1.
Sister republic
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A sister republic was a republic established by invading French armies or by local revolutionaries and assisted by the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars. Ideals favored by the National Convention and Robespierre during the period were popular sovereignty, rule of law, the republicans also borrowed ideas and values from Whiggism and Enlightenment philosophers. The republican governments promoted nationalism over the monarchy, primarily the Bourbons, in France, Revolutionary Republicanism was, in part, based on limiting corruption and greed. The revolutionaries saw these vices as endemic at the time, but were more readily preventable in a popular republic, a virtuous citizen was defined as one who ignored monetary compensation and made a commitment to resist and eradicate corruption. The Republic was sacred, therefore, it was necessary to serve the state in a representative way, ignoring self-interest. Republicanism required supporters who were willing to give up their own interests for a common good, virtuous citizens needed to be strong defenders of liberty and challenge the corruption and greed in government. The duty of the virtuous citizen became a foundation for the American Revolution, the French Revolution looked to incorporate these founding ideals and to export them throughout Europe. However, most of these French client republics were short-lived, as the revolutionary republic became the Napoleonic Empire, they were often annexed to France proper or subsumed into more openly French puppet regimes
2.
French First Republic
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In the history of France, the First Republic, officially the French Republic, was founded on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The First Republic lasted until the declaration of the First Empire in 1804 under Napoleon, under the Legislative Assembly, which was in power before the proclamation of the First Republic, France was engaged in war with Prussia and Austria. The foreign threat exacerbated Frances political turmoil amid the French Revolution and deepened the passion, in the violence of 10 August 1792, citizens stormed the Tuileries Palace, killing six hundred of the Kings Swiss guards and insisting on the removal of the king. A renewed fear of action prompted further violence, and in the first week of September 1792, mobs of Parisians broke into the citys prisons. This included nobles, clergymen, and political prisoners, but also numerous common criminals, such as prostitutes and petty thieves, many murdered in their cells—raped, stabbed and this became known as the September Massacres. The resulting Convention was founded with the purpose of abolishing the monarchy. The Conventions first act, on 10 August 1792, was to establish the French First Republic, the King, by then a private citizen bearing his family name of Capet, was subsequently put on trial for crimes of high treason starting in December 1792. On 16 January 1793 he was convicted, and on 21 January, throughout the winter of 1792 and spring of 1793, Paris was plagued by food riots and mass hunger. The new Convention did little to remedy the problem until late spring of 1793, despite growing discontent with the National Convention as a ruling body, in June the Convention drafted the Constitution of 1793, which was ratified by popular vote in early August. The Committees laws and policies took the revolution to unprecedented heights, after the arrest and execution of Robespierre in July 1794, the Jacobin club was closed, and the surviving Girondins were reinstated. A year later, the National Convention adopted the Constitution of the Year III and they reestablished freedom of worship, began releasing large numbers of prisoners, and most importantly, initiated elections for a new legislative body. On 3 November 1795, the Directory was established, the period known as the French Consulate began with the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799. Members of the Directory itself planned the coup, indicating clearly the failing power of the Directory, Napoleon Bonaparte was a co-conspirator in the coup, and became head of the government as the First Consul. He would later proclaim himself Emperor of the French, ending the First French Republic and ushering in the French First Empire
3.
Flag of Italy
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The flag of Italy is a tricolour featuring three equally sized vertical pales of green, white and red, with the green at the hoist side. Its current form has been in use since 18 June 1946 and was adopted on 1 January 1948. The first entity to use the Italian tricolour was the Cisalpine Republic in 1797, a more religious interpretation is that the green represents hope, the white represents faith, and the red represents charity, this references the three theological virtues. The tricolour was used for the first time on November 13–14. The law students defined themselves as patriots and wore tricolour cockades to signal they were insipred by Jacobin revolutionary ideals, standard or flag of three colours, green, white, and red. The flag was maintained until 1802, when it was renamed the Napoleonic Italian Republic, and a new flag was adopted, in 1799, the independent Republic of Lucca came under French influence and adopted as its flag a horizontal tricolour with green uppermost, this lasted until 1801. In 1805 Napoleon installed his sister, Elisa Bonaparte Baciocchi, as Princess of Lucca and this affair is commemorated in the opening of Leo Tolstoys War and Peace. In the same year, after Napoleon had crowned himself first French Emperor, the flag of the Kingdom of Italy was that of the Republic in rectangular form, charged with the golden Napoleonic eagle. This remained in use until the abdication of Napoleon in 1814, between 1848 and 1861, a sequence of events led to the independence and unification of Italy, this period of Italian history is known as the Risorgimento, or resurgence. During this period, the became the symbol which united all the efforts of the Italian people towards freedom. The Italian tricolour, defaced with the Savoyan coat of arms, was first adopted as war flag by the Kingdom of Sardinia–Piedmont army on 1848, in his Proclamation to the Lombard-Venetian people, Charles Albert said. In order to more clearly with exterior signs the commitment to Italian unification. Have the Savoy shield placed on the Italian tricolour flag, as the arms, blazoned gules a cross argent, mixed with the white of the flag, it was fimbriated azure, blue being the dynastic colour, although this does not conform to the heraldic rule of tincture. The rectangular civil and state variants were adopted in 1851 and it is worthy of note, however, that the arms bear the red-white-red flag of Austria, the opponent of Italian unification. This flag lasted from 3 April 1848 until 19 May 1849, the Provisional Government of Sicily, which lasted from 12 January 1848 to 15 May 1849, adopted the Italian tricolour, defaced with the trinacria, or triskelion. These lasted until 6 and 24 August 1849 respectively, in 1849, the new Roman Republic adopted an Italian tricolour, sent from Venice, bearing the legend DIO E POPOLO in red capital letters. This lasted for four months, while the Papal States of the Church was in abeyance, in 1860, the flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was again modified to the defaced Italian tricolour with the House of Bourbon-Two Sicilies coat of arms. On 15 April 1861, the flag of the Kingdom of Sardinia was declared the flag of the newly formed Kingdom of Italy
4.
Cispadane Republic
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The Cispadane Republic was a short-lived republic located in northern Italy, founded in 1796 with the protection of the French army, led by Napoleon Bonaparte. In the following year, it was merged with the Transpadane Republic to form the Cisalpine Republic and these were French client states organized by Napoleon after the Battle of Lodi in May 1796. The republics name refers to the side of the River Po. On 16 October 1796, a congress was held in Modena after the ruler, the congress was formed by representatives from the provinces of Modena, Bologna, Ferrara and Reggio Emilia, all located south of the Po. The congress proclaimed that the four provinces would form the Repubblica Cispadana, a civic guard, composed of mounted hunters and artillery, was formed. In the 7 January 1797 session, in Reggio Emilia, the decided to form a government. The flag, the first tricolore in Italy, was a tricolour, with red, white. In the center was an emblem composed of a quiver, accolade to a war trophy, with four arrows that symbolized the four provinces forming the Republic, on 9 July 1797, the Cispadane Republic united with the Transpadane Republic to form the Cisalpine Republic. Historical states of Italy French client republic
5.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
6.
Italian language
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By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
7.
Republic
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It is a government where the head of state is not a monarch. Both modern and ancient republics vary widely in their ideology, composition, in the classical and medieval period of Europe, many states were fashioned on the Roman Republic, which referred to the governance of the city of Rome, between it having kings and emperors. The Italian medieval and Renaissance political tradition, today referred to as humanism, is sometimes considered to derive directly from Roman republicans such as Sallust. Republics were not equated with classical democracies such as Athens, but had a democratic aspect, Republics became more common in the Western world starting in the late 18th century, eventually displacing absolute monarchy as the most common form of government in Europe. In modern republics, the executive is legitimized both by a constitution and by popular suffrage, for instance, Article IV of the United States Constitution guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican form of Government. The term originates as the Latin translation of Greek word politeia, cicero, among other Latin writers, translated politeia as res publica and it was in turn translated by Renaissance scholars as republic. The term politeia can be translated as form of government, polity, or regime, and is therefore not always a word for a specific type of regime as the modern word republic is. And also amongst classical Latin, the term republic can be used in a way to refer to any regime. In medieval Northern Italy, a number of city states had commune or signoria based governments, in the late Middle Ages, writers, such as Giovanni Villani, began writing about the nature of these states and the differences from other types of regime. They used terms such as libertas populi, a free people, the terminology changed in the 15th century as the renewed interest in the writings of Ancient Rome caused writers to prefer using classical terminology. To describe non-monarchical states writers, most importantly Leonardo Bruni, adopted the Latin phrase res publica. While Bruni and Machiavelli used the term to describe the states of Northern Italy, which were not monarchies, the term can quite literally be translated as public matter. It was most often used by Roman writers to refer to the state and government, in subsequent centuries, the English word commonwealth came to be used as a translation of res publica, and its use in English was comparable to how the Romans used the term res publica. Notably, during The Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell the word commonwealth was the most common term to call the new monarchless state, likewise, in Polish, the term was translated as rzeczpospolita, although the translation is now only used with respect to Poland. Presently, the term republic commonly means a system of government which derives its power from the rather than from another basis. After the classical period, during the Middle Ages, many cities developed again. The modern type of itself is different from any type of state found in the classical world. Nevertheless, there are a number of states of the era that are today still called republics
8.
