Berlusconi to resign and form a new government, in the new executive Buttiglione became minister of Culture, while Follini step down from his previous post in order to concentrate on the party. On 15 October 2005 Follini suddenly resigned from his position as party secretary and was replaced on 27 October by Lorenzo Cesa, an ally of Casini. The party took part to the 2006 general election with a new logo, characterised by the inclusion of the name of Casini, despite the defeat of the House of Freedoms, the UDC improved its electoral performance by gaining 6. 8% of the vote. After the departure of Follini, however, Casini became highly critical of Berlusconi too and they were soon followed by many others. Despite having lost many votes to the PdL, the UDC was able to woo some new voters from the centre-left and gained 5. 6% of the vote,36 deputies and three senators. Soon after the election, Mario Baccini, one of the leaders of The Rose, after the election, Casini relaunched his plan for a new centrist party, as an alternative to both the PdL and the PD. In the 2009 European Parliament election the UdC won 6. 5% of the vote and five of its candidates were elected to the European Parliament, including De Mita and Magdi Allam. In December 2010 the UdC was a member of the New Pole for Italy, along with Future and Freedom
16.
Avellino
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Avellino listen is a town and comune, capital of the province of Avellino in the Campania region of southern Italy. It is situated in a surrounded by mountains 50 kilometres northeast of Naples and is an important hub on the road from Salerno to Benevento. Before the Roman conquest, the ancient Abellinum was a centre of the Samnite Hirpini, located on the Civita hill some 4 kilometres outside the current town, the city could correspond to the ancient Velecha, documented by coins found in the area. Abellinum was conquered by the Romans in 293 BC, changing several times in the following centuries. However, the edification of a true Roman town occurred only after the conquest by Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 89 BC, the town was Christianized around 500 AD, becoming an episcopal seat. There followed the invasions of the Goths and Vandals, after the Lombard conquest of southern Italy, the ancient city was abandoned, and a new settlement grew on the Terra hill, corresponding to the modern Avellino. Defended by a castle, it part of the Duchy of Benevento and, after the latters fall. In 1100, during the Norman rule of southern Italy, it was acquired by Riccardo dellAquila, later, King Charles I of Anjou assigned it to the Montfort family, who were succeeded by the Del Balzo and the Filangieri. The feudal rights to Avellino were purchased in 1581 by Don Marino I Caracciolo, duke of Atripalda, of a family of Naples. Avellino became the seat of the Caracciolo. Don Marino’s son and grandson were consecutively Grand Chancellor of the Kingdom of Naples, the grandson, Don Marino II, was the patron of Giambattista Basile, author of the Pentamerone. In 1820 Avellino was seat of revolutionary riots, however, the Unification of Italy some fifty years later did not bring any benefit to the city, being cut off from the main railway line Naples-Benevento-Foggia, and far from the sea as well. In 1943 the city was bombed by Allied planes in an attempt to cut off the retreat of German panzer units over the important Bridge of Ferriera. Avellino has suffered from seismic activity throughout its history and was hard by the earthquakes of 23 November 1980 and 14 February 1981. The 1980 Irpinia earthquake represented a turning point for the town, large amounts of money flowed in for infrastructure investment, and the extra money generated innovation and economic expansion more generally. By 2008 a per capita income level of €20,180 placed Avellino well above the regional average in terms of individual prosperity. Nevertheless, tobacco, viticulture and, especially the production of hazelnuts remain important to the economy and, with increased investment in recent years. Many small and medium-sized businesses are located in the zones, including notably FMA who produce engines for Fiat, Opel, Lancia and Alfa Romeo
17.
Alma mater
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Alma mater is an allegorical Latin phrase for a university or college. In modern usage, it is a school or university which an individual has attended, the phrase is variously translated as nourishing mother, nursing mother, or fostering mother, suggesting that a school provides intellectual nourishment to its students. Before its modern usage, Alma mater was a title in Latin for various mother goddesses, especially Ceres or Cybele. The source of its current use is the motto, Alma Mater Studiorum, of the oldest university in continuous operation in the Western world and it is related to the term alumnus, denoting a university graduate, which literally means a nursling or one who is nourished. The phrase can also denote a song or hymn associated with a school, although alma was a common epithet for Ceres, Cybele, Venus, and other mother goddesses, it was not frequently used in conjunction with mater in classical Latin. Alma Redemptoris Mater is a well-known 11th century antiphon devoted to Mary, the earliest documented English use of the term to refer to a university is in 1600, when University of Cambridge printer John Legate began using an emblem for the universitys press. In English etymological reference works, the first university-related usage is often cited in 1710, many historic European universities have adopted Alma Mater as part of the Latin translation of their official name. The University of Bologna Latin name, Alma Mater Studiorum, refers to its status as the oldest continuously operating university in the world. At least one, the Alma Mater Europaea in Salzburg, Austria, the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, has been called the Alma Mater of the Nation because of its ties to the founding of the United States. At Queens University in Kingston, Ontario, and the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, British Columbia, the ancient Roman world had many statues of the Alma Mater, some still extant. Modern sculptures are found in prominent locations on several American university campuses, outside the United States, there is an Alma Mater sculpture on the steps of the monumental entrance to the Universidad de La Habana, in Havana, Cuba. Media related to Alma mater at Wikimedia Commons The dictionary definition of alma mater at Wiktionary Alma Mater Europaea website
18.
