1.
88th United States Congress
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The apportionment of seats in this House of Representatives was based on the Eighteenth Census of the United States in 1960, and the number of members was again 435. Both chambers had a Democratic majority, november 22,1963, Lyndon Johnson became President of the United States on the death of President John Kennedy. March 30 – June 10,1964, The longest filibuster in the history of the Senate was waged against the Civil Rights Act of 1964, with 57 days of debate over a 73-day period. It ended when the Senate voted 71–29 to invoke cloture, with the carried out by southern members of the Democratic Party. August 2–4,1964, Gulf of Tonkin Incident June 10,1963, Equal Pay Act, 88–38 October 17,1963, Department of Defense Appropriations Act, Pub. L. 88–149 October 31,1963, Community Mental Health Centers Act, 88–164, title II, including Mental Retardation Facilities Construction Act December 17,1963, Clean Air Act, Pub. L. 88–206 July 2,1964, Civil Rights Act of 1964, 88–352 July 9,1964, Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964, Pub. L. 88–365 August 7,1964, Tonkin Gulf Resolution, Pub. L, 88–408 August 20,1964, Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, Pub. L. 88–452 August 31,1964, Food Stamp Act of 1964, 88–525 September 3,1964, Wilderness Act, Pub. L. 88–577 September 4,1964, Nurse Training Act, Pub. L, senators are ordered first by state, and then by seniority. Harrison Chaplain, Frederick Brown Harris, Methodist Parliamentarian, Charles Watkins Floyd Riddick Secretary, Felton McLellan Johnston Sergeant at Arms, Joseph C. Duke Clerk, Ralph R. Roberts Doorkeeper, William Mosley Fishbait Miller Parliamentarian, Lewis Deschler Postmaster, H. H. Morris Sergeant at Arms, Zeake W. Johnson, Senate history Party Division in the Senate, 1789-Present House of Representatives Session Calendar for the 88th Congress. Official Congressional Directory for the 88th Congress, 1st Session, official Congressional Directory for the 88th Congress, 2nd Session. Pocket Congressional Directory for the 88th Congress
2.
United States Statutes at Large
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Each act and resolution of Congress is called a slip law, which is classified as either public law or private law, and designated and numbered accordingly. At the end of a Congress session, slip laws are compiled into Statutes at Large and they are part of a three-part model for publication of federal statutes consisting of slip laws, session laws, and codification. Today, large portions of slip laws denominated as public laws are now drafted as amendments to the United States Code. Once enacted into law, an Act will be published in the Statutes at Large and will add to, modify, provisions of a public law that contains only enacting clauses, effective dates, and similar matters are not generally codified. Private laws also are not generally codified, some portions of the United States Code have been enacted as positive law and other portions have not been so enacted. Publication of the United States Statutes at Large began in 1845 by the firm of Little, Brown. During Little, Brown and Companys time as publisher, Richard Peters, George Minot, in 1874, Congress transferred the authority to publish the Statutes at Large to the Government Printing Office under the direction of the Secretary of State. 633, was enacted July 30,1947 and directed the Secretary of State to compile, edit, index,980, was enacted September 23,1950 and directed the Administrator of General Services to compile, edit, index, and publish the Statutes at Large. Since 1985 the Statutes at Large have been prepared and published by the Office of the Federal Register of the National Archives, sometimes very large or long Acts of Congress are published as their own volume of the Statutes at Large. For example, the Internal Revenue Code of 1954 was published as volume 68A of the Statutes at Large. Volumes 1 to 18 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Library of Congress Volumes 1 to 64 of the Statutes at Large made available by the Congressional Data Coalition via LEGISWORKS
3.
Civil Rights Act of 1960
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It extended the life of the Civil Rights Commission, previously limited to two years, to oversee registration and voting practices. The act was signed into law by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, by the late 1950s, the Civil Rights Movement had been pressuring Congress to enact legislation to protect the constitutional civil rights of African Americans. The first major piece of civil rights legislation passed by Congress was the Civil Rights Act of 1957, while enforcing the voting rights of African Americans set out in the Fifteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution, the act had several loopholes. Southern states continued to discriminate against African Americans in application of voter registration and electoral laws, in segregation of school and public facilities, the new legislation was proposed by President Dwight D. Toward the end of his presidency, President Eisenhower supported civil rights legislation. R,8601, began in the House of Representatives under jurisdiction of the House Judiciary Committee. The chairman of the committee, Congressman Emmanuel Celler of New York, was known to be a supporter of the civil rights movement. The bill was approved by the Judiciary Committee, but the Rules Committee attacked the Judiciary Committee to prevent the bill coming to the floor of the House of Representatives. The bill was introduced to the House on March 10,1960, the voter referees plan was part of a House amendment to the original bill to substitute Representative Robert Kastenmeiers enrollment officers plan. After several amendments, the House of Representatives approved the bill on March 24,1960 by a vote of 311-109,179 Democrats and 132 Republicans voted Aye.93 Democrats,15 Republicans, and 1 Independent Democrat voted Nay.2 Democrats and 1 Republican voted present. The Senates Judiciary Committee also faced attempts to dislodge the bill, after amendments in the Senate, H. R.8601 was approved by the Senate on April 8,1960 by a vote of 71-18. The House of Representatives approved the Senate amendments on April 21,1960 by a vote of 295-288, no Republican Senators voted against the Bill. Title I amended Chapter 17 of title 18 of the United States Code,18 U. S. C, §1509, outlawed obstruction of court orders. If convicted, one could be fined no more than $1,000 and/or imprisoned for no more than one year. Title II outlawed fleeing a state for damaging or destroying a building or property, illegal possession or use of explosives, section 201 amended Chapter 49 of title 18. The amendment outlaws interstate or international movement to avoid prosecution for damaging or destroying any building or structure, the section also outlaws flight to avoid testimony in a case relating to such an offense. If convicted, one could be fined no more than $5,000 and/or imprisoned for no more than five years, section 203 amended Chapter 39 of title 18. The amendment dealt with the use or possession of explosives. The section outlaws transportation or possession of any explosive with intent to damage a building or property, the section also makes the conveying of false information or threats to damage or destroy any building or property illegal
4.