Francesco Melzi d'Eril
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Francesco Melzi dEril was an Italian politician and patriot, serving as vice-president of the Napoleonic Italian Republic. He was a consistent supporter of the Italian unification ideals that would lead to the Italian Risorgimento shortly after his death, Francesco Melzi dEril was born to Gaspare and Marianna Teresa dEril in 1753. Despite the House of Melzi dEril being one of the prominent families in the Milanese aristocracy, as a consequence of this situation, Francesco Melzi dEril was raised by his uncle. Francescos uncle had him educated by the Jesuits, first at the Collegio dei Nobili in Brera and then at the Scuole Palatine, in the latter institute, Francesco met scientist Ruggero Giuseppe Boscovich, who would thereafter be one of his best friends. In 1773, as a consequence of Emperor Joseph IIs Enlightenment-influenced reforms, religious schools lost the right to confer degrees and he also had the opportunity to travel abroad and become knowledgeable about the emerging, Enlightenment-influenced European political systems as well as the English parliamentary system. He also thoroughly embraced the cause of the Italian unification, Melzi dErils attitude towards Napoleon was as mixed as that he had had towards the French Revolution. When Napoleon began his Italian campaign, and entered Milan, Melzi dEril first supported the new rule, later on, when he realized that Napoleon had no interest in the unity of Italy, Melzi dEril retired and eventually moved abroad. After the Battle of Marengo, Melzi was invited to France to participate in the definition of the new order for Italy. When the Italian Republic was founded, with Napoleon as the head of state, nevertheless, when the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1805, Napoleon chose Eugène de Beauharnais as his governor, and Melzi dEril was somehow set aside from the new government. As a compensation of sorts, he was made Duke of Lodi and he thus retired, but remained a strong supporter of the autonomy of Italy and a frank critic of the Napoleonic rule. In 1815, Milan fell under the Austrian rule, Melzi dEril was cautious in his relationships with the Austrian Empire, avoiding direct confrontation but also refusing to bow to the new rulers. It is notable, for example, that in 1815 he refused to welcome Austrian emissary Annibale Sommariva who had sent on a diplomatic mission to meet him in his house in Bellagio. Melzi dErial died on 16 January 1816 at the age of 63, in his house in Milan, the newspaper did not report on his death, for fear that the news might cause uprisings in Milan while the Emperor was there. The very day of his death, his house was sealed by the police, the funeral was delayed until 28 March, but it was solemn and largely participated by the population. His body was buried in Villa Melzi dEril, his villa in Bellagio, nino del Bianco, Francesco Melzi DEril. Francesco Melzi dEril, 1753–1816, milanese scomodo e grande uomo di Stato, visto da un lontano pronipote
9.
Pietro Verri
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Pietro Verri was an Italian philosopher, economist, historian and writer. Born in Milan, then under Austrian rule, to a noble family, he received a strongly religious education. He volunteered to serve in the Seven Years War in order to escape his fathers decision to him for legal studies. In his early life he translated Destouches works and wrote satirical almanacs which scandalized the Milanese society. Other figures who wrote on it include his brother Alessandro, the famous philosopher Cesare Beccaria, Alfonso Longo and Pietro Secchi. )In 1764 he also entered the public administration, as resistance against his reforming work in administration stiffened, Verri devoted himself increasingly to philosophy. In 1773 he wrote Dellindole del piacere e del dolore, followed in 1777 by Osservazioni sulla tortura, in which he stressed the uselessness, in 1777 he began the Storia di Milano, a notable example of Enlightenment historiography. In 1786, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Also notable is his correspondence with his brother Alessandro, Verri died in Milan in 1797. The younger brother of Alessandro Verri and Pietro Verri, Giovanni Verri, is supposed to be the father of the noted Italian novelist. Their other brother, Carlo, was also a politician, verris death bicentennary was commemorated on an Italian postage stamp in 1997. Volume 1, Editor Giovanni Silvestri, Milan, vita di Pietro Verri, Il Mulino, Collezione di testi e di studi,2002,648 p. C. Capra, Pietro Verri e il suo tempo, Bologna, Cisalpino,1999,1200 pages, baia Curionis, S. Una grande famiglia, i Verri in Franco Della Peruta, Storia illustrata di Milano, Elio Sellino Editore, Milano,1993. Bouvy, Eugène, Le Comte Pietro Verri, 1728-1797, ses idées et son temps,1889
10.
Giuseppe Parini
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Giuseppe Parini was an Italian Enlightenment satirist and poet of the neoclassic period. Parini was born in Bosisio in Brianza, Lombardy, in 1741 his grandaunt left him a monthly payment, at the condition that he would enter priesthood. His poem, Il Giorno, consisting of instructions to a young nobleman as to the best method of spending his mornings. It at once established Parinis popularity and influence, and two later a continuation of the same theme was published under the title of Il Mezzogiorno. Among other poems his rather artificial Odi, composed between 1757 and 1795, have appeared in various editions and he was associated with the Accademia della Crusca. Parinis work was accepted by younger poets mainly as a lesson in morality and freedom of thought. Ugo Foscolo, who met Parini in Milan, portrayed him as a serious, dignified person in Ultime lettere di Jacopo Ortis and accused the rich and corrupt town which had forgotten him and he died in August 1799 in Milan. A statue of the poet occupies a place of honor in Milans busy Piazzale Cordusio and his family still lives on, with Simon Cereda-Parini being the youngest known relative to continue the name to this day. The Day Morning, Midday, Evening, Night, a Poem
11.
Alessandro Volta
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He invented the Voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800 in a two-part letter to the President of the Royal Society. With this invention Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically, Voltas invention sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry. Alessandro Volta also drew admiration from Napoleon Bonaparte for his invention, Volta enjoyed a certain amount of closeness with the Emperor throughout his life and he was conferred numerous honours by him. Alessandro Volta held the chair of physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years and was widely idolised by his students. Despite his professional success, Volta tended to be a person inclined towards domestic life, at this time he tended to live secluded from public life and more for the sake of his family until his eventual death in 1827 from a series of illnesses which began in 1823. The SI unit of electric potential is named in his honour as the volt, Volta was born in Como, a town in present-day northern Italy, on 18 February 1745. In 1794, Volta married a lady also from Como, Teresa Peregrini. His father, Filippo Volta, was of noble lineage and his mother, Donna Maddalena, came from the family of the Inzaghis. In 1774, he became a professor of physics at the Royal School in Como, a year later, he improved and popularised the electrophorus, a device that produced static electricity. In 1777, he travelled through Switzerland, there he befriended H. B. de Saussure. In the years between 1776 and 1778, Volta studied the chemistry of gases and he researched and discovered methane after reading a paper by Benjamin Franklin of the United States on flammable air. In November 1776, he found methane at Lake Maggiore, and he devised experiments such as the ignition of methane by an electric spark in a closed vessel. Volta also studied what we now call electrical capacitance, developing separate means to both electrical potential and charge, and discovering that for a given object, they are proportional. This is called Voltas Law of Capacitance, and it was for work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt. In 1779 he became a professor of physics at the University of Pavia. Luigi Galvani, an Italian physicist, discovered something he named animal electricity when two different metals were connected in series with a leg and to one another. Volta realised that the frogs leg served as both a conductor of electricity and as a detector of electricity and he replaced the frogs leg with brine-soaked paper, and detected the flow of electricity by other means familiar to him from his previous studies. This may be called Voltas Law of the electrochemical series, Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and copper
12.
Napoleonic Wars
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The wars resulted from the unresolved disputes associated with the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars, which had raged on for years before concluding with the Treaty of Amiens in 1802. Napoleon became the First Consul of France in 1799, then Emperor five years later, inheriting the political and military struggles of the Revolution, he created a state with stable finances, a strong central bureaucracy, and a well-trained army. The British frequently financed the European coalitions intended to thwart French ambitions, by 1805, they had managed to convince the Austrians and the Russians to wage another war against France. At sea, the Royal Navy destroyed a combined Franco-Spanish fleet at Trafalgar in October 1805, Prussian worries about increasing French power led to the formation of the Fourth Coalition in 1806. France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July, although Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, it did not bring a lasting peace for Europe. Hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia, the Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support. The Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, the Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia. Unwilling to bear the consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse and retreat of the Grand Army along with the destruction of Russian lands. In 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France, a lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813. The Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814 and he was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power. However, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again, the Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June. The Congress of Vienna, which started in 1814 and concluded in 1815, established the new borders of Europe and laid out the terms, Napoleon seized power in 1799, creating a de facto military dictatorship. The Napoleonic Wars began with the War of the Third Coalition, Kagan argues that Britain was irritated in particular by Napoleons assertion of control over Switzerland. Furthermore, Britons felt insulted when Napoleon stated that their country deserved no voice in European affairs, for its part, Russia decided that the intervention in Switzerland indicated that Napoleon was not looking toward a peaceful resolution of his differences with the other European powers. The British quickly enforced a blockade of France to starve it of resources. Napoleon responded with economic embargoes against Britain, and sought to eliminate Britains Continental allies to break the coalitions arrayed against him, the so-called Continental System formed a league of armed neutrality to disrupt the blockade and enforce free trade with France
13.