Member of the European Parliament
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A Member of the European Parliament is a person who has been elected to serve as a popular representative in the European Parliament. When the European Parliament was first established, MEPs were directly appointed by the governments of states from among those already sitting in their own national parliaments. Since 1979, however, MEPs have been elected by universal suffrage. Each member state establishes its own method for electing MEPs – and in some states this has changed over time –, in some member states the MEPs are elected to represent a single national constituency, in others they are elected from sub-national regions. For a list of current MEPs, see Members of the European Parliament 2014–2019, from 1 January 2007, when Romania and Bulgaria joined the EU, there were 785 MEPs, but their number was reduced to 736 at the elections in 2009. With effect from the elections held in May 2014 the number has risen again and now stands at 751, with member state having at least six. Elections are held every five years, on the basis of universal adult suffrage. The electoral area may be subdivided if this will not generally affect the nature of the voting system. Any election threshold on the level must not exceed five percent. As the number of MEPs granted to each state has arisen from treaty negotiations. No change in this configuration can occur without the consent of all national governments. The most recent elections to the European Parliament were the European elections of 2014 and they were the largest simultaneous transnational elections ever held anywhere in the world, since nearly 500 million citizens were eligible to vote. The European Parliament has a turnover of members compared to some national parliaments. For instance, after the 2004 elections, the majority of elected members had not been members in the parliamentary session. Only one has served continuously since the first elections in 1979, MEPs are organised into seven different cross-nationality political groups, except the 15 non-attached members known as non-inscrits. The two largest groups are the European Peoples Party and the Socialists & Democrats and these two groups have dominated the Parliament for much of its life, continuously holding between 50 and 70 percent of the seats together. No single group has held a majority in Parliament. Although, the European groups, between 2004 and 2009, were more cohesive than their US counterparts
19.
Jacques Delors
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Jacques Lucien Jean Delors is a French economist and politician, previously the eighth President of the European Commission and the first person to serve three terms in that office. He is the father of Martine Aubry, the former first secretary of the Socialist Party of France. Born in Paris in a family originating from Corrèze, Delors first held in the 1940s through the 1960s a series of posts in French banking and state planning with the Banque de France. As a member of the French Confederation of Christian Workers, he participated in its secularization, in 1974 Delors joined the French Socialist Party, with other left-wing Christians. He was one of the members of the party to be openly religious, thus challenging its long-standing secular tradition of Laïcité. He served in the European Parliament from 1979 to 1981, becoming chairman of its Committee on Economic, under President François Mitterrand, Delors served as Economics and Finance Minister from 1981 to 1983, and Economics, Finance, and Budget Minister from 1983 to 1984. He advocated a pause in the policies, a clear acceptance of the market economy. Critically, he held the line on Frances membership of the European Monetary System, Mitterrand flirted with the idea of naming him Prime Minister, but never made the appointment. Delors became the President of the European Commission in January 1985, during his presidency, he oversaw important budgetary reforms and laid the groundwork for the introduction of a single market within the European Community, which came into effect on 1 January 1993. In the autumn of 1988 Delors addressed the British Trade Union Congress, after 1988 it was to be the Conservatives who were divided, with Thatcher and her supporters opposed to further European integration. The article called Delors the Froggie Common Market chief, Delors has a longstanding interest in education. In 1994, members of the French Socialist Party attempted to persuade Delors to run for President of France, polls showed that he would have a very good chance of defeating either of the main conservative contenders – Prime Minister Édouard Balladur and Mayor of Paris Jacques Chirac. However Delors declined to run and the eventual Socialist nominee, Lionel Jospin, was defeated in the 1995 presidential election by Chirac. In 1995 he won the Charles V Prize, awarded by the Fundación Academia Europea de Yuste Delors founded the Paris-based, centre-left think tank Notre Europe in 1996 and remains one of its presidents. He is president of the Conseil de lemploi, des revenus et de la cohésion sociale, on 15 September 2010 Delors supported the new initiative Spinelli Group, which was founded to reinvigorate the strive for federalisation of the European Union. Other prominent supporters include Daniel Cohn-Bendit, Guy Verhofstadt, Sylvie Goulard, Andrew Duff, in 2010, Delors was the first to be honored with the Leonardo European Corporate Learning Award. In 1990 he received the Freedom medal, Delors is the father of Socialist politician Martine Aubry. In 2012, Delors stated in the Handelsblatt newspaper that If the British cannot support the trend towards integration in Europe, we can nevertheless remain friends
20.