Emanuel Celler
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Emanuel Celler was a Jewish-American politician from New York who served in the United States House of Representatives for almost 50 years, from March 1923 to January 1973. He was defeated in the 1972 primary, becoming the most senior Representative ever at that time to lose a primary and he was a member of the Democratic Party. He is the longest-serving member ever of the United States House of Representatives from the state of New York, Celler was born in Brooklyn, the son of Josephine and Henry H. Celler. All of his grandparents immigrated from Germany, his paternal grandparents, a practicing lawyer before entering politics, he was particularly involved in issues relating to the judiciary and immigration. During his first twenty-two years in Congress, 1923–1945, Cellers Brooklyn, for his final campaign in 1972, the district had been renumbered as the 16th. Celler made his first important speech on the House floor during consideration of the Johnson Immigration Act of 1924, Celler was vehemently opposed to the Johnson Act, which passed the isolationist Congress and was signed into law. Celler had found his cause and for the four decades he vigorously spoke out in favor of eliminating the national origin quotas as a basis for immigration restriction. In July 1939, a strongly worded letter from Celler to U. S, in 1943, he called President Franklin D. Roosevelts immigration policy cold and cruel and blasted the glacier-like attitude of the State Department. In the early 1950s, Celler was the target of attacks by Sen. Joseph McCarthy and it has undertaken to sow suspicion everywhere, to set friend against friend and brother against brother. It deals in coercion and in intimidation, tying the hands of citizens, in January 1965, Celler proposed in the House of Representatives the Twenty-fifth Amendment, which clarifies an ambiguous provision of the Constitution regarding succession to the presidency. Also in 1965, he proposed and steered to passage the Hart-Celler Act and this was the culminating moment in Cellers 41-year fight to overcome restriction on immigration to the United States based on national origin. The US Gun Control Act of 1968 directly evolved from Cellers Bill H. R.17735, at the time, Celler was the most senior congressman to have been ousted in a primary. Even though Celler was on the ballot as the candidate of the Liberal Party, he decided not to campaign, allowing Holtzman to win easily the general election. In his final eight years, from January 1973 to January 1981, Celler remained busy, speaking about immigration, if not for his electoral loss a few months before, Celler, not Peter Rodino of New Jersey, would have been conducting the hearings. Celler was on terms with Richard Nixon and in the early part of the hearings indicated that he would have taken a less adversarial position than Rodino. Emanuel Celler died in his native Brooklyn at the age of 92 and you Never Leave Brooklyn, New York, Bell,1953 United States Congress. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
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Democratic Party (United States)
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The Democratic Party is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The Democrats dominant worldview was once socially conservative and fiscally classical liberalism, while, especially in the rural South, since Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal coalition in the 1930s, the Democratic Party has also promoted a social-liberal platform, supporting social justice. Today, the House Democratic caucus is composed mostly of progressives and centrists, the partys philosophy of modern liberalism advocates social and economic equality, along with the welfare state. It seeks to provide government intervention and regulation in the economy, the party has united with smaller left-wing regional parties throughout the country, such as the Farmer–Labor Party in Minnesota and the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota. Well into the 20th century, the party had conservative pro-business, the New Deal Coalition of 1932–1964 attracted strong support from voters of recent European extraction—many of whom were Catholics based in the cities. After Franklin D. Roosevelts New Deal of the 1930s, the pro-business wing withered outside the South, after the racial turmoil of the 1960s, most southern whites and many northern Catholics moved into the Republican Party at the presidential level. The once-powerful labor union element became smaller and less supportive after the 1970s, white Evangelicals and Southerners became heavily Republican at the state and local level in the 1990s. However, African Americans became a major Democratic element after 1964, after 2000, Hispanic and Latino Americans, Asian Americans, the LGBT community, single women and professional women moved towards the party as well. The Northeast and the West Coast became Democratic strongholds by 1990 after the Republicans stopped appealing to socially liberal voters there, overall, the Democratic Party has retained a membership lead over its major rival the Republican Party. The most recent was the 44th president Barack Obama, who held the office from 2009 to 2017, in the 115th Congress, following the 2016 elections, Democrats are the opposition party, holding a minority of seats in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a minority of governorships, and state legislatures, though they do control the mayoralty of cities such as New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, and Washington, D. C. The Democratic Party traces its origins to the inspiration of the Democratic-Republican Party, founded by Thomas Jefferson, James Madison and that party also inspired the Whigs and modern Republicans. Organizationally, the modern Democratic Party truly arose in the 1830s, since the nomination of William Jennings Bryan in 1896, the party has generally positioned itself to the left of the Republican Party on economic issues. They have been liberal on civil rights issues since 1948. On foreign policy both parties changed position several times and that party, the Democratic-Republican Party, came to power in the election of 1800. After the War of 1812 the Federalists virtually disappeared and the national political party left was the Democratic-Republicans. The Democratic-Republican party still had its own factions, however. As Norton explains the transformation in 1828, Jacksonians believed the peoples will had finally prevailed, through a lavishly financed coalition of state parties, political leaders, and newspaper editors, a popular movement had elected the president
6.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
7.