Napoleon
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Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led several successful campaigns during the French Revolutionary Wars. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 until 1814, Napoleon dominated European and global affairs for more than a decade while leading France against a series of coalitions in the Napoleonic Wars. He won most of these wars and the vast majority of his battles, one of the greatest commanders in history, his wars and campaigns are studied at military schools worldwide. Napoleons political and cultural legacy has ensured his status as one of the most celebrated and he was born Napoleone di Buonaparte in Corsica to a relatively modest family from the minor nobility. When the Revolution broke out in 1789, Napoleon was serving as an officer in the French army. Seizing the new opportunities presented by the Revolution, he rose through the ranks of the military. The Directory eventually gave him command of the Army of Italy after he suppressed a revolt against the government from royalist insurgents, in 1798, he led a military expedition to Egypt that served as a springboard to political power. He engineered a coup in November 1799 and became First Consul of the Republic and his ambition and public approval inspired him to go further, and in 1804 he became the first Emperor of the French. Intractable differences with the British meant that the French were facing a Third Coalition by 1805, in 1806, the Fourth Coalition took up arms against him because Prussia became worried about growing French influence on the continent. Napoleon quickly defeated Prussia at the battles of Jena and Auerstedt, then marched the Grand Army deep into Eastern Europe, France then forced the defeated nations of the Fourth Coalition to sign the Treaties of Tilsit in July 1807, bringing an uneasy peace to the continent. Tilsit signified the high watermark of the French Empire, hoping to extend the Continental System and choke off British trade with the European mainland, Napoleon invaded Iberia and declared his brother Joseph the King of Spain in 1808. The Spanish and the Portuguese revolted with British support, the Peninsular War lasted six years, featured extensive guerrilla warfare, and ended in victory for the Allies. The Continental System caused recurring diplomatic conflicts between France and its client states, especially Russia, unwilling to bear the economic consequences of reduced trade, the Russians routinely violated the Continental System and enticed Napoleon into another war. The French launched an invasion of Russia in the summer of 1812. The resulting campaign witnessed the collapse of the Grand Army, the destruction of Russian cities, in 1813, Prussia and Austria joined Russian forces in a Sixth Coalition against France. A lengthy military campaign culminated in a large Allied army defeating Napoleon at the Battle of Leipzig in October 1813, the Allies then invaded France and captured Paris in the spring of 1814, forcing Napoleon to abdicate in April. He was exiled to the island of Elba near Rome and the Bourbons were restored to power, however, Napoleon escaped from Elba in February 1815 and took control of France once again. The Allies responded by forming a Seventh Coalition, which defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo in June, the British exiled him to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he died six years later at the age of 51
14.
Treaty of Campo Formio
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The Treaty of Campo Formio was signed on 18 October 1797 by Napoleon Bonaparte and Count Philipp von Cobenzl as representatives of the French Republic and the Austrian monarchy, respectively. The treaty followed the armistice of Leoben, which had forced on the Habsburgs by Napoleons victorious campaign in Italy. It definitively ended the War of the First Coalition and left Great Britain fighting alone against revolutionary France, the treaty, in its public articles, only concerned France and Austria. It called for a Congress of Rastatt to be held to negotiate a peace for the Holy Roman Empire. In its secret articles, Austria, as the state of the Emperor. The congress failed to achieve a peace by early 1799 and on 12 March France declared war on Austria again and this new war, the War of the Second Coalition, ended with the Peace of Lunéville, a peace for the whole Empire, in 1801. Beyond the usual clauses of firm and inviolable peace, the treaty transferred a number of Austrian territories into French hands, lands ceded included the Austrian Netherlands and certain islands in the Mediterranean, including Corfu and other Venetian islands in the Adriatic Sea. Venice and its territories were divided between the two states, Venice, Istria and Dalmatia were turned over to the Austrian emperor, Austria recognized the Cisalpine Republic and the newly created Ligurian Republic, formed of Genovese territories, as independent powers. In addition, the states of the Regnum Italicum formally ceased to owe fealty to the Holy Roman Emperor, free French navigation was guaranteed on the Rhine, the Meuse and the Moselle. The French Republic had been expanded into areas that had never before been under French control, the treaty was composed and signed after five months of negotiations. It was basically what had been agreed earlier at the Peace of Leoben in April 1797, during the negotiating period the French had to crush a royalist coup in September. That was used as a cause for the arrest and deportation of royalist, one consequence was the Peasants War, which erupted in the Southern Netherlands in 1798 following the French introduction of conscription. As a result of the treaty, Gilbert du Motier, marquis de Lafayette, by passing Venetian possessions in Greece, such as the Ionian Islands, to French rule, the treaty had an effect on later Greek history neither intended nor expected at the time. Campo Formio, now called Campoformido, is a village west of Udine in north-eastern Italy, the French commander resided at Villa Manin – the country mansion of Ludovico Manin, the last Doge of Venice – near Codroipo. The treaty was signed in an old house in the square of the village, property of Bertrando Del Torre. The following 18 January 1798, Austrian troops entered Venice, and on the 21st, they held a reception at the Doges Palace. Civiltà di Venezia, Volume 3, l’età moderna, the French Revolution, Volume II From 1793–1799. The Great Nation, France from Louis XV to Napoleon 1715–99, the Transformation of European Politics 1763–1848
15.
Battle of Cassano (1799)
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The Battle of Cassano dAdda was fought on 27 April 1799 near Cassano dAdda, about 28 km ENE of Milan. It resulted in a victory for the Austrians and Russians under Alexander Suvorov over Jean Moreaus French army, the action took place during the War of the Second Coalition during the larger conflict known as the French Revolutionary Wars. While General Napoleon Bonaparte campaigned in Egypt, the Second Coalition launched an invasion of French-occupied Italy, General of Division Barthélemy Schérer fought inconclusive actions the Austrians at Pastrengo, Verona, and Legnago on 26 March 1799. Feldmarschal-Leutnant Pál Kray and his Austrians then defeated Schérer at the Battle of Magnano on April 4th and this defeat forced the French army into a long retreat. Attempts by Schérer to hold the lines of the Mincio and Oglio rivers failed when an Austrian force led by FML Josef Vukassovich turned his northern flank, Schérer, completely out of his depth, handed over army command to the more capable MG Moreau. Austrias Russian allies, led by Suvorov, soon began appearing at the front, when Field Marshal Suvorov joined the allied army, he took over the top command from Kray, though the latter had just been promoted to Feldzeugmeister. The arrival of General of Cavalry Michael von Melas displaced Kray the top Austrian field command, therefore, Kray was assigned to capture the fortress of Mantua, while Melas and Suvorov pursued the French. The Siege of Mantua lasted from April until the garrison surrendered on 28 July, Moreau deployed the divisions of MGs Paul Grenier, Claude Victor, Jean Sérurier, and Pierre de Laboissière to defend the line of the Adda River. The Austrians still made up the bulk of the allied army, the Austrian division commanders were FML Peter Ott, FML Johann Zoph, General-Major Franz de Lusignan, and FML Konrad Valentin von Kaim. Even before the battle, a Russian force under Petr Bagration outflanked the French position by seizing a bridge over the Adda at Lecco on 26 April and this put Séruriers division in an awkward position. On 27 April, General of Cavalry Michael von Melas with the divisions of Fröhlich and Kaim stormed the French positions at Cassano, while Ott, suvarovs assault forced Moreau to retreat. The French suffered 2,500 killed and wounded, plus 5,000 soldiers,27 cannon, the Austro-Russians lost 2,000 killed and wounded. Moreau retreated, leaving a 2, 400-man garrison in Milans citadel, on 28 April, Vukassovich trapped Seruriers division at Verderio and the French lost another 300 killed and wounded, plus 2,700 captured. Greniers division withdrew to Novara while Victor and Laboissière pulled back to Valenza, another authority gives allied losses as 6,000 and French prisoners as 7,000, without listing French killed and wounded. Kaim pressed on to capture Turin on 20 June, Milans citadel capitulated on 24 May. The next major action was the Battle of Trebbia on 17–20 June, ISBN 1-85367-276-9 The Austrians Advance by Enrico Acerbi
16.
Battle of Marengo
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The Battle of Marengo was fought on 14 June 1800 between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces near the city of Alessandria, in Piedmont, Italy. Surprised by the Austrian advance toward Genoa in mid-April 1800, Bonaparte had hastily led his army over the Alps in mid-May, initially, their two assaults across the Fontanone stream near Marengo village were repelled, and General Jean Lannes reinforced the French right. Bonaparte realised the true position and issued orders at 11,00 am to recall the detachment under Général de Division Louis Desaix, on the Austrian left, Ott’s column had taken Castel Ceriolo, and its advance guard moved south to attack Lannes’s flank. Melas renewed the assault and the Austrians broke the central French position. By 2,30 pm the French were withdrawing and Austrian dragoons seized the Marengo farm, Bonaparte had by then arrived with the reserve, but Berthier’s troops began to fall back on the main vine belts. Knowing Desaix was approaching, Bonaparte was anxious about a column of Ott’s soldiers marching from the north, the French then withdrew steadily eastward toward San Giuliano Vecchio as the Austrians formed a column to follow them in line with Ott’s advance in the northern sector. The French casualties were considerably fewer, but included Desaix, the whole French line chased after the Austrians to seal une victoire politique that secured Bonaparte’s grip on power after the coup. It would be followed by a campaign, which sought to rewrite the story of the battle three times during Napoleon’s rule. The Battle of Marengo was the victory that sealed the success of Bonapartes Italian campaign of 1800 and is best understood in the context of that campaign. By a daring crossing of the Alps with his Army of the Reserve in mid-May 1800 almost before the passes were open, Bonaparte had threatened Melass lines of communications in northern Italy. The French army then seized Milan on 2 June, followed by Pavia, Piacenza and Stradella, Lombardy, Bonaparte hoped that Melass preoccupation with the Siege of Genoa, held by General André Masséna, would prevent the Austrians from responding to his offensive. However, Genoa surrendered on 4 June, freeing a number of Austrians for operations against the French. On 9 June, General Jean Lannes beat Feldmarschallleutnant Peter Ott in the Battle of Montebello and this caused Bonaparte to become overconfident. He became convinced that Melas would not attack, and further, as other French forces closed from the west and south, the Austrian commander had withdrawn most of his troops from their positions near Nice and Genoa to Alessandria on the main Turin-Mantua road. Ott arrived from Montebello of 13 June in a war council, nonetheless, by abandoning the San Giuliano plain, where the superior Austrian cavalry could have given him an edge, Melas probably made a serious mistake. Bonaparte knew that Ott had no way out from Alessandria, Victor then deployed divisional generals Gaspard Amédée Gardanne and Jacques-Antoine de Chambarlhac de Laubespins divisions along the Fontanone stream. The battle took place to the east of Alessandria, on a plain crossed by a river forming meanders, on the plain were spread numerous hamlets and farms which represented strategic points. The three main sites of the battle formed a triangle, with Marengo in the west, Castel Ceriolo in the north, a small stream, the Fontanone, passed between Marengo and the Bormida
17.