Margaret Thatcher
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She was the longest-serving British prime minister of the 20th century, and the first woman to have held the office. A Soviet journalist dubbed her The Iron Lady, a nickname that became associated with her uncompromising politics, as Prime Minister, she implemented policies that have come to be known as Thatcherism. A research chemist before becoming a barrister, Thatcher was elected Member of Parliament for Finchley in 1959, Edward Heath appointed her Secretary of State for Education and Science in his 1970 government. In 1975, Thatcher defeated Heath in the Conservative Party leadership election to become Leader of the Opposition and she became Prime Minister after winning the 1979 general election. Her political philosophy and economic policies emphasised deregulation, flexible labour markets, the privatisation of state-owned companies and she narrowly escaped an assassination attempt in 1984. Thatcher was re-elected for a term in 1987. During this period her support for a Community Charge was widely unpopular and she resigned as Prime Minister and party leader in November 1990, after Michael Heseltine launched a challenge to her leadership. After retiring from the Commons in 1992, she was given a peerage as Baroness Thatcher which entitled her to sit in the House of Lords. After a series of strokes in 2002, she was advised to withdraw from public speaking. Despite this, she managed to pre-record a eulogy to Ronald Reagan prior to his death, in 2013, she died of another stroke in London, at the age of 87. Always a controversial figure, she has described as one of the greatest and most influential politicians in British history. Thatcher was born Margaret Hilda Roberts on 13 October 1925, in Grantham and her father was Alfred Roberts, originally from Northamptonshire, and her mother was Beatrice Ethel from Lincolnshire. She spent her childhood in Grantham, where her father owned two grocery shops, Prior to the Second World War, in 1938 the Roberts family gave sanctuary to a teenage Jewish girl escaping Nazi Germany. Thatcher was to describe this in her memoirs as among the significant events of her formative years, Alfred Roberts was an alderman and a Methodist local preacher, and brought up his daughter as a strict Wesleyan Methodist attending the Finkin Street Methodist Church. He came from a Liberal family but stood as an Independent and he was Mayor of Grantham in 1945–46 and lost his position as alderman in 1952 after the Labour Party won its first majority on Grantham Council in 1950. Margaret Roberts attended Huntingtower Road Primary School and won a scholarship to Kesteven and her school reports showed hard work and continual improvement, her extracurricular activities included the piano, field hockey, poetry recitals, swimming and walking. She was head girl in 1942–43, in her upper sixth year she applied for a scholarship to study chemistry at Somerville College, Oxford, but she was initially rejected and was offered a place only after another candidate withdrew. Her dissertation was on the structure of the antibiotic gramicidin, even while working on chemistry, she was already thinking towards law and politics
21.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
22.
Brian Mulroney
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Martin Brian Mulroney PC, CC, GOQ is a Canadian politician who served as the 18th Prime Minister of Canada from September 17,1984, to June 25,1993. His tenure as minister was marked by the introduction of major economic reforms. Free Trade Agreement and the Goods and Services Tax, and the rejection of constitutional reforms such as the Meech Lake Accord, prior to his political career, he was a prominent lawyer and businessman in Montreal. Mulroney was born on March 20,1939, in Baie-Comeau, Quebec and he is the son of Irish Canadian Catholic parents, Mary Irene and Benedict Martin Mulroney, who was a paper mill electrician. Benedict Mulroney worked overtime and ran a business to earn extra money for his childrens education. Mulroney would frequently tell stories about newspaper publisher Robert R. McCormick, Mulroney would sing Irish songs for McCormick, and the publisher would slip him $50. He grew up speaking English and French fluently, on May 26,1973, he married Mila Pivnički, the daughter of a Serbian doctor, Dimitrije Mita Pivnički, from Sarajevo. The Mulroneys have four children, Caroline, Benedict, Mark, Ben is a CTV media personality and a host of eTalk. On September 16,2000, Caroline Mulroney married Andrew Lapham, Caroline Mulroney is currently associate director of the New York Universitys Center for Law and Business, having graduated from NYU with a law degree in 2001. Mulroney had not been involved in politics at any prior to entering St. Francis Xavier University in the fall of 1955 as a 16-year-old freshman. His political life began when he was recruited to the campus Progressive Conservative group by Lowell Murray and others, Murray would become a close friend, mentor, and adviser who was appointed to the Canadian Senate in 1979. Other important, lasting friendships made there by Mulroney included Gerald Doucet, Fred Doucet, Sam Wakim, Mulroney became a youth delegate and attended the 1956 leadership convention in Ottawa. While initially undecided, Mulroney was captivated by John Diefenbakers powerful oratory, Mulroney joined the Youth for Diefenbaker committee which was led by Ted Rogers, a future scion of Canadian business. Mulroney struck a friendship with Diefenbaker and received telephone calls from him. Mulroney won several public speaking contests at St. Francis Xavier University, was a member of the schools debating team. He was also active in campus politics, serving with distinction in several Model Parliaments. Mulroney also assisted with the 1958 national election campaign at the level in Nova Scotia. After graduating from St. Francis Xavier with a degree in science in 1959
23.