United States House Committee on the Judiciary
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The U. S. House Committee on the Judiciary, also called the House Judiciary Committee, is a standing committee of the United States House of Representatives. It is charged with overseeing the administration of justice within the courts, administrative agencies. The Judiciary Committee is also the responsible for impeachments of federal officials. Because of the nature of its oversight, committee members usually have a legal background. In the 115th Congress, the chairman of the committee is Republican Bob Goodlatte of Virginia, in prior years, Lamar S. Smith of Texas was the chairman, and prior to that John Conyers served as chairman. The committee was created on June 6,1813 for the purpose of considering legislation related to the judicial system. Res. 95 Chairman, Jim Sensenbrenner, Ranking member, John Conyers The Antitrust Task Force during the 108th Congress existed from March 26,2003, all Judiciary Committee Members also served as members of the Task Force, and conducted hearings and investigations into consolidation of the Bell Telephone Companies. The task force operated like any other subcommittee, except that it only has a six-month term, a longer term for the task force would cause the Judiciary Committee to exceed this limit. Chairman, Adam Schiff, Ranking member, Bob Goodlatte Established in September 2008, the investigation was not completed by the end of the 110th Congress, and it was reestablished after the 111th Congress convened in January 2009. The responsibilities of the Task Force were expanded to include the case of Judge Samuel B, kent, leading to hearings and his subsequent impeachment by the full House of Representatives. The Task force finally voted to impeach Porteous on January 21,2010, administrative Law, Process and Procedure Project The Use and Misuse of Presidential Clemency Power for Executive Branch Officials Equal Justice for Our Military Act of 2009, HR569. Congress holds a hearing to consider granting members of the U. S, armed Forces access to the Supreme Court of the United States. 109-153, A History of the Committee on the Judiciary 1813–2006
8.
Lyndon B. Johnson
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A Democrat from Texas, he previously served as a United States Representative from 1937 to 1949 and then as a United States Senator from 1949 to 1961. He spent six years as Senate Majority Leader, two as Senate Minority Leader, and two more as Senate Majority Whip, Johnson ran for the Democratic nomination in the 1960 presidential election. Although unsuccessful, he was chosen by then-Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts to be his running mate and they went on to win a close election over Richard Nixon and Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Johnson was sworn in as Vice President on January 20,1961. Two years and ten months later, on November 22,1963 and he successfully ran for a full term in the 1964 election, winning by a landslide over Republican opponent Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. He is one of four people who have served as President, Vice President, Senator. Johnson was renowned for his personality and the Johnson treatment. Assisted in part by an economy, the War on Poverty helped millions of Americans rise above the poverty line during his administration. With the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, Johnson escalated American involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which granted Johnson the power to use force in Southeast Asia without having to ask for an official declaration of war. The number of American military personnel in Vietnam increased dramatically, from 16,000 advisors in non-combat roles in 1963 to 550,000 in early 1968, American casualties soared and the peace process bogged down. Growing unease with the war stimulated a large, angry antiwar movement based especially on university campuses in the U. S. and abroad. Johnson faced further troubles when summer riots broke out in most major cities after 1965, while he began his presidency with widespread approval, support for Johnson declined as the public became upset with both the war and the growing violence at home. In 1968, the Democratic Party factionalized as antiwar elements denounced Johnson, Republican Richard Nixon was elected to succeed him, as the New Deal coalition that had dominated presidential politics for 36 years collapsed. After he left office in January 1969, Johnson returned to his Texas ranch, historians argue that Johnsons presidency marked the peak of modern liberalism in the United States after the New Deal era. Johnson is ranked favorably by some historians because of his policies and the passage of many major laws, affecting civil rights, gun control, wilderness preservation. Lyndon Baines Johnson was born on August 27,1908, near Stonewall, Texas, in a farmhouse on the Pedernales River. Johnson had one brother, Sam Houston Johnson, and three sisters, Rebekah, Josefa, and Lucia, the nearby small town of Johnson City, Texas, was named after LBJs cousin, James Polk Johnson, whose forebears had moved west from Oglethorpe County, Georgia. Johnson had English, German, and Ulster Scots ancestry and he was maternally descended from pioneer Baptist clergyman George Washington Baines, who pastored eight churches in Texas, as well as others in Arkansas and Louisiana
9.
Civil Rights Act of 1991
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It provided the right to trial by jury on discrimination claims and introduced the possibility of emotional distress damages and limited the amount that a jury could award. President Bush had used his veto against the more comprehensive Civil Rights Act of 1990 and he feared racial quotas would be imposed but later approved the 1991 version of the bill. Section 1981, which had lain dormant and unenforced for a century after its passage, allowed plaintiffs to seek compensatory damages, by the time the 1991 Act was passed, both allowed for an award of attorneys fees. The 1991 Act expanded the remedies available to victims of discrimination by amending Title VII of the 1964 Act, Congress had amended Title VII once before, in 1972, when it broadened the coverage of the Act. As is enjoyed by citizens, the language that Congress chose in passing the law in 1866. Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio,490 U. S, Congress also believed that the Wards Cove case made it too difficult to prove disparate impact claims under Title VII. The Court also authorizes jury trials on Title VII claims and allows Title VII plaintiffs to recover emotional distress and punitive damages, US labor law Modified Text of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 Changes in Title VII made by the Civil Rights Act of 1991
10.
No Child Left Behind Act
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The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was a U. S. Act of Congress that reauthorized the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and it supported standards-based education reform based on the premise that setting high standards and establishing measurable goals could improve individual outcomes in education. The Act required states to develop assessments in basic skills, to receive federal school funding, states had to give these assessments to all students at select grade levels. The act did not assert a national achievement standard – each state developed its own standards, the bill passed in the Congress with bipartisan support. By 2015, criticism from right, left, and center had accumulated so much that a bipartisan Congress stripped away the national features of No Child Left Behind and its replacement, the Every Student Succeeds Act, turned the remnants over to the states. The legislation was proposed by President George W. Bush on January 23,2001 and it was coauthored by Representatives John Boehner, George Miller, and Senators Edward Kennedy and Judd Gregg. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on May 23,2001, President Bush signed it into law on January 8,2002. No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer a statewide standardized test annually to all students, schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 must make Adequate Yearly Progress in test scores. If the schools results are poor, then steps are taken to improve the school. Schools that miss AYP for a consecutive year are publicly labeled as In Need of Improvement. Students have the option to transfer to a school within the school district. Missing AYP in the third year forces the school to offer free tutoring, a fifth year of failure results in planning to restructure the entire school, the plan is implemented if the school unsuccessfully hits its AYP targets for the sixth consecutive year. Common options include closing the school, turning the school into a school, hiring a private company to run the school. The objectives must be set with the goal of having all students at the proficient level or above within 12 years, AYP must be primarily based on state assessments, but must also include one additional academic indicator. The AYP objectives must be assessed at the school level, schools that failed to meet their AYP objective for two consecutive years are identified for improvement. School AYP results must be reported separately for each group of students identified above so that it can be determined whether each student group met the AYP objective, at least 95% of each group must participate in state assessments. States may aggregate up to three years of data in making AYP determinations, the act requires states to provide highly qualified teachers to all students. Each state sets its own standards for what counts as highly qualified, similarly, the act requires states to set one high, challenging standard for its students
11.
Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009
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The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 is a federal statute in the United States that was the first bill signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 29,2009. The Act amends the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the new act states that the 180-day statute of limitations for filing an equal-pay lawsuit regarding pay discrimination resets with each new paycheck affected by that discriminatory action. The law directly addressed Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.550 U. S.618, the courts gave opposite verdicts, first supporting the complainant and later opposing, in conclusion the complaint brought the case to the attention of the Supreme Court. The Ledbetter decision was cited by judges in 300 cases before the LLFPA was passed. These cases involved not only Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act and Eighth Amendment to the Constitution. The House Democrats were fast to react, coming out on June 12 against the Supreme Court, the American Bar Association passed a resolution supporting the new bill. If a disappointed employee can wait for years before raising a claim of discrimination. He or she can wait out the employer, that is ensure that the employer effectively unable to offer any meaningful defense to the claim, organizations that opposed the bill include the, U. S. The bill was re-introduced in the 111th Congress in January 2009 and it passed in the House of Representatives with 250 votes in support and 177 against. The vote was split along party lines, with three Republicans voting in favor and five Democrats voting against, the Senate voted 72 to 23 to invoke cloture on S.181 on January 15,2009. The Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act passed the Senate, 61-36, specter later switched to the Democrats, the others include all female Republican Senators. President Obama actively supported the bill, House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer announced that the House would vote on S.181 during the week of January 26, getting the bill to President Obamas desk sooner rather than later. On January 27, the House passed S.181 by a 250-177 margin, on January 29,2009, Obama signed the bill into law. It was the first act he signed as president, and it fulfilled his pledge to nullify Ledbetter v. Goodyear. The Wisconsin law was criticized by conservatives for allegedly making sex discrimination lawsuits financially attractive to female employees
12.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
13.
Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
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Despite the outcomes of these cases, segregation remained in full effect into the 1960s in parts of the southern United States, where the Heart of Atlanta Motel was located. The Heart of Atlanta Motel was a large, 216-room motel in Atlanta, the owner, Moreton Rolleston, filed suit in federal court, arguing that the requirements of the act exceeded the authority granted to Congress over interstate commerce. Finally, he contended that Congress had placed him in a position of servitude by forcing him to rent available rooms to blacks. This case was combined with the case of the future Governor of Georgia Lester Maddox concerning his Pickrick restaurant, the opinion of the court, announced on December 14,1964, was delivered by Justice Tom C. Clark, with concurring opinions by Justice Arthur Goldberg, Justice Hugo Black, the U. S. Supreme Court held that Congress acted well within its authority under the Commerce Clause in passing the Civil Rights Act of 1964, thereby upholding the acts Title II in question. While it might have been possible for Congress to pursue other methods for abolishing racial discrimination and it found no merit in the arguments pursuant to the Thirteenth Amendment, finding it difficult to conceive that such an amendment might be applicable in restraining civil rights legislation. Accordingly, it upheld the permanent injunction issued by the district court, list of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 379 Katzenbach v. McClung The Negro Motorist Green Book Heart of Atlanta – misc photos Heart of Atlanta/Pickrick trial, Civil Rights Digital Library
14.
Katzenbach v. McClung
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Katzenbach v. McClung,379 U. S. Ollies Barbecue was a family-owned restaurant that operated in Birmingham, Alabama, that seated 220 customers. It was located on a highway and was 11 blocks from an interstate highway. In a typical year, approximately half of the food it purchased from a local supplier originated out-of-state and it catered to local families and white collar workers and provided take-out service to African American customers. Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawing segregation in American schools, one section of the act, Title II, was specifically intended to grant African-Americans full access to public facilities such as hotels, restaurants, and public recreation areas. On the same day, the Supreme Court heard challenges to Title II from a motel owner, both claimed that the federal government had no right to impose any regulations on small, private businesses. But then Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach appealed this decision to the U. S. Supreme Court, McClung argued that the Civil Rights Act was unconstitutional, at least as applied to a small, private business such as his. McClung further argued that the amount of food purchased by Ollies that actually crossed state lines was so minuscule that Ollies effectively had no effect on interstate commerce, consequently, McClung argued that Congress had no power to regulate Ollies Barbecue under the Commerce Clause. The court ruled unanimously that the Civil Rights Act is constitutional, justice Clark wrote the majority opinion, with concurrences by Justices Black, Douglas, and Goldberg. In section 2 of the opinion, the Court agreed with McClung that Ollies itself had no effect on interstate commerce. The Courts conclusion was based on extensive Congressional hearings on the issue, the Court gave the greatest weight to evidence that segregation in restaurants had a direct and highly restrictive effect upon interstate travel by Negroes. Wickard v. Filburn, Gibbons v. Ogden, and United States v. Darby. ”After decades in operation, Ollies Barbecue moved to the suburb of Pelham in 1999 and closed in 2001. Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States Civil Rights Movement Text of Katzenbach v. McClung,379 U. S.294 is available from, Findlaw Justia
15.
Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education
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Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education,396 U. S.19, was a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court ordered immediate desegregation of public schools in the American South. It followed 15 years of delays to integrate by most Southern school boards after the Courts ruling in Brown v. Board of Education that segregated schools were unconstitutional. Justice Felix Frankfurter demanded that the opinion in 1955s Brown v. Board of Education II order desegregation with the phrase of all deliberate speed. The South took it as an excuse to emphasize deliberate over speed and conducted resistance to desegregating schools, for fifteen years, schools in the South remained segregated. HEW was responsible for drawing up plans, as mandated by the 1964 Civil Rights Act. At the last minute, however, both HEW and the Justice Department asked the courts for extensions until December 1, claiming that the plans would result in confusion and this was the first time the federal government had supported a desegregation delay in the federal courts. The Fifth Circuit granted the delay, and no date for implementing the desegregation plans was set. The NAACP contacted Black to contest the delay in desegregation, on September 3, Black received a memo from the Justice Department – Solicitor General Griswold was urging Black to permit the Mississippi delay. Black reluctantly permitted the delay as supervisory Justice, but invited the NAACP to bring the case to the Supreme Court as soon as possible, the case was brought as Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education. The desegregation orders of Brown I and Brown II had not been followed for more than a decade, during lower court battles over segregation, school districts would remain segregated until all appeals were exhausted. The petitioners, Beatrice Alexander and others suing the Holmes County Board of Education in Mississippi for failure to desegregate, were represented by Jack Greenberg. They asked the Court to order the original HEW plans to be implemented, new Chief Justice Warren Burger, appointed by President Nixon, did not at first think that the requested delay was unreasonable. He threatened to dissent from any opinion mentioning the word plan, Justice William O. Douglas supported Black. Justice Harlan did not support any notion of immediate desegregation, Justices Stewart, White, and Brennan were all initially put off by Blacks demands for immediate desegregation. Justice Thurgood Marshall, the Courts only African American, suggested an implementation deadline of January, the basic Court breakdown was four in favor of immediate desegregation and no full Court opinion, and another four wanting a more practical, less absolute opinion. Justice William J. Brennan, Jr. s draft, made with the help of justices Douglas and Marshall and it later was adopted as the Courts final opinion, with some edits by Harlan and Burger. The final opinion was a two-page per curiam that reflected the demands of Justice Black. The Court wrote, The obligation of every school district is to terminate dual school systems at once and to operate now, the previously set pace of all deliberate speed was no longer permissible
16.
Griggs v. Duke Power Co.
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Griggs v Duke Power Co,401 US424, was a court case argued before the Supreme Court of the United States on December 14,1970. It concerned employment discrimination and the impact theory, and was decided on March 8,1971. It is generally considered the first case of its type, the Supreme Court ruled that the companys employment requirements did not pertain to applicants ability to perform the job, and so were discriminating against black employees. Duke Power also supplied power to federal government agencies and. In the 1950s Duke Powers Dan River plant had a policy that blacks were allowed to only in its Labor department. In 1955 the company added the requirement of a school diploma for its higher paid jobs. As such, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act prohibits employment tests that are not a measure of job performance. Chief Justice Burger wrote the majority opinion, Griggs v. Duke Power Co. also held that the employer had the burden of producing and proving the business necessity of a test. However, in Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio, in 1991, the Civil Rights Act was amended to overturn that portion of the Wards Cove decision. David Frum asserts that before Griggs, employers did not have to separate intentional wrongs from unintentional wrongs if they treated all applicants equally by appearances, Justice Ginsburgs dissent in Ricci v. DeStefano suggests that the Griggs conclusion has been effectively overturned by the Ricci decision. Although private employers with 15 or more employees need to be careful, it was held in Washington v. Davis that public employers, such as police departments, enjoy sovereign immunity. US labor law Intelligence and public policy List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 401 Ricci v. DeStefano United Steelworkers v. Weber Piscataway v. Taxman Belton, the Crusade for Equality in the Workplace, The Griggs v. Duke Power Story. Garrow, David J. Toward a Definitive History of Griggs v. Duke Power, oyez. com summary FindLaw. com article Griggs v. Duke Power Co
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Ricci v. DeStefano
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Ricci v. DeStefano,557 U. S.557 is a US labor law case of the United States Supreme Court on unlawful discrimination through disparate impact under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. New Haven officials invalidated the test results because none of the black firefighters scored high enough to be considered for the positions, City officials stated that they feared a lawsuit over the tests disproportionate exclusion of certain racial groups from promotion under disparate impact head of liability. Because the plaintiffs won under their Title VII claim, the Court did not consider the argument that New Haven violated the constitutional right to equal protection. In late 2005, the New Haven Fire Department had seven openings for Captain, to fill the open positions, it needed to administer civil service examinations. The examinations consisted of two parts, an examination and an oral examination. The examinations were governed in part by the City of New Havens contract with the firefighters union, the New Haven Department of Human Resources issued an RFP for these examinations, as a result of which I/O Solutions designed the examinations. The examinations themselves were administered in November and December 2003,118 firefighters took the examinations. Under the City Charters Rule of Three the top 9 scorers would be eligible for promotion to the 7 open Captain positions, the top 9 scorers consisted of 7 whites,2 Hispanics, and no blacks. The passage rate for the Lieutenant exam was,25 of the 43 whites,6 of the 19 blacks,3 of the 15 Hispanics. Under the City Charters Rule of Three the top 10 scorers would be eligible for promotion to the 8 open Lieutenant positions, the top 10 scorers were all white. Ricci and sixteen other white test takers, plus one Hispanic, all of whom would have qualified for consideration for the promotions, sued the city including Mayor John DeStefano, Jr. The lead plaintiff was Frank Ricci, who had been a firefighter at the New Haven station for 11 years, Ricci gave up a second job to have time to study for the test. Because he has dyslexia, he paid an acquaintance $1,000 to read his textbooks onto audiotapes, Ricci also made flashcards, took practice tests, worked with a study group, and participated in mock interviews. He placed 6th among 77 people who took the lieutenants test, thus, under the Rule of Three, lt. Ben Vargas, the lone Hispanic petitioner, was allegedly attacked by unknown black assailants in Humphreys East Restaurant in 2004 and had to be hospitalized afterwards. He has since stated that he believes the attack was orchestrated by the firefighters in retribution for bringing in the legal case. Vargas quit the Hispanic firefighters association, which included Vargass brother, after the group declined to support his legal case, the press dubbed the group the New Haven 20. 253, as amended,42 U. S. C, §2000e et seq. and the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Judge Janet Bond Arterton in the district court ruled for the city
18.