Italian Republic (Napoleonic)
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The Italian Republic was a short-lived republic located in Northern Italy. Napoleon served as President and its capital was Milan, the Italian Republic was the successor of the Cisalpine Republic, which changed its constitution to allow the French First Consul Napoleon to become its president. The new constitution changed the name of the state to the Italian Republic, it consisted of the areas that had comprised the Cisalpine Republic, primarily Lombardy. The republic had a territory of more than 42,500 square kilometers, Milan was the capital city, the main center having 124,000 inhabitants in 1764. The country was prosperous despite the plundering experienced in preceding centuries and its economy was based on cereal agriculture and cattling, plus flourishing small industries, notably the production of silk. The flag of the Italian Republic maintained the three Italian-Milanese national colours, but with a new, less revolutionary, pattern, the coat of arms was specified in a decree on May 13,1802. A treaty of friendship and commerce with the Republic of San Marino was signed on June 10,1802, all the colleges elected a commission of control and supreme rule, called the Censorship, composed of twenty-one members and based in Cremona. The head of state was the president of the republic, Napoleon Bonaparte, the vice-president, Francesco Melzi dEril, acted for the president during his absence. Melzi was described as a gentleman, and effectively ruled over the domestic affairs during the three years of the republics life. Melzi also introduced obligatory conscription to Italy, the Consulta was a commission of eight members led by the president of the republic and in charge of foreign policy. The commissioners were appointed by the Censorship upon nomination by the three colleges, many members of the Directory of the Cisalpine Republic entered into office. The Consulta ratified treaties, approved any special decrees concerning state security, the minister of foreign affairs was chosen from among the commissioners. The Legislative Council was a commission of at least ten members appointed by the president for three years and its mission was to allow the president to submit legislation, helping him in the elaboration of laws and being present when they were discussed in parliament. The secretary of state was the chief of the public administration and he promulgated the laws, guarded the states seal, and countersigned presidential acts. The first secretary was Diego Guicciardi, soon followed by Pellegrino Nobili and, finally, to draw up its budgets, the government was assisted by a Commissionership for National Accountancy. The parliament of the republic was the Legislative Body with limited powers and it was composed of 75 members elected in each department by the three colleges. It was summoned by the president of the republic and could only approve or reject a law, First appointed at the Meetings of Lyon, one third of the parliament had to be renewed every two years. The tribunals were divided into tribunals of first instance, courts of appeal, courts of revision, the judges of the first two were appointed by the Consulta, the latter two by the three colleges
18.
Lira
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Lira is the name of several currency units. It is the current currency of Turkey and also the name of the currencies of Lebanon. It is the currency of Italy, Malta, San Marino and the Vatican City, all of which were replaced in 2002 with the euro, and of Israel. The term originates from the value of a Troy pound of high purity silver, the libra was the basis of the monetary system of the Roman Empire. When Europe resumed a monetary system, during the Carolingian Empire, the Roman system was adopted, particularly this system was kept during the Middle Ages and Modern Age in England, France, and Italy. In each of countries the libra was translated into local language, pound in England, livre in France. The Venetian lira was one of the currencies in use in Italy, during the 19th century, Egypt and the Ottoman Empire adopted the lira as their national currency, equivalent to 100 piasters or kuruş. When the Ottoman Empire collapsed in years 1918-1922, many among the successor states kept the lira as their national currency. In some countries, such as Cyprus, which have belonged to both empires, the Ottoman Empire and the British Empire, the lira and pound are used as equivalents. For Turkish lira, the Turkish lira sign is used, otherwise L, sometimes in a double-crossed script form or less often single-crossed, is usually used as the symbol. The Turkish lira was introduced in 1844 during the Ottoman reign, the Turkish Lira is now the currency of Turkey and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus. The Lebanese pound is called lira in Arabic, which is the language of Lebanon. The Syrian pound is called lira in Arabic, which is the language of Syria. The Jordanian dinar is widely called a lira, the Bulgarian and Romanian languages refer to the English pound as lira in opposition to Croatian which refers to the Italian currency as lira. Cipolla, Le avventure della lira, Bologna, Il Mulino,1975, stefano Poddi, La lunga storia della lira, stralcio, Fondazioni, n.2 marzo-aprile,2008. Stefano Poddi, La lunga storia della lira, articolo completo, Difesa e Lavoro, overview of Italian lira from the BBC
19.
Soldo
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Soldo was the name an Italian medieval silver coin, issued for the first time in the late 12th century at Milan by Emperor Henry VI. The name derives from the late Roman coin solidus and it quickly became widespread in Italy where it was coined in Genoa, Bologna, and numerous other cities. In Venice, the soldo was minted from the reign of Francesco Dandolo onward, remaining in use also after the dissolution in 1797 and during the Austrian occupation. In the 14th century Florence, a soldo equaled 1⁄20 of a lira and 12 denari, as time passed, the soldo started to be coined in billon and, from the 18th century, in copper. During the reign of Leopoldo II of Tuscany, it was worth 3 quattrini, the Napoleonic reformation of Italian coinage made it worth 5 cents, while 20 soldi were needed to form a lira. The term, used in times to designate the pay of soldiers
20.
French denier
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The denier or penny was a medieval coin which takes its name from the Frankish coin first issued in the late seventh century, in English it is sometimes referred to as a silver penny. Its appearance represents the end of coinage, which, at the start of Frankish rule, had either been Byzantine or pseudo-imperial. Silver would be the basis for Frankish coinage from then on, around AD755, amid the Carolingian Reforms, Pepin the Short introduced a new currency system which was eventually adjusted so that 12 pence equaled one shilling and 20 shillings equaled one pound. Later, three deniers equaled one liard, only the denier was an actual coin, the rest were money of account. This system and the denier itself served as the model for many of Europes currencies, including the British pound, Italian lira, Spanish dinero, in Ancien Régime France, the denier was used as a notional measure of interest rates on loans. Thus, a rate of 4% would be expressed as denier 25, a rate of 5% as denier 20, and so forth
21.
Duchy of Mantua
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The Duchy of Mantua was a duchy in Lombardy, Northern Italy, subject to the Holy Roman Empire. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, Mantua was invaded by Byzantines, Lombards, in the 11th century it became a possession of Boniface of Canossa, marquis of Toscana. The last ruler of the family was the countess Matilde of Canossa, after the death of Matilde of Canossa, Mantua became a free commune and strenuously defended itself from the Holy Roman Empire in the 12th and 13th centuries. During the Investiture Controversy, Pinamonte Bonacolsi took advantage of the situation to seize power—as Captain General of the People—in 1273. His family ruled Mantua for the century, making it more prosperous. On 16 August 1328, the last Bonacolsi, Rinaldo, was overthrown in a revolt backed by the House of Gonzaga, ludovico, who had been podestà of the city in 1318, was elected capitano del popolo. Through a payment of 120,000 golden florins in 1433, Gianfrancesco was appointed marquis of Mantua by Emperor Sigismund, in 1459 Pope Pius II held a diet in Mantua to proclaim a crusade against the Turks. The first duke of Mantua was Federico II, who acquired the title from Charles V, the following year, the family acquired the Marquisate of Montferrat through marriage. Federico commissioned Giulio Romano to build the famous Palazzo Te, in the periphery of the city, in 1624, Ferdinando Gonzaga moved the ducal seat to a new residence, the Villa della Favorita, designed by the architect Nicolò Sebregondi. The War of the Mantuan Succession broke out, and in 1630 an Imperial army of 36,000 Landsknecht mercenaries besieged Mantua, Mantua never recovered from this disaster. Duke Ferdinand Charles, a ruler whose only aim was to hold parties and theatrical representations. After the latters defeat, he was declared deposed by Emperor Joseph I and took refuge in Venice, at his death, in 1708 his family lost Mantua forever in favour of the Habsburgs of Austria. Mantua was briefly united with the Duchy of Milan by an edict of Emperor Joseph II on 26 September 1786, Mantua was besieged by Napoleons French army in 1796, before falling in 1797. With the Treaty of Campo Formio, Mantua was annexed to the Cisalpine Republic becoming the Department of Mincio, duke of Mantua The House of Gonzaga, heirs to the sovereign marquessate of Mantua I Gonzaga di Mantova
22.
Republic of Venice
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It was based in the lagoon communities of the historically prosperous city of Venice. It was a leading European economic and trading power during the Middle Ages, the Venetian city state was founded as a safe haven for people escaping persecution in mainland Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. In its early years, it prospered on the salt trade, in subsequent centuries, the city state established a thalassocracy. It dominated trade on the Mediterranean Sea, including commerce between Asia, Europe and North Africa, the Venetian navy was used in the Crusades. Venice achieved territorial conquests along the Adriatic Sea, the city became home to an extremely wealthy merchant class, who patronized renowned art and architecture along the citys lagoons. Venetian merchants were influential financiers in Europe, the city was also the birthplace of great European explorers, including Marco Polo, as well as the classical music composer Vivaldi. The republic was ruled by the Doge, who was elected by members of the Great Council of Venice, the ruling class was an oligarchy of merchants and aristocrats. Venice and other Italian maritime republics played a key role in fostering capitalism, Venetian citizens generally supported the system of governance. The city-state enforced strict laws and employed ruthless tactics in its prisons, the opening of new trade routes to the Americas and the East Indies via the Atlantic Ocean marked the beginning of Venices decline as a maritime republic. The city state suffered defeats from the navy of the Ottoman Empire, in 1797, the country was colonized by Austria and France, following an invasion by Napoleon Bonaparte. Venice became a part of a unified Italy in the 19th century and it was formally known as the Most Serene Republic of Venice and is often referred to as La Serenissima, in reference to its title as one of the Most Serene Republics. He was the first historical Doge of Venice, whichever the case, the first doges had their power base in Heraclea. Ursuss successor, Deusdedit, moved his seat from Heraclea to Malamocco in the 740s and he was the son of Ursus and represented the attempt of his father to establish a dynasty. Such attempts were more commonplace among the doges of the first few centuries of Venetian history. They desired to remain well-connected to the Empire, another faction, republican in nature, believed in continuing along a course towards practical independence. The other main faction was pro-Frankish, supported mostly by clergy, they looked towards the new Carolingian king of the Franks, Pepin the Short, as the best provider of defence against the Lombards. A minor, pro-Lombard faction was opposed to close ties with any of these further-off powers, the successors of Obelerio inherited a united Venice. By the Pax Nicephori, the two emperors had recognised that Venice belonged to the Byzantine sphere of influence, many centuries later, the Venetians claimed that the treaty had recognised Venetian de facto independence, but the truth of this claim is doubted by modern scholars
23.