Helmut Kohl
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Helmut Josef Michael Kohl is a German statesman, who served as Chancellor of Germany from 1982 to 1998 and as the chairman of the Christian Democratic Union from 1973 to 1998. From 1969 to 1976, Kohl was the 3rd Minister President of Rhineland-Palatinate, Kohls 16-year tenure was the longest of any German Chancellor since Otto von Bismarck, and by far the longest of any democratically elected Chancellor. Kohl oversaw the end of the Cold War, and is regarded as the main architect of the German reunification. Together with French President François Mitterrand, Kohl is also considered to be the architect of the Maastricht Treaty, which established the European Union. Kohl has been described as the greatest European leader of the half of the 20th century by U. S. Presidents George H. W. Bush. With the death of Helmut Schmidt in November 2015, he became the oldest living former German chancellor, Helmut Kohl was born on 3 April 1930 in Ludwigshafen am Rhein, Germany, the third child of Hans Kohl, a civil servant, and his wife, Cäcilie. Kohls family was conservative and Roman Catholic, and remained loyal to the Catholic Centre Party before and his older brother died in the Second World War as a teenage soldier. At the age of ten, Kohl was obliged, like any child in Germany at the time, to join the Deutsches Jungvolk, a section of the Hitler Youth. Aged 15, on 20 April 1945, Adolf Hitlers birthday, Kohl was sworn in to the Hitler Youth by leader Artur Axmann at Berchtesgaden, just days before the end of the war. Kohl was also drafted for service in 1945, however, he was not involved in any combat. Kohl attended the Ruprecht Elementary School, and continued at the Max-Planck-Gymnasium, after graduating in 1950, Kohl began to study law in Frankfurt am Main, spending two semesters commuting between Ludwigshafen and Frankfurt. Here, Kohl heard lectures from Carlo Schmid and Walter Hallstein among others, in 1951, Kohl switched to the University of Heidelberg, where he majored in History and Political Science. Kohl was the first in his family to attend university, after graduating in 1956, Kohl became a fellow at the Alfred Weber Institute of the University of Heidelberg under Dolf Sternberger where he was an active member of the student society AIESEC. In 1958, Kohl received his degree for his thesis The Political Developments in the Palatinate. After that, Kohl entered business, first as an assistant to the director of a foundry in Ludwigshafen and, in April 1960, as a manager for the Industrial Union for Chemistry in Ludwigshafen. In 1960, Kohl married Hannelore Renner, after he had asked for her hand in marriage in 1953. Both had known each other since 1948, when met in a dancing class. They had two sons, born in 1963 and 1965, in 1946, Kohl joined the recently founded CDU, becoming a full member once he turned 18 in 1948
24.