Civil and political rights
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Civil and political rights are a class of rights that protect individuals freedom from infringement by governments, social organizations, and private individuals. They ensure ones ability to participate in the civil and political life of the society, Civil and political rights form the original and main part of international human rights. They comprise the first portion of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the phrase civil rights is a translation of Latin ius civis. Roman citizens could be either free or servile, but they all had rights in law. After the Edict of Milan in 313, these included the freedom of religion. Roman legal doctrine was lost during the Middle Ages, but claims of rights could still be made based on religious doctrine. According to the leaders of Ketts Rebellion, all men may be made free. In the 17th century, English common law judge Sir Edward Coke revived the idea of rights based on citizenship by arguing that Englishmen had historically enjoyed such rights, the Parliament of England adopted the English Bill of Rights in 1689. The Virginia Declaration of Rights, by George Mason and James Madison, was adopted in 1776, the Virginia declaration is the direct ancestor and model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. The removal by legislation of a civil right constitutes a civil disability, in early 19th century Britain, the phrase civil rights most commonly referred to the issue of such legal discrimination against Catholics. In the House of Commons support for civil rights was divided, the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1829 restored their civil rights. In the 1860s, Americans adapted this usage to newly freed blacks, congress enacted civil rights acts in 1866,1871,1875,1957,1960,1964,1968, and 1991. Marshall notes that civil rights were among the first to be recognized and codified, followed later by political rights, in many countries, they are constitutional rights and are included in a bill of rights or similar document. They are also defined in human rights instruments, such as the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Civil and political rights need not be codified to be protected, although most democracies worldwide do have formal written guarantees of civil, Civil rights are considered to be natural rights. Thomas Jefferson wrote in his A Summary View of the Rights of British America that a free people their rights as derived from the laws of nature, the question of to whom civil and political rights apply is a subject of controversy. According to political scientist Salvador Santino F. Regilme Jr. Custom also plays a role, the United States Declaration of Independence states that people have unalienable rights including Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. It is considered by some that the purpose of government is the protection of life. Ideas of self-ownership and cognitive liberty affirm rights to choose the food one eats, the one takes
19.
United States labor law
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United States labor law sets the rights and duties for employees, labor unions, and employers in the United States. Labor laws basic aim is to remedy the inequality of bargaining power between employees and employers, especially employers organized in the corporate or other forms of ownership association. Over the 20th century, federal law created a series of social and economic rights. The Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970 requires employees have a system of work. A contract of employment can always improve standards beyond the statutory rights. To get fair terms beyond the minimum, and improve upon individual contracts. The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 creates rights for most employees to organize a labor union, under the Labor Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959, labor union governance follows democratic principles. In any workplace where a majority of support a union. Unions can take action to defend their interests, including withdrawing their labor on strike. There are not yet general rights to participate in enterprise governance. Since the Civil Rights Act of 1964, all employing entities and labor unions have a duty to treat equally, without discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex. There are separate rules for sex discrimination in pay under the Equal Pay Act of 1963, additional groups with protected status were added by the Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 and the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. There is no law banning all sexual orientation or identity discrimination. These equality laws generally prevent discrimination in hiring, terms of employment, there is not a federal law against unjust discharge, and most states also have no law with full protection against wrongful termination of employment. Job security rights in the US are not weaker than in all industrialized countries. On the other hand, collective agreements made by labor unions, the Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act of 1988 requires employing entities give 60 days notice if more than 50 or one third of the workforce may lose their jobs. Federal law has sought to reach full employment through monetary policy, the National Labor Relations Act gave a general right to organize in a trade union and collectively bargain. In re Debs,64 Fed 724,158 U. S.564 imposed an injunction on the workers of the Pullman Company
20.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
21.
Racial segregation
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SMPTE color bars is a television test pattern used where the NTSC video standard is utilized, including countries in North America. The Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers refers to this test pattern as Engineering Guideline EG 1-1990, the components of this pattern are a known standard. The pattern is used for setting a television monitor or receiver to reproduce NTSC chrominance and luminance information correctly. The color bar test pattern was originally conceived by Norbert D. Larky of RCA Laboratories, U. S. patent 2,742,525 Color Test Pattern Generator was awarded on April 17,1956 to Norbert D. Larky and David D. Holmes. Previously categorized by SMPTE as ECR 1-1978, the development of this test pattern was awarded an Engineering Emmy in 2001-2002, the Color bar signal is generated with unconventionally slow rise and fall time value to facilitate video level control and monitor color adjustments of HDTV and SDTV equipment. In a survey of the top standards of the organizations first 100 years, in a SMPTE color bar image, the top two-thirds of the television picture contain seven vertical bars of 75% intensity. In order from left to right, the colors are white, yellow, cyan, green, magenta, red, and blue. The graticule of a vectorscope is etched with boxes showing the regions where the traces from these seven bars are supposed to fall if the signal is properly adjusted. Below the main set of seven bars is a strip of blue, magenta, cyan, the bottom section of the test pattern contains a square of 100% intensity white and a rectangle of 7. 5% intensity black, for use in setting the luminance range. More modern versions of the feature a pluge pulse. The white square lines up so that it is below the green and cyan bars, on a waveform monitor this will show up with the white bar overlapping the peak of the yellow, the pluge pulse is positioned within the black rectangle, below the red bar. It comprises three vertical bars, a rightmost one with intensity 4% above black level, a middle one with intensity exactly equal to black. When a monitor is properly adjusted, the rightmost pluge bar should be just barely visible, while the two should appear indistinuishable from each other and completely black. On a vectorscope, they appear as two short lines ninety degrees apart and these are used to ensure that the television receiver is properly demodulating the 3.58 MHz color subcarrier portion of the signal. The vectors for the -I and +Q blocks should fall exactly on the I and Q axes on the vectorscope if the signal is demodulated properly. These bars give rise to the portion of the casual term, bars. Likewise, producers of television programs typically record bars and tone at the beginning of a videotape or other recording medium so that the equipment can be calibrated. Often, the name or callsign of the TV station, other such as a real-time clock
22.