Battle of Lodi
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The Battle of Lodi was fought on 10 May 1796 between French forces under General Napoleon Bonaparte and an Austrian rear guard led by Karl Philipp Sebottendorf at Lodi, Lombardy. The rear guard was defeated, but the body of Johann Peter Beaulieus Austrian Army had time to retreat. Vukassovich was soon relieved by Gerhard Rosselminis covering force near the town, the towns defences were not strong, the defenders were few, and the French were able to get inside and make their way towards the bridge. The span was defended from the far bank by nine battalions of infantry arrayed in two lines and fourteen guns, Sebottendorf decided that it was inadvisable to retire in daylight, and opted to defend the crossing until nightfall. One eye-witness stated that the Austrians had men attempting to destroy the bridge and it should have been fairly easy to prevent a French crossing because the bridge was wooden, and could have been burnt. It was about 200 yards long, and was a simple structure consisting of piles driven into the river bed every few yards. The French advance guard was not strong enough to try to cross the bridge, during the afternoon, a violent cannonade began, as French guns arrived and were positioned to fire across the river. The carabiniers then stormed out of the gates and onto the bridge and these officers included André Masséna, Louis Berthier, Jean Lannes, Jean-Baptiste Cervoni, and Claude Dallemagne. Some of the French climbed down the piles and waded through the water, oberst Count Attems of Terzi Infantry Regiment #16 was killed covering the successful, though costly withdrawal. Austrian losses were 21 officers,5,200 men, and 235 horses killed, wounded, in addition,12 cannons,2 howitzers and 30 ammunition wagons had been lost. The Battle of Lodi was not a decisive engagement, since the Austrian army had successfully escaped, la battaglia al ponte di Lodi e l’inizio della settimana napoleonica lodigiana. The Road to Rivoli, Napoleons First Campaign, die Kriegsereignisse in Italien vom 15 April bis 16 Mai 1796, mit dem Gefechte bei Lodi. Bonapartes blitzkrieg in Italy 1796, Dego and Lodi Photos of sites of the 1796 campaign Paintings of battles of the 1796 campaign
24.
Po (river)
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The Po is a river that flows eastward across northern Italy. The Po flows either 652 km or 682 km – considering the length of the Maira, the headwaters of the Po are a spring seeping from a stony hillside at Pian del Re, a flat place at the head of the Val Po under the northwest face of Monviso. The Po ends at a delta projecting into the Adriatic Sea near Venice and it has a drainage area of 74,000 km² in all,70,000 in Italy, of which 41,000 is in montane environments and 29,000 on the plain. The Po is the longest river in Italy, at its widest point its width is 503 m, the Po extends along the 45th parallel north. The river flows through many important Italian cities, including Turin, Piacenza and it is connected to Milan through a net of channels called navigli, which Leonardo da Vinci helped design. Near the end of its course, it creates a delta at the southern part of which is Comacchio. The Po valley was the territory of the Roman Cisalpine Gaul, divided into Cispadane Gaul, the Po begins in the Alps, and is in Italy, and flows eastward. The river is subject to heavy flooding, consequently, over half its length is controlled with argini, or dikes. The slope of the valley decreases from 0. 35% in the west to 0. 14% in the east and it is characterized by its large discharge. The vast valley around the Po is called the Po Basin or Po Valley, in 2002, more than 16 million people lived there, at the time nearly ⅓ of the population of Italy. The two main uses of the valley are for industry and for agriculture, both major uses. The industrial centres, such as Turin and Milan, are located on higher terrain and they rely for power on the numerous hydroelectric stations in or on the flanks of the Alps, and on the coal/oil power stations which use the water of the Po basin as coolant. Drainage from the north is mediated through several large, scenic lakes, the streams are now controlled by so many dams as to slow the rivers sedimentation rate, causing geologic problems. The main products of the farms around the river are cereals including – unusually for Europe – rice, the latter method is the chief consumer of surface water, while industrial and human consumption use underground water. The Po Delta wetlands have been protected by the institution of two parks in the regions in which it is situated, Veneto and Emilia-Romagna. The Po Delta Regional Park in Emilia-Romagna, the largest, consists of four parcels of land on the bank of the Po. Executive authority resides in an assembly of the presidents of the provinces, the mayors of the comuni and they employ a Technical-Scientific Committee and a Park Council to carry out directives. In 1999 the park was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and was added to Ferrara, City of the Renaissance, the 53,653 ha of the park contain wetlands, forest, dunes and salt pans
25.
Duchy of Modena and Reggio
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It was ruled from 1814 by the noble House of Este, of Austria-Este. In 1452 Emperor Frederick III offered the duchy to Borso dEste, whose family had ruled the city of Modena, Borso in 1450 had also succeeded his brother as margrave in the adjacent Papal Duchy of Ferrara, where he received the ducal title in 1471. The Este lands on the border of the Holy Roman Empire with the Papal States formed a stabilizing buffer state in the interest of both. In the War of the League of Cambrai from 1508, troops from Modena fought in Papal service against the Republic of Venice, upon the death of Duke Alfonso II in 1597, the ducal line became extinct. The Este lands were bequested to Alfonsos cousin Cesare dEste, however, Cesare could retain Modena and Reggio as Imperial fiefs. In the 1628 War of the Mantuan Succession, the dukes of Modena sided with Habsburg Spain and in received the town of Correggio from the hands of Emperor Ferdinand II. During the War of the Spanish Succession, Duke Rinaldo was ousted by French troops under Louis Joseph de Bourbon, in 1711 the small Duchy of Mirandola was absorbed by the Este. His successor Francesco III backed France in the 1740 War of the Austrian Succession, and was expelled by Habsburg forces, in 1796 Modena was again occupied by a French army under Napoleon Bonaparte, who deposed Duke Ercole III and created the Cispadane Republic out of his territory. By the 1801 Treaty of Lunéville, the last Este Duke was compensated with the Breisgau region of the former Further Austrian territories in southwestern Germany, and died in 1803. Following his death, the title was inherited by his son-in-law, the Habsburg-Lorraine archduke Ferdinand of Austria. Soon after, he inherited the territories of Massa and Carrara from his mother, in the course of the Italian unification period in the 1830s-60s, the Austria-Este dukes were briefly ousted in the revolutions of 1831 and 1848, but soon returned. During the Second Italian War of Independence following the Battle of Magenta, the last Duke Francis V was again forced to flee, this time permanently
26.
Departments of France
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In the administrative divisions of France, the department is one of the three levels of government below the national level, between the administrative regions and the commune. There are 96 departments in metropolitan France and 5 overseas departments, each department is administered by an elected body called a departmental council. From 1800 to April 2015, they were called general councils, the departments were created in 1791 as a rational replacement of Ancien Régime provinces with a view to strengthen national unity, the title department is used to mean a part of a larger whole. Almost all of them were named after geographical features rather than after historical or cultural territories which could have their own loyalties. The earliest known suggestion of it is from 1764 in the writings of dArgenson and they have inspired similar divisions in many countries, some of them former French colonies. Most French departments are assigned a number, the Official Geographical Code. Some overseas departments have a three-digit number, the number is used, for example, in the postal code, and was until recently used for all vehicle registration plates. For example, inhabitants of Loiret might refer to their department as the 45 and this reform project has since been abandoned. The first French territorial departments were proposed in 1665 by Marc-René dArgenson to serve as administrative areas purely for the Ponts et Chaussées infrastructure administration, before the French Revolution, France gained territory gradually through the annexation of a mosaic of independent entities. By the close of the Ancien Régime, it was organised into provinces, during the period of the Revolution, these were dissolved, partly in order to weaken old loyalties. Their boundaries served two purposes, Boundaries were chosen to break up Frances historical regions in an attempt to erase cultural differences, Boundaries were set so that every settlement in the country was within a days ride of the capital of the department. This was a security measure, intended to keep the national territory under close control. This measure was directly inspired by the Great Terror, during which the government had lost control of rural areas far from any centre of government. The old nomenclature was carefully avoided in naming the new departments, most were named after an areas principal river or other physical features. Even Paris was in the department of Seine, the number of departments, initially 83, was increased to 130 by 1809 with the territorial gains of the Republic and of the First French Empire. Following Napoleons defeats in 1814-1815, the Congress of Vienna returned France to its pre-war size, in 1860, France acquired the County of Nice and Savoy, which led to the creation of three new departments. Two were added from the new Savoyard territory, while the department of Alpes-Maritimes was created from Nice, the 89 departments were given numbers based on their alphabetical order. The department of Bas-Rhin and parts of Meurthe, Moselle, Vosges and Haut-Rhin were ceded to the German Empire in 1871, following Frances defeat in the Franco-Prussian War
27.