Noboru Takeshita
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Noboru Takeshita was a Japanese politician and the 74th Prime Minister of Japan from 6 November 1987 to 3 June 1989. Takeshita led the largest faction in the Liberal Democratic Party, which he inherited from Kakuei Tanaka and he was dubbed the last shadow shogun for his behind-the-scenes influence in Japanese politics. He was the last prime minister to serve during the rule of Emperor Hirohito. Takeshita was born in present-day Unnan, Shimane on 26 February 1924 and he married prior to World War II, when he joined the Imperial Japanese Army to serve as an instructor. His wife committed suicide while he was away for the war, after the war, he remarried, worked as an English teacher and managed a high school judo team before entering politics in 1951. As a young judo competitor, he was known as master of the draw for his ability to avoid defeating weaker opponents, Takeshita served as a local assemblyman in Shimane Prefecture from 1951. In the 1958 general election he won a seat in the House of Representatives and he was elected at the same time as Shin Kanemaru, and the two remained close allies through their respective political careers. Takeshita eventually became Tanakas primary fundraiser, traveling the country to support for the LDPs coffers. Like Tanaka, Takeshita was fond of pork barrel politics, retaining his own seat by bringing excessively huge public works projects to Shimane, Takeshita served as chief cabinet secretary from 1971 to 1974 and as minister of construction in 1976. Takeshita was the minister of finance from 1979 to 1980, in this period, he achieved prominence as Japans negotiator during deliberations which led to the agreement which is known as the Plaza Accord in New York. In the period Takeshita was finance minister, the Yen appreciated relative to other international currencies, the rise of the strong Yen enhanced Japans status as a financial powerhouse and led to the Japanese asset price bubble of the 1980s. Kakuei Tanaka was arrested in connection with the Lockheed bribery scandals in 1976 and found guilty by a court in 1983. In February 1985, Takeshita formed a group called Soseikai. Weeks after this defection, Tanaka suffered a stroke and became hospitalized, Tanaka never recovered from his stroke, and by July 1987, Takeshitas faction counted 113 of the 143 Tanaka faction members, while only thirteen supported Takeshitas rival Susumu Nikaido. The Tanaka faction members who moved to Takeshitas faction included Ichiro Ozawa, Tsutomu Hata, Ryutaro Hashimoto, Keizo Obuchi, in July 1986 Takeshita left the Cabinet and was named to the key post of secretary general of the party. In November 1987, Takeshita became president of the LDP and was thus elected Prime Minister of Japan, among the highlights of the period in which Takeshita led the government, he acknowledged that Japan had been an aggressor during World War II. This statement was part of a speech in the Japanese Diet and he was mainly remembered within Japan for implementing the countrys first consumption tax, which his government forced through the Diet in 1988 amid public opposition. The Recruit scandal forced Takeshita to resign in 1989, although Takeshita was accused of insider trading and corruption, he was never charged and was able to retain his seat in the Diet until shortly before his death
25.
14th G7 summit
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The 14th G7 Summit was held in Toronto, Ontario, Canada between June 19 and 21,1988. The venue for the meetings was the Metro Toronto Convention Centre in central Toronto. Unlike the relatively low key summit at Château Montebello in 1981, Canada was the first member of the G7/G8 to host both this kind of Summit and an Olympic Games in the same calendar year. In February, Calgary, Alberta, hosted the 1988 Winter Olympics, Canada would do this again 22 years when they hosted the Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia and then the G8 Summit in Huntsville, Ontario. The G7 is an annual forum for the leaders of Canada, the European Commission, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom. The 14th G7 summit was the first summit for Italian Prime Minister Ciriaco De Mita and was the last summit for U. S. President Ronald Reagan and it was also the first and only summit for Japanese Prime Minister Noboru Takeshita. These summit participants are the current core members of the international forum, as a practical matter, the summit was also conceived as an opportunity for its members to give each other mutual encouragement in the face of difficult economic decisions. Hanging in There, The G7 and G8 Summit in Maturity, ISBN 978-0-7546-1185-1, OCLC43186692 Reinalda, Bob and Bertjan Verbeek. Autonomous Policy Making by International Organizations, ISBN 978-0-415-16486-3, ISBN 978-0-203-45085-7, OCLC39013643 No official website is created for any G7 summit prior to 1995 -- see the 21st G7 summit. University of Toronto, G8 Research Group, G8 Information Centre G71988, delegations & documents CBC Digital Archives, Leaders arrive at 1988 G7 Summit in Toronto, Broadcast Date, June 18,1988
26.
Province of Avellino
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The Province of Avellino is a province in the Campania region of Southern Italy. The area is characterized by small towns and villages scattered across the province. It has an area of 2,792 square kilometres and a population of 427,310 in 2012. There are 119 comuni in the province, see Comuni of the Province of Avellino. It is a province, with no connection to the sea. The ancient name of the area was Hirpinia, derived from the Oscan term hirpus, in the medieval Kingdom of Naples the provincial area roughly corresponded to the Principato Ultra, though some places were included in Capitanata or Principato Citra. The modern province was established in 1860, after the unification of Italy, the Selachoidei National Gallery at Avellino houses one of the largest collections of cartilaginous fishes in the country. Natural attractions include the Monti Piacentini and Partenio Regional Parks, together with two WWF sites, Valle della Caccia in Senerchia and the area around the Ofanto dam in Conza della Campania. Typical products are hazelnuts, the chestnut of Montella, the renowned wines Aglianico, Taurasi, Greco and Fiano, cherries, cheeses, Avellino corneal dystrophy Provincia di Avellino homepage Lupi Emigranti founded by Frigentos students and workers in order to get in touch with Province of Avellinos emigrants
27.