United States Constitution
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The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. The Constitution, originally comprising seven articles, delineates the national frame of government, Articles Four, Five and Six entrench concepts of federalism, describing the rights and responsibilities of state governments and of the states in relationship to the federal government. Article Seven establishes the procedure used by the thirteen States to ratify it. In general, the first ten amendments, known collectively as the Bill of Rights, offer specific protections of individual liberty, the majority of the seventeen later amendments expand individual civil rights protections. Others address issues related to federal authority or modify government processes and procedures, Amendments to the United States Constitution, unlike ones made to many constitutions worldwide, are appended to the document. All four pages of the original U. S, according to the United States Senate, The Constitutions first three words—We the People—affirm that the government of the United States exists to serve its citizens. From September 5,1774 to March 1,1781, the Continental Congress functioned as the government of the United States. The process of selecting the delegates for the First and Second Continental Congresses underscores the revolutionary role of the people of the colonies in establishing a governing body. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union was the first constitution of the United States and it was drafted by the Second Continental Congress from mid-1776 through late-1777, and ratification by all 13 states was completed by early 1781. Under the Articles of Confederation, the governments power was quite limited. The Confederation Congress could make decisions, but lacked enforcement powers, implementation of most decisions, including modifications to the Articles, required unanimous approval of all thirteen state legislatures. The Continental Congress could print money but the currency was worthless, Congress could borrow money, but couldnt pay it back. No state paid all their U. S. taxes, some paid nothing, some few paid an amount equal to interest on the national debt owed to their citizens, but no more. No interest was paid on debt owed foreign governments, by 1786, the United States would default on outstanding debts as their dates came due. Internationally, the Articles of Confederation did little to enhance the United States ability to defend its sovereignty, most of the troops in the 625-man United States Army were deployed facing – but not threatening – British forts on American soil. They had not been paid, some were deserting and others threatening mutiny, spain closed New Orleans to American commerce, U. S. officials protested, but to no effect. Barbary pirates began seizing American ships of commerce, the Treasury had no funds to pay their ransom, if any military crisis required action, the Congress had no credit or taxing power to finance a response. Domestically, the Articles of Confederation was failing to bring unity to the sentiments and interests of the various states
23.
Article One of the United States Constitution
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Article One of the United States Constitution establishes the legislative branch of the federal government, the United States Congress. The Congress is a legislature consisting of a House of Representatives. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, Section 1 is a vesting clause that bestows federal legislative power exclusively to Congress. Similar clauses are found in Articles II and III, the former confers executive power upon the President alone, and the latter grants judicial power solely to the federal judiciary. These three articles create a separation of powers among the three branches of the federal government and this separation of powers, by which each department may exercise only its own constitutional powers and no others, is fundamental to the idea of a limited government accountable to the people. The separation of powers principle is particularly noteworthy in regard to the Congress, the Constitution declares that the Congress may exercise only those legislative powers herein granted within Article I. It also, by implied extension, prohibits Congress from delegating its authority to either of the other branches of government. That the power assigned to each branch must remain with that branch, although not specifically mentioned in the Constitution, Congress has also long asserted the power to investigate and the power to compel cooperation with an investigation. The Supreme Court has affirmed these powers as an implication of Congresss power to legislate, since the power to investigate is an aspect of Congresss power to legislate, it is as broad as Congresss powers to legislate. However, it is limited to inquiries that are in aid of the legislative function. The courts are highly deferential to Congresss exercise of its investigation powers, Congress has the power to investigate that which it could regulate, and the courts have interpreted Congresss regulatory powers broadly since the Great Depression. Section Two provides for the election of the House of Representatives every second year, since Representatives are to be chosen. At the time of its creation, the Constitution did not explicitly give citizens an inherent right to vote, rather, it provided that those qualified to vote in elections for the largest chamber of a states legislature may vote in Congressional elections. Since the Civil War, several amendments have been enacted that have curbed the states broad powers to set voter qualification standards. The Fifteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on race, the Nineteenth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right to vote based on sex. The Twenty-fourth Amendment prohibits the revocation of voting due to the non-payment of a poll tax. The Twenty-sixth Amendment prohibits the denial of the right of US citizens, eighteen years of age or older, in the 1960s, the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. There is no requirement that a Representative reside within the district in which he or she represents, although this is usually the case, there have been occasional exceptions
24.