Province of Lodi
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The province of Lodi is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. Its provincial capital is the city of Lodi, as of 2015, it has a population of 229,576 inhabitants over an area of 783 square kilometres, giving the province a population density of 293.2 inhabitants per square kilometre. The city of Lodi has a population of 44,769 inhabitants as of 2015, and the provincial president is Mauro Soldati. The city of Lodi was first settled during the fifth century BCE, before being occupied by the Romans in 222 BCE, by 89 BCE it was called Laus Pompeia, the central city of the Lodi Vecchio. In 1025, the German emperor Conrad II granted certain rights to the Archbishop of Milan which caused land ownership to change, a request made of Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor, to rebuild the city near the Adda River was granted. The city, however, joined his opponents, the Lombard League and its citizens fought against Frederick at the ] in 1176. Still, it continued to have problems with Milan until the city was conquered in 1335 by lord of Milan Azzone Visconti and it remained peaceful until it was invaded in the 1490s. The first significant Italian victory by Napoleon took place in the province on 10 May 1796 and it fell under Austrian rule until the Austrians left the city in 1859 and it was ruled by Marshal Patrice de MacMahon, Duke of Magentas French forces from 10 June 1859. It later became a part of the kingdom of Italy and became a component of the province of Milan, the province of Lodi is one of twelve provinces in the region of Lombardy in northwestern Italy. The province is bounded on the east by the Province of Cremona, the land is mostly gently sloping or flat and the soil is alluvial loam. It is used to grow crops, which are mown up to eight times a year, rice, wheat, maize, sugarbeet. List of communes of the Province of Lodi Provincia di Lodi
28.
Province of Massa and Carrara
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The Province of Massa and Carrara, until 2009 Province of Massa-Carrara, is a province in the Tuscany region of Italy. It is named after the two towns in its territory, Carrara and Massa, its capital. The province of Massa e Carrara was born in 1859 from the separation of the Lunigiana, originally it was composed of three Circondari, I° Circondario of Massa and Carrara, II° Circondario of Castelnuovo Garfagnana, III° Circondario of Pontremoli. Until the census of 1861, the province appears as part of Compartimento territoriale Modena, Reggio and Massa, but since the census of the population of 1871 it has been counted as part of Tuscany. Later, with the Regio Decreto n.1913 of September 2,1923, the municipalities of Calice al Cornoviglio and Rocchetta Vara were detached from the province, the province of Massa and Carrara was left crippled, waiting for a reorganization. In 1938, the municipalities of Carrara, Massa and Montignoso joined, in 1946, with decree Lieutenant one the new municipality of Apuania was formed, and the province resumptions the denomination does not date from 1859 when it was Massa and Carrara but Massa. This was the name that had been designated to the city of Massa or Massa of Carrara from 1700 until the formation of the Kingdom of Italy, in 2009 both decrees of 1938 and 1946 were abolished, restoring the old name. The province covers an area of 1,157 square kilometres, there are 17 comuni in the province. Carrara Duchy of Massa and Carrara Lunigiana Marble Massa Ducal Palace of Massa, home of the local authority La Pescigola, Massa-Carrara Province homepage
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Province of Reggio Emilia
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The Province of Reggio Emilia is one of the nine provinces of the Italian Region of Emilia-Romagna. The capital city, which is the most densely populated comune in the Province, is Reggio Emilia and it has an area of 2,293 square kilometres and, based on the 2010 Istituto Nazionale di Statistica census, it has a total population of 530,343. There are 44 comuni in the province, rolo, the smallest commune in the Province by area, is the commune farthest to the East. Collagna is the commune farthest to the West, the border towns of the Province are Ligonchio, which is the smallest commune by population, to the South and Luzzara in the North. Luzzara is the second largest commune in Emilia-Romagna and has the highest number of nationals in the region. The Province is home to the historical Canossa Castle, property of the countess Matilde, four faculties of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia are located in Reggio Emilia. The Faculty of Engineering and Agriculture was established in Reggio Emilia in 1998, followed by the Faculties of Communication Sciences and it is home to the Orto Botanico dellUniversità di Modena e Reggio Emilia. It is based and inspired on theories of Malaguzzi, Bruner, Vygotsky, Dewey, Piaget, Reggio Emilia helds the International Centre Loris Malaguzzi, a modern structure where the Reggio Emilia approach is implemented, exported and spread around the world. With sports arenas including the Stadio Giglio and Palabigi, Reggio Emilia is home to the basketball team Pallacanestro Reggiana, the Camparini Gioielli Cup is a yearly challenger-level tennis tournament played on clay in Reggio Emilia
30.
Province of Lecco
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The Province of Lecco is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Lecco, on 1 January 2001 the province had a population of 311,452 on a surface of 816 square kilometres divided in 90 comunes. The Province of Lecco was established by the President of the Republic in Decree No.250 of 6 March 1992, elections for the appointment of the 1st President of the Province of Lecco were held on April 23,1995 and May 7,1995. The proclamation of the 1st President, Mario Anghileri, occurred on May 9,1995, the Province of Lecco is situated in northern central Italy. The province of Lecco has an area of only 814.58 square kilometres, with some 600 square kilometres located across the Adda River, 70% of the province is mountainous and the other 30% is hilly. The highest point is Mount Legnone in the north of the province,2,609 metres high, in the west, is Monte Cornizzolo lake at 1,240 metres and Monte Rai at 1,259 metres. In the east of the province is Monte Serrada and the Resegone di Lecco,1,875 metres with its characteristic shape reminiscent of the teeth of a saw, in the center-south is Monte Barro at 922 metres, in the Monte Barro Regional Park. The province contains numerous lakes, with Lake Como and Lake Annone in the comunes of Garlate and Olginate, to the west, the comunes of Rogeno, Bosisio Parini and Cesana Brianza overlook Lake Pusiano. There is also an abundance of rivers, including the main Adda river, other smaller rivers are the Molgora, the Bévéra, a tributary of the Lambro, the Pioverna flowing in Valsassina, and Varro flowing in Val Varrone
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Province of Milan
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The Province of Milan was a province in the Lombardy region, Italy. Its capital was the city of Milan, on January 1,2015 it was replaced by the Metropolitan City of Milan. Province of Milan extends over the Po Valley and has River Ticino to the west, the Villoresi is the natural southern border of Brianza, an area in Lombardy noted for its mountains, lakes and plains. It contains six regional natural parks, Parco Adda Nord, Parco Agricolo Sud Milano, Parco delle Groane, Parco Nord Milano, Parco della Valle del Lambro, half of the province is agricultural and flood plain, and most of it is protected by reserves
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Province of Modena
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The Province of Modena is a province in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Modena and it has an area of 2,689 square kilometres and a total population of about 701,000. There are 48 comuni in the province, see Comuni of the Province of Modena, the largest after Modena are Carpi, Sassuolo, Formigine and Castelfranco Emilia
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Province of Cremona
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The Province of Cremona is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. The river Po, which is the longest Italian river, is the boundary with the adjoining Province of Piacenza. Lombardy has been inhabited since ancient times and stone age and Bronze Age rock drawings, from the fifth century BC, Gallic tribes invaded and settled in the region, building several cities and ruling the land as far as the Adriatic Sea. From the third century BC the Romans expanded their sphere of influence into the area, and in 194 BC, the Romans overwhelmed the previous civilisations and Lombardy became one of the richest and best-developed areas in Italy. It was here in 313 AD that the Roman Emperor Constantine the Great issued the famous Edict of Milan that gave freedom of religion to all people in the Roman Empire. Following the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Lombardy was invaded by successive waves of tribes, stability followed until 774, when the Frankish king Charlemagne conquered the area and annexed the Kingdom of the Lombards to his empire. The province of Cremona is a long, relatively narrow part of the Padana Plain in northern Italy, the province is orientated from northwest to southeast. The region of Emilia-Romagna lies to the south, Cremona abutting onto the Province of Reggio Emilia, the Province of Parma, several rivers flow across the Lombardy Plain to join the River Po which runs along the southern border of the province. The River Adda separates Cremona from the Province of Lodi and the River Oglio provides the border with the Province of Mantua. Other rivers in the north of the include the River Serio and the River Tormo. These rivers are linked by a network of canals which have been in place since at least the sixteenth century and are used for irrigation. The total area of the province is 600 square miles, although the province is essentially flat, there are some undulations in the surface formed by the varying courses of the rivers over the millennia. For historical reasons, the province is subdivided into four districts, centred on Crema, Soresina, Cremona. The climate is largely uniform throughout the province, the annual rainfall is about 750 mm with October and November being the wettest months and February and July being the driest. The average temperature is 1.7 °C in January and 24.3 °C in July, there is often fog in winter, especially near the rivers. The principal economic resources of the province of Cremona are agricultural, rice is grown with the help of water drawn from canals. Other crops include maize, locally called Melegot and barley and to an extent, soya. Grapes are cultivated and wine produced, and there is also a silk industry, the farms in the province are some of the most productive in the country
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Province of Bergamo
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The Province of Bergamo is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. It has a population of 1,108,298, an area of 2,745.94 square kilometers and its capital is the city of Bergamo. The northern part spans the Orobian Alps with the highest point being Mount Coca at 3,052 meters and its rivers include the Serio, Dezzo, Cherio, Brembo, and Adda. Its valleys include the Seriana, Cavallina, and Brembana, other, smaller but important valleys include the Valle Imagna, the Val di Scalve, the Val Serina, and the Val Taleggio. The southern part is made up of flatlands. In the east, Lake Iseo forms its boundary which the Oglio from the Camonica Valley flows through, minerals are found in the area of Trescore Balneario and San Pellegrino and other places. The low-lying areas are rich in pastures along with corn, wine, grain, rice, very common is also the breeding of poultry, pigs with modern techniques, and the traditional sheep herding. The provincial economy is based on SMEs, and varied products are made, the main heavy industries of the province of Bergamo are mineral processing, especially iron, concrete and marble. There is a tractor plant, in Treviglio, and a large pipe plant. Silks, metallurgical products and clothing are also common products, a Heineken Italia brewery makes Moretti La Rossa in Comun Nuovo. Bergamo masons and assemblers are very famous for their ability and dedication to work, as the end of 2006 the province of Bergamo host 92,000 immigrants from counties outside the European Union. About 15,000 of them came from Bolivia, especially the city of Cochabamba, due to the relations of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Bergamo. Most of Bolivians reside in the town of Bergamo, communes of the province of Bergamo Galleria orobica Official website