Red Brigades
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Formed in 1970, the organization sought to create a revolutionary state through armed struggle, and to remove Italy from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. The Red Brigades attained notoriety in the 1970s and early 1980s with their violent attempts to destabilise Italy by acts of sabotage, bank robberies, kidnappings, models for the Red Brigades included the Latin American urban guerrilla movements. The kidnappers killed five members of Moros entourage, and murdered Moro himself 54 days later, in the 1980s, the group was broken up by Italian investigators, with the aid of several leaders under arrest who turned pentito and assisted the authorities in capturing the other members. After the mass arrests in the late 1980s, the group slowly faded into insignificance, a majority of those leaders took advantage of a law that gave credits for renouncing the doctrine and contributing to efforts by police and judiciary to prosecute its members. The Red Brigades were founded in August 1970 by Renato Curcio and Margherita Cagol, who had met as students at the University of Trento and later married, and Alberto Franceschini. Franceschinis grandmother had been a leader of the peasant leagues, his father a worker, in the beginning the Red Brigades were mainly active in Reggio Emilia, and in large factories in Milan, and in Turin. Members sabotaged factory equipment and broke into offices and trade union headquarters. In 1972, they carried out their first kidnapping, a foreman for Sit Siemens was held for around 20 minutes whilst pictures were taken of him wearing a placard declaring him to be a fascist. The foreman was then released unharmed, during this time the Red Brigades activities were denounced by far left political groups such as Lotta Continua and Potere Operaio. In June 1974, the Red Brigades committed their first homicide, two members of the Italian neo-fascist party, Movimento Sociale Italiano were killed in Padua during a raid on the MSI headquarters. Most of the Italian leftish political parties of the time, including the Italian Communist Party, denied the Red Brigades involvement in the murder and even the Red Brigades existence itself. In September 1974, Red Brigades founders Renato Curcio and Alberto Franceschini were arrested by General Carlo Alberto Dalla Chiesa, the arrest was made possible by Frate Mitra, alias Silvano Girotto, a former monk who had infiltrated the BR for the Italian security services. Curcio was freed from prison by a commando of the Red Brigades, led by his wife Mara Cagol. The Red Brigades then operated some high-profile political kidnappings and kidnapped industrialists in order to obtain ransom money which were their source of income. After 1974, the Red Brigades expanded into Rome, Genoa, bank robberies, kidnappings, drugs and arms trafficking were the major crimes. Its 1975 manifesto stated that its goal was a strike against the heart of the State. The SIM became a primary target, in 1975, the Italian police discovered the farmhouse where industrialist Vallarino Gancia was kept prisoner by the Brigades. In the ensuing gunfight, two officers were killed, as was Mara Cagol, Curcios wife
28.
The Olive Tree (Italy)
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The Olive Tree was a denomination used for several successive centre-left political and electoral alliances of Italian political parties from 1995 to 2007. On 21 April 1996, The Olive Tree won 1996 general election in alliance with the Communist Refoundation Party, on 9 October 1998, the Prodi I Cabinet fell when PRC left the alliance. Since 21 October 1998 The Olive Tree was the core of the led by Massimo DAlema. When DAlema became Prime Minister, it was the first time ever in Italy, on 13 May 2001, led by Francesco Rutelli, who ran in ticket with Piero Fassino, the coalition lost the general elections against Silvio Berlusconi and his House of Freedoms centre-right coalition. On 10 February 2005, the name and logo of that larger electoral coalition was presented and it comprised the Federation of The Olive Tree, the Communist Refoundation Party, the Party of Italian Communists, Italy of Values, the Federation of the Greens and other minor parties. The Democrats of the Left, Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy, also the Italian Democratic Socialist Party and The Italian Socialists had candidates in the list. DS and DL were heavily involved in the foundation of a new unitary party, the Democratic Party. This party was founded on 14 October 2007 and Walter Veltroni was elected party leader by voters in an open primary, Italy Between Europeanization and Domestic Politics. Centre-left coalition Official website of the Democratic Party Italys Olive Tree, article by The Nation
29.
European Parliament
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The European Parliament is the directly elected parliamentary institution of the European Union. Together with the Council of the European Union and the European Commission, the Parliament is composed of 751 members, who represent the second-largest democratic electorate in the world and the largest trans-national democratic electorate in the world. It has been elected every five years by universal suffrage since 1979. However, voter turnout at European Parliament elections has fallen consecutively at each election since that date, voter turnout in 2014 stood at 42. 54% of all European voters. The Parliament is the first institution of the EU, and shares equal legislative and it likewise has equal control over the EU budget. Finally, the European Commission, the body of the EU, is accountable to Parliament. In particular, Parliament elects the President of the Commission, and it can subsequently force the Commission as a body to resign by adopting a motion of censure. The President of the European Parliament is Antonio Tajani, elected in January 2017 and he presides over a multi-party chamber, the two largest groups being the Group of the European Peoples Party and the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats. The last union-wide elections were the 2014 elections, the European Parliament has three places of work – Brussels, the city of Luxembourg and Strasbourg. Luxembourg is home to the administrative offices, meetings of the whole Parliament take place in Strasbourg and in Brussels. Committee meetings are held in Brussels, the Parliament, like the other institutions, was not designed in its current form when it first met on 10 September 1952. One of the oldest common institutions, it began as the Common Assembly of the European Coal and it was a consultative assembly of 78 appointed parliamentarians drawn from the national parliaments of member states, having no legislative powers. Its development since its foundation shows how the European Unions structures have evolved without a master plan. Some, such as Tom Reid of the Washington Post, said of the union, nobody would have designed a government as complex. Even the Parliaments two seats, which have switched several times, are a result of various agreements or lack of agreements, the body was not mentioned in the original Schuman Declaration. It was assumed or hoped that difficulties with the British would be resolved to allow the Council of Europes Assembly to perform the task, a separate Assembly was introduced during negotiations on the Treaty as an institution which would counterbalance and monitor the executive while providing democratic legitimacy. The wording of the ECSC Treaty demonstrated the desire for more than a normal consultative assembly by using the term representatives of the people. Its early importance was highlighted when the Assembly was given the task of drawing up the treaty to establish a European Political Community
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European Parliament election, 2009 (Italy)
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The European Parliament election of 2009 in Italy was held on Saturday 6 and Sunday 7 June 2009, as decided by the Italian government on 18 December 2008. Italy elected 72 members of the European Parliament, two levels were used, a national level to divide seats between parties, and a constituency level to distribute them between candidates. Italian regions were united in 5 constituencies, each electing a group of deputies, at national level, seats were divided between party lists using the largest remainder method with Hare quota. All seats gained by each party were automatically distributed to their local open lists, in the run-up of the election, the Italian Parliament has introduced a national threshold of 4% in the electoral law for the European Parliament. However, the law guarantees representation for linguistic minorities. The parties which represent minorities can be connected with the parties for the purpose of elections. If the party of the linguistic minority gets more than 50,000 votes, the election was a victory for Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. The parties supporting the government won 38 seats, while the opposition collectively elected 34 candidates, after the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009, the seats of Italy in the European Parliament increased from 72 to 73. The additional seat was assigned to Union of the Centre
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour
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Camillo Paolo Filippo Giulio Benso, Count of Cavour, Isolabella and Leri, generally known as Count Cavour was an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. Cavour put forth several economic reforms in his region of Piedmont in his earlier years. After a large rail system expansion program, Cavour became prime minister in 1852, English historian Denis Mack Smith says Cavour was the most successful parliamentarian in Italian history but he was not especially liberal. Cavour was often dictatorial, ignored his ministerial colleagues and parliament and he also practiced transformism and other undesirable policies which were carried over into post-Risorgimento Italy. Camillo Benso was born in Turin during Napoleonic rule, into a family that had gained an amount of land during the French occupation. His godparents were Napoleons sister Pauline, and her husband, Prince Camille Borghese, Camillo and his older brother Gustavo were initially educated at home. He was sent to the Turin Military Academy when he was ten years old. In July 1824 he was named a page to Charles Albert, Cavour frequently ran afoul of the authorities in the academy, as he was too headstrong to deal with the rigid military discipline. He was once forced to live three days on bread and water because he had been caught with books that the academy had banned and he was found to be apt at the mathematical disciplines, and was therefore enlisted in the Engineer Corps in the Piedmontese-Sardinian army in 1827. While in the army, he studied the English language as well as the works of Jeremy Bentham and Benjamin Constant, developing liberal tendencies which made him suspect to police forces at the time. He resigned his commission in the army in November 1831, both because of boredom with life and because of his dislike of the reactionary policies of King Charles Albert. He administered the estate at Grinzane, some forty kilometers outside the capital. Cavour then lived time in Switzerland, with his Protestant relatives in Geneva and he grew acquainted with Calvinist teachings, and for a short while he converted from a form of unorthodox Catholicism, only to go back later. A Reformed pastor, Alexandre Vinet, impressed upon Cavour the need for the separation of church and state and he then traveled to Paris where he was impressed by parliamentary debates, especially those of François Guizot and Adolphe Thiers, confirming his devotion to a political career. He next went to London, where he was much more disappointed by British politics, and toured the country, visiting Oxford, Liverpool, Birmingham, Chester, Nottingham, a quick tour through the Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland eventually landed him back in Turin. Cavour believed that progress had to precede political change. He was a supporter of transportation by steam engine, sponsoring the building of many railroads. Between 1838 and 1842 Cavour began several initiatives in attempts to solve problems in his area