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Province of Pavia
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The province of Pavia is a province in the region of Lombardy in northern Italy. Its capital is Pavia and the president of the province is Daniele Bosone, as of 2015, the province has a population of 548,722 inhabitants and an area of 2,968.64 square kilometres, the town of Pavia has a population of 72,205. The city Pavia was initially settled by the Ligures and was occupied by Gaulish tribes. In the sixth century it was the capital of German tribe the Lombards, however, following the death of Charlemagne, the Lombard territory became part of Frankish territory. In the 12th century, it became a commune after Frankish rule ceased, the University of Pavia was founded in 1361. Starting from 1359, Pavia and its neighbourhood were owned by the Visconti and then the Sforza of Milan, until, in 1499 and it was the scene of a Franco-Imperial battle in 1525, in which Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor defeated Francis I of France. The Province of Pavia is in the region of Lombardy in northwestern Italy and it is bounded to the north by the provinces of Milan and the Lodi, to the southeast by the Province of Piacenza, and to the southwest it is bounded by the Province of Alessandria. The province is crossed by the rivers Ticino and Po, which meet four kilometres south of the capital, the province contains 190 communes and the River Po is navigable up to its confluence with the Ticino. The territory of Siccomario, at the confluence of the two rivers, should properly be included in Lomellina, but for historical reasons it is considered part of Pavese. Another large river flowing through the province is the Olona, the province is mostly flat with the northwestern part of the province being good agricultural land. The southern part rises to low hills which give way to the Ligurian Apennines, the town of Pavia has a major position in northern Italys textile industry and is renowned for hatmaking. It also plays its part in the engineering and metallurgical industries. This is an important winemaking district and produces sparkling wines and it is the largest area in Italy for the production of Pinot noir. The list below shows the most populated municipalities of the province in 2010, Comuni of the Province of Pavia Province of Pavia official website Oltrepò Pavese Touristic site
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Province of Varese
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The province of Varese is a province in the Lombardy region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Varese, but its largest city is Busto Arsizio, the headquarters of the AgustaWestland, the company merged into Leonardo-Finmeccanica since 2016, the worlds largest producer of helicopters, is based in Samarate, a comune of the province. As of 2015, it has a population of 889,410 inhabitants over an area of 1,198.11 square kilometres, the provincial president is Nicola Gunnar Vincenzi. In Roman times, the settlements of Castelseprio and the port of Angera were of high importance in the region. The House of Visconti conquered the region in the 13th century, the House of Visconti used the land for agricultural purposes and as part of the territories of Milan. During this Visconti rule, Varese became prosperous due to levels of trade in the region. Prior to his appointment as Duke, Francesco III dEste, Duke of Modena lived in the region during the 18th century, the province of Varese is one of twelve provinces in the region of Lombardy in the north of Italy. It is the most northwesterly province in the region and its northern border forms the boundary with Switzerland. The Province of Verbano-Cusio-Ossola in the Piedmont region lies to the northwest, to the south lies the Metropolitan City of Milan, and to the east, the Province of Monza and Brianza, and the Province of Como. The provincial capital is the city of Varese, which is situated beside Lake Varese at the foot of Sacro Monte di Varese, the agriculture of this sub-Alpine region is based on livestock farming and the economy relies on tourism, with many people commuting daily to Milan. There are local cheeses made from milk and local meat dishes. Other local products are a variety of asparagus, chestnuts, berries and honey. Official website Media related to Province of Varese at Wikimedia Commons
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Valtellina
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Valtellina or the Valtelline, German, Veltlin, Italian, Valtellina, is a valley in the Lombardy region of northern Italy, bordering Switzerland. Today it is known for its ski center, hot spring spas, bresaola, in past centuries it was a key alpine pass between northern Italy and Germany and control of the Valtellina was much sought after, particularly during the Thirty Years War. The most important comune of the valley is Sondrio, the major centers are Aprica, Morbegno, Tirano, Bormio. Although Livigno is on the side of the alpine watershed. During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, the Valtellina belonged to Graubünden, during the Thirty Years War, the Valtellina was a theater of intense military and diplomatic struggle among France, the Habsburg powers and the local authorities. At stake was control of the routes through the Valtellina territory to the passes between Lombardy and the Danube watershed, the anti-Habsburg forces in the Three Leagues put together a court that between 1618 and 1620 handed down a number of convictions against Catholics in the Leagues and Valtellina. The harsh judgments of the anti-Habsburg Thusis court led to a conspiracy to drive the Protestants out of the valley, the leader of the conspiracy, Giacomo Robustelli of the Planta family, had ties to Madrid, Rome and Paris. On the evening of 18/19 July 1620, a force of Valtellina rebels supported by Austrian and Italian troops marched into Tirano, when they finished in Tirano, they marched to Teglio, Sondrio and further down the valley killing every Protestant that they found. Between 500 and 600 people were killed on that night and in the four days. The attack drove nearly all the Protestants out of the valley, prevented further Protestant incursions, the killings in Valtellina were part of the conflicts in Graubünden known as the Bündner Wirren or Confusion of the Leagues. In 1797 the growing power of the First French Republic created the Cisalpine republic in Northern Italy, on 10 October 1797, the French supported a revolt in the Valtellina against the Graubünden, and it joined the Cisalpine Republic. After the Congress of Vienna in 1815 the Valtellina became part of the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia, in 1859 it came, together with Lombardy, to the Kingdom of Sardinia, and finally in 1861 it became part of the Kingdom of Italy. Australia, especially Western Australia, was a destination for such migrants. Industrially, the area is famous as the home of the worlds first mainline electrified railway, the electrification of the Valtellina line took place in 1902, using three-phase power at 3,600 V, with a maximum speed of 70 km/h. The system was designed by the brilliant Hungarian engineer Kálmán Kandó who was employed by contractors the Budapest-based Ganz company. These days, however, only Italian and Lombard are spoken, the Fascist Party secretary Alessandro Pavolini was the main proponent of the idea, which he first raised with Mussolini in September 1944. He pointed out that the valley was ringed with fortifications dating from World War I, in the last months of 1944 Mussolinis government began moving munitions and food stores to the area. By January 1945, however, no decision to make a stand in the Valtellina had been taken
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Three Leagues
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The Three Leagues was the alliance of 1471 of the League of Gods House, the League of the Ten Jurisdictions and the Grey League, leading eventually to the formation of the Swiss canton of Graubünden. Most of the lands of Graubünden were part of the Roman province Raetia in 15 BC, the area later was part of the lands of the Bishopric of Chur. On January 29,1367, the League of Gods House, was founded to resist the power of the Bishopric of Chur. Bishop Peter Gelyto reacted by transferring the bishopric to the Habsburgs in exchange for a pension from the ducal house, other districts joined the league subsequently, including the Poschiavo in 1408 and the Vier Dörfer in 1450. For some time, Unterengadin, Münstertal and the upper Vinschgau were disputed between the Bishopric of Chur and the County of Tyrol. While the first two could shake off the rule of the Habsburgs as count of Tyrol, in 1618, the capital of the League was Ilanz. The name Grey League is derived from the homespun grey clothes worn by the people, even before 1440, the lordships of Löwenberg, Thusis, Tschappina and Heinzenberg joined the League, despite the count of Werdenberg-Sargans having forbidden them from doing so. Joint meetings of the three Leagues are evidenced from 1461, closer links date to 1471, when the two leagues allied with the Grey League, but there is no proof of this date. The Habsburgs were defeated at Calven Gorge and Dornach, helping the Swiss Confederacy, after 1499, the Free State de facto separated from the Holy Roman Empire and developed, during the 16th century into a political entity that was unique in early modern Europe. In the early 17th century, it was the territory in Europe where all decisions were made by communalism. The Musso war of 1520 drove the Three Leagues closer to the Swiss Confederacy, with the Bundesbrief of 23 September 1524 was created a constitution that endured until the Napoleonic dissolution of the Free State. The supreme power in the Free State was a Bundestag, composed of 63 deputies with responsible to constituencies, the Ilanz Articles of 1524 and 1526 reduced the power of the Bishop of Chur and strengthened the alliance between the Three Leagues. The first articles, adopted 4 April 1524, required priests to live in the communities served, to earnestly care for the spiritual needs of their congregation. The communities had the right to approve their priests and restricted the bishop from judging secular matters, the second articles were adopted on 25 June 1526. They completely removed the bishops secular power, the parishes could now chose their own priests and appointments to bishop required approval of the entire Bundestag. Additionally church leaders could no longer appoint secular officers, the monasteries were placed under government oversight, the articles remained the law of League until the 1798 French invasion. With the articles, the secular League authorities became the highest power in the region, with the invasion of Switzerland by the French Revolutionary Armies, the Three Leagues were absorbed into the Helvetic Republic, as the canton of Raetia. With the Napoleonic Act of Mediation, the Leagues were incorporated into a restored Swiss Confederacy — as the canton of Graubünden — in 1803, the districts subsequently joined the Austrian client kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia after the Congress of Vienna and eventually become the Italian province of Sondrio
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Austria