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Bettino Ricasoli
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Bettino Ricasoli, 2nd Baron Ricasoli was an Italian statesman. Left an orphan at eighteen, with a heavily encumbered, he was by special decree of the grand duke of Tuscany declared of age. Interrupting his studies, he withdrew to Brolio, and by careful management disencumbered the family possessions, in 1847 he founded the journal La Patria, and addressed to the grand duke a memorial suggesting remedies for the difficulties of the state. In 1848 he was elected Gonfaloniere of Florence, but resigned on account of the tendencies of the grand duke. As Tuscan minister of the interior in 1859 he promoted the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, elected Italian deputy in 1861, he succeeded Cavour in the premiership. Disdainful of the intrigues of his rival Rattazzi, he found himself obliged in 1862 to resign office, in order to mollify the Vatican he conceded the exequatur to forty-five bishops inimical to the Italian régime. The Vatican accepted his proposal, but the Italian Chamber proved refractory, without waiting for a vote, Ricasoli resigned office and thenceforward practically disappeared from political life, speaking in the Chamber only upon rare occasions. He died at his Castello di Brolio on 23 October 1880, the barone created the modern recipe of Chianti wine, the family named firm still produces wine at Brolio. His private life and public career were marked by the utmost integrity, in spite of the failure of his ecclesiastical scheme, he remains one of the most noteworthy figures of the Italian Risorgimento
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Urbano Rattazzi
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Urbano Pio Francesco Rattazzi was an Italian statesman, and along with the Count of Cavour, one of the Italys founding fathers. He studied law at Turin, and in 1838 began his practice, in 1848, Rattazzi was sent to the Sardinian chamber of deputies in Turin as representative of his native town. He allied himself with the Liberal party, i. e. Democrats, by his debating powers, he contributed to the defeat of the Balbo ministry, and in August received the portfolio of Public Instruction, though he left office after a few days. In December, in the Gioberti cabinet, he became Minister of the Interior, the defeat at Novara compelled Rattazzis resignation in March 1849. He left the Democrats for the Moderate Liberals, and formed the group of the center-left and this party formed a coalition with the center-right headed by Cavour. Rattazzi gave up a Parliament presidency in 1853 to become Minister of Justice and this precipitated a bitter struggle with the Clerical party. During a momentary reaction of public opinion he resigned office in 1858, in consequence of the negotiations for the cession of Nice and Savoy to France, which cession he opposed, he again retired in January 1860. However, in consequence of his policy of repression towards Garibaldi at Aspromonte and he was again Prime Minister in 1867, from April to October. Popular reaction to his hostility to Garibaldi again drove him from office and he died at Frosinone on 5 June 1873. His wife, Laetitia Marie Wyse Bonaparte, whom he married in 1863, was a noted French novelist, together they had one daughter, Romana Rattazzi
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Luigi Carlo Farini
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Luigi Carlo Farini was an Italian physician, statesman and historian. Farini was born at Russi, in what is now the province of Ravenna, after completing a brilliant university course at Bologna, which he interrupted to take part in the revolution of 1831, he practised as a physician at Russi and at Ravenna. He acquired a reputation, but in 1843 his political opinions brought him under the suspicion of the police. Pius, wishing to counteract the effect of policy, sent Farini to Charles Albert, king of Sardinia. Elected member of parliament for Faenza, he was appointed secretary to the ministry of the interior in the Mamiani cabinet. He also wrote his historical work, Lo Stato Romano dal 1815 al 1850. In 1851 he was appointed minister of instruction in the DAzeglio cabinet. Cavour died in 1861, and the year, Farini succeeded Rattazzi as premier. Over-exertion, however, brought on softening of the brain, which compelled him to office on 24 March 1863. He was buried at Turin, but in 1878 his remains were removed to his village of Russi. His son Domenico Farini had also a political career and was three times President of the Chamber of Deputies and President of the Senate. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. La diplomazia e la quistione Italiana, lettera By Luigi Carlo Farini Lo stato Romano dallanno 1815 allanno 1850 By Luigi Carlo Farini Vol. I, Vol. II, Vol. III, Vol. IV
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Marco Minghetti
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Marco Minghetti was an Italian economist and statesman. Minghetti was born at Bologna, then part of the Papal States and he signed the petition to the Papal conclave,1846, urging the election of a liberal pope, and was appointed member of the state council summoned to prepare the constitution for the Papal States. With Antonio Montanan and Rodolfo Audinot he founded at Bologna a paper, returning to Rome in September 1848, he refused to form a cabinet after the assassination of Pellegrino Rossi, and spent the next eight years in study and travel. In the same year he was elected president of the assembly of the Romagna after the rejection of pontifical rule by those provinces, the convention excited violent opposition at Turin, in consequence of which Minghetti was obliged to resign office. He took little part in life until 1869, when he accepted the portfolio of agriculture in the Menabrea Cabinet. In 1873 he overthrew the Lanza-Sella Cabinet and regained the premiership, Minghetti, however, drew from it no personal advantage, and died at Rome on 10 December 1886 without having returned to power. His writings include, Della economia pubblica e delle sue attinenze con la morale e col diritto and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
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