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Austria, officially the Republic of Austria, is a federal republic and a landlocked country of over 8.7 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, the territory of Austria covers 83,879 km2. The terrain is mountainous, lying within the Alps, only 32% of the country is below 500 m. The majority of the population speaks local Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, other local official languages are Hungarian, Burgenland Croatian, and Slovene. The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty, from the time of the Reformation, many northern German princes, resenting the authority of the Emperor, used Protestantism as a flag of rebellion. Following Napoleons defeat, Prussia emerged as Austrias chief competitor for rule of a greater Germany, Austrias defeat by Prussia at the Battle of Königgrätz, during the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, cleared the way for Prussia to assert control over the rest of Germany. In 1867, the empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary, Austria was thus the first to go to war in the July Crisis, which would ultimately escalate into World War I. The First Austrian Republic was established in 1919, in 1938 Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the Anschluss. This lasted until the end of World War II in 1945, after which Germany was occupied by the Allies, in 1955, the Austrian State Treaty re-established Austria as a sovereign state, ending the occupation. In the same year, the Austrian Parliament created the Declaration of Neutrality which declared that the Second Austrian Republic would become permanently neutral, today, Austria is a parliamentary representative democracy comprising nine federal states. The capital and largest city, with a population exceeding 1.7 million, is Vienna, other major urban areas of Austria include Graz, Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck. Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, with a nominal per capita GDP of $43,724, the country has developed a high standard of living and in 2014 was ranked 21st in the world for its Human Development Index. Austria has been a member of the United Nations since 1955, joined the European Union in 1995, Austria also signed the Schengen Agreement in 1995, and adopted the euro currency in 1999. The German name for Austria, Österreich, meant eastern realm in Old High German, and is cognate with the word Ostarrîchi and this word is probably a translation of Medieval Latin Marchia orientalis into a local dialect. Austria was a prefecture of Bavaria created in 976, the word Austria is a Latinisation of the German name and was first recorded in the 12th century. Accordingly, Norig would essentially mean the same as Ostarrîchi and Österreich, the Celtic name was eventually Latinised to Noricum after the Romans conquered the area that encloses most of modern-day Austria, around 15 BC. Noricum later became a Roman province in the mid-first century AD, heers hypothesis is not accepted by linguists. Settled in ancient times, the Central European land that is now Austria was occupied in pre-Roman times by various Celtic tribes, the Celtic kingdom of Noricum was later claimed by the Roman Empire and made a province
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Desenzano del Garda
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Desenzano del Garda is a town and comune in the province of Brescia, in Lombardy, Italy, on the southwestern shore of Lake Garda. It borders the communes of Castiglione delle Stiviere, Lonato, Padenghe sul Garda, during the Third Italian War of Independence, Desenzano was bombarded by the Austrian navy. It attracts myriad tourists from the area owing to its beautiful view of the Alps from the southern shore of Lake Garda. Desenzano is the heart of nightlife on the shore of Lake Garda, with several discos. In the summer, its squares, Piazza Malvezzi and Piazza Matteotti, are crowded all night with young and partying people. At the heart of the city is a series of interconnected piazze that house numerous open-air cafés, various shops, gelaterie, the city has a main port near the Piazza Giacomo Matteotti, from where several ferries operate. On the south-western outskirts of the city is a railway station, the Desenzano del Garda-Sirmione railway station. Desenzano also has its own exit from the A4 motorway, the road between Milan and Venice. It is home to one or more prehistoric pile-dwelling settlements, which are part of the Prehistoric Pile dwellings around the Alps UNESCO World Heritage Site, Desenzano is headed by a mayor assisted by a legislative body, the consiglio comunale, and an executive body, the giunta comunale. Since 1994 the mayor and members of the consiglio comunale are directly elected together by resident citizens, the giunta comunale is chaired by the mayor, who appoints others members, called assessori. The offices of the comune are housed in a building called the municipio or palazzo comunale. Since 1994 the mayor of Desenzano is directly elected by citizens, originally every four, the current mayor is Rosa Leso, elected on 21 May 2012. Leso is the first female to held the office and this is a timeline of the direct-elected mayors of Desenzano since 1994, Left-wing, Right-wing Desenzano Tourism
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Province of Brescia
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The Province of Brescia is a Province in Lombardy, northern Italy. It has a population of some 1,200,000 As of 2016, the province of Brescia stretches between Lake Iseo in the west, Lake Garda in the east, the Southern Rhaetian Alps in the north and the Lombardian plains in the south. The main rivers of the province are the Oglio, the Mella, rock Drawings in Valcamonica, Brescia, one of the places of Longobard power, Prehistoric settlements of Lavagnone, Lugana Vecchia, Lucone, San Sivino and Gabbiano. Communes of the province of Brescia Official website
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Province of Mantua
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The Province of Mantua is a province in the Lombardy region of northern Italy. Its capital is the city of Mantua, founded in the tenth century BC on the plain formed by meanders of the River Mincio, Mantua became an Etruscan town and important trading post for pottery and agricultural products. Despite its defensible position, it was unable to withstand the Celtic invaders in the sixth and fifth centuries BC who overwhelmed it, by the fifth century AD, the Western Roman Empire was collapsing. Mantua was overrun by a series of invaders, including the Visigoths, Vandals, after 568 the Lombards seized control of the part of northern Italy which is now known as Lombardy and included Mantua. The current administrative boundaries of the province have deep roots, corresponding largely to the Duchy of Mantua. The Napoleonic Department of the Mincio became the Province of Mantua at the birth of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia in 1815, the new provincial boundaries came into effect after laws enacted in 1868. The coat of arms of the province, containing the symbols of Mantua, Bozzolo and Castiglione delle Stiviere, the Province of Mantua is bounded by several rivers. To the west, the River Oglio provides the border with the Province of Cremona, to the south it is bounded by the River Po, on the other side of which are the provinces of Ferrara, Modena, Reggio Emilia and Parma. To the east the River Mincio provides the border with the Province of Verona and the Province of Rovigo, the total area of the province is 2,340 square kilometres. The River Po is subject to flooding and much of the bank is raised by levees, there are a number of nature reserves and protected areas in the province. The Parco regionale del Mincio was established on 8 September 1984 with an area of approximately 16,000 hectares and it includes several nature reserves and has a range of habitats including moraines, hills, plains, and the meandering riverbeds in the complex of lakes of Mantua. Birds found in the park include storks, herons, purple herons, egrets, night herons, kingfishers, bee-eaters, coots, moorhens, peregrine falcons, hawks, great crested grebe and black kite. The Parco dellOglio Sud is another regional park that lies on the boundary of the province with the province of Cremona and it was established in 1988 and has an area of about 12,800 hectares. It is a park that runs along the stretch of the river Oglio which forms the boundary. It lies to the south of Lake Iseo and the centre is at Calvatone. The Riserva naturale Bosco Fontana is a nature reserve with an area of about 23,300 hectares. It is an area that is a remnant of the natural forests that covered the Po valley in ancient times. It is a marshy forest composed mainly of Turkey oaks, pedunculate oaks, hornbeams, limes, poplars, elms and alders
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French Republican Calendar
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The revolutionary system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and was part of a larger attempt at decimalisation in France. Sylvain Maréchal, prominent anticlerical atheist, published the first edition of his Almanach des Honnêtes-gens in 1788, on pages 14–15 appears a calendar, consisting of twelve months. The first month is Mars, ou Princeps, the last month is Février, the lengths of the months are the same, however, the 10th, 20th, and 30th are singled out of each month as the end of a décade. Individual days were assigned, instead of to the saints, to people noteworthy for mostly secular achievements. Later editions of the almanac would switch to the Republican Calendar, the days of the French Revolution and Republic saw many efforts to sweep away various trappings of the ancien régime, some of these were more successful than others. The new Republican government sought to institute, among other reforms, a new social and legal system, a new system of weights and measures, and a new calendar. Amid nostalgia for the ancient Roman Republic, the theories of the Enlightenment were at their peak, natural constants, multiples of ten, and Latin as well as Old Greek derivations formed the fundamental blocks from which the new systems were built. The new calendar was created by a commission under the direction of the politician Charles-Gilbert Romme seconded by Claude Joseph Ferry and it is because of his position as rapporteur of the commission that the creation of the republican calendar is attributed to Romme. The calendar is called the French Revolutionary Calendar because it was created during the Revolution. Indeed, there was initially a debate as to whether the calendar should celebrate the Great Revolution, which began in July 1789, or the Republic, immediately following 14 July 1789, papers and pamphlets started calling 1789 year I of Liberty and the following years II and III. It was in 1792, with the problem of dating financial transactions. Originally, the choice of epoch was either 1 January 1789 or 14 July 1789, after some hesitation the assembly decided on 2 January 1792 that all official documents would use the era of Liberty and that the year IV of Liberty started on 1 January 1792. This usage was modified on 22 September 1792 when the Republic was proclaimed, the establishment of the Republic was used as the epochal date for the calendar, therefore, the calendar commemorates the Republic, not the Revolution. In France, it is known as the calendrier républicain as well as the calendrier révolutionnaire, the Revolution is usually considered to have ended with the coup of 18 Brumaire in Year VIII. The French Republic ended with the coronation of Napoleon I as Empereur des Français on 11 Frimaire, Year XIII, French coins of the period naturally used this calendar. Many show the year in Arabic numbers, although Roman numerals were used on some issues, Year 11 coins typically have a XI date to avoid confusion with the Roman II. Napoléon finally abolished the calendar with effect from 1 January 1806, however, it was used again during the brief Paris Commune, 6–23 May 1871. These documents have kept their original dates for legal accuracy and citation purposes, years appear in writing as Roman numerals, with epoch 22 September 1792, the beginning of the Republican Era