Equal Protection Clause
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The Equal Protection Clause is part of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution. The clause, which took effect in 1868, provides that no state shall deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. The meaning of the Equal Protection Clause has been the subject of much debate and this clause was the basis for Brown v. The Equal Protection Clause itself applies only to state and local governments, however, the Supreme Court held in Bolling v. Sharpe that equal protection requirements apply to the federal government through the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. Before and during the Civil War, the Southern states violated the rights of speech of pro-Union citizens, anti-slavery advocates. During the Civil War, the Southern states stripped many white citizens of their citizenship and banished them from the states. Shortly after the Union victory in the American Civil War, the Thirteenth Amendment was proposed by Congress and ratified by the states in 1865, many ex-Confederate states then adopted Black Codes following the war. These laws severely restricted the rights of blacks to hold property, including property and many forms of personal property. These codes also created harsher criminal penalties for blacks than for whites, because of the inequality these Black Codes imposed, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1866. This Act provided that all born in the United States were citizens. Full and equal benefit of all laws and proceedings for the security of person and property, president Andrew Johnson Vetoed the Civil Rights bill of 1866 amid concerns that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to pass such a law. Such doubts were one factor that led Congress to begin to draft, moreover, Congress wanted to protect white Unionists who were under personal and legal attack in the former Confederacy. The effort was led by the Radical Republicans of both houses of Congress, including John Bingham, Charles Sumner, and Thaddeus Stevens, the most important among these, however, was Bingham, a Congressman from Ohio, who drafted the language of the Equal Protection Clause. The Southern states were opposed to the Civil Rights Act, but in 1865 Congress, exercising its power under Article I, section 5, clause 1 of the Constitution, to be the Judge of the. Qualifications of its own Members, had excluded Southerners from Congress, declaring that their states, having rebelled against the Union, could therefore not elect members to Congress. It was this fact that the Fourteenth Amendment was enacted by a rump Congress—that allowed the Equal Protection Clause to be passed by Congress. Its ratification by the former Confederate states was made a condition of their reacceptance into the Union, during the debate in Congress, more than one version of the clause was considered. Here is the first version, The Congress shall have power to all laws which shall be necessary
25.
Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
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The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9,1868, as one of the Reconstruction Amendments. The amendment addresses citizenship rights and equal protection of the laws, the amendment was bitterly contested, particularly by the states of the defeated Confederacy, which were forced to ratify it in order to regain representation in Congress. The amendment limits the actions of all state and local officials, the amendments first section includes several clauses, the Citizenship Clause, Privileges or Immunities Clause, Due Process Clause, and Equal Protection Clause. The Privileges or Immunities Clause has been interpreted in such a way that it very little. The Due Process Clause prohibits state and local government officials from depriving persons of life, liberty, the Equal Protection Clause requires each state to provide equal protection under the law to all people within its jurisdiction. This clause has been the basis for many decisions rejecting irrational or unnecessary discrimination against people belonging to various groups, the second, third, and fourth sections of the amendment are seldom litigated. However, the second reference to rebellion and other crime has been invoked as a constitutional ground for felony disenfranchisement. The fifth section gives Congress the power to enforce the provisions by appropriate legislation. However, under City of Boerne v. Flores, Congresss enforcement power may not be used to contradict a Supreme Court interpretation of the amendment. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, the Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. Republicans began looking for a way to offset this advantage, either by protecting and attracting votes of former slaves, or at least by discouraging their disenfranchisement. In 1865, Congress passed what would become the Civil Rights Act of 1866, guaranteeing citizenship without regard to race, the bill also guaranteed equal benefits and access to the law, a direct assault on the Black Codes passed by many post-war states. Although strongly urged by moderates in Congress to sign the bill, three weeks later, Johnsons veto was overridden and the measure became law. Despite this victory, even some Republicans who had supported the goals of the Civil Rights Act began to doubt that Congress really possessed constitutional power to turn those goals into laws. The experience also encouraged both radical and moderate Republicans to seek Constitutional guarantees for black rights, rather relying on temporary political majorities. Over 70 proposals for an amendment were drafted, the House of Representatives passed House Resolution 127, 39th Congress several weeks later and sent to the Senate for action
26.
John F. Kennedy
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Kennedy was a member of the Democratic Party, and his New Frontier domestic program was largely enacted as a memorial to him after his death. Kennedy also established the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1963, Kennedys time in office was marked by high tensions with Communist states. He increased the number of American military advisers in South Vietnam by a factor of 18 over President Dwight D. Eisenhower, in Cuba, a failed attempt was made at the Bay of Pigs to overthrow the government of Fidel Castro in April 1961. He subsequently rejected plans by the Joint Chiefs of Staff to orchestrate false-flag attacks on American soil in order to gain approval for a war against Cuba. After military service in the United States Naval Reserve in World War II and he was elected subsequently to the U. S. Senate and served as the junior Senator from Massachusetts from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated Vice President, and Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon in the 1960 U. S, at age 43, he became the youngest elected president and the second-youngest president. Kennedy was also the first person born in the 20th century to serve as president, to date, Kennedy has been the only Roman Catholic president and the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on November 22,1963, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested that afternoon and determined to have fired the shots that hit the President from a sixth floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. Dallas nightclub owner Jack Ruby fatally shot Oswald two days later in a jail corridor, then-Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson succeeded Kennedy after he died in the hospital. The FBI and the Warren Commission officially concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin, the majority of Americans alive at the time of the assassination, and continuing through 2013, believed that there was a conspiracy and that Oswald was not the only shooter. Since the 1960s, information concerning Kennedys private life has come to light, including his health problems, Kennedy continues to rank highly in historians polls of U. S. presidents and with the general public. His average approval rating of 70% is the highest of any president in Gallups history of systematically measuring job approval and his grandfathers P. J. Kennedy and Boston Mayor John F. Fitzgerald were both Massachusetts politicians. All four of his grandparents were the children of Irish immigrants, Kennedy had an elder brother, Joseph Jr. and seven younger siblings, Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert, Jean, and Ted. Kennedy lived in Brookline for ten years and attended the Edward Devotion School, the Noble and Greenough Lower School, and the Dexter School through 4th grade. In 1927, the Kennedy family moved to a stately twenty-room, Georgian-style mansion at 5040 Independence Avenue in the Hudson Hill neighborhood of Riverdale, Bronx and he attended the lower campus of Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys, from 5th to 7th grade. Two years later, the moved to 294 Pondfield Road in the New York City suburb of Bronxville, New York. The Kennedy family spent summers at their home in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, in September 1930, Kennedy—then 13 years old—attended the Canterbury School in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he required an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury, in September 1931, Kennedy attended Choate, a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for 9th through 12th grade
27.
United States House of Representatives
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The United States House of Representatives is the lower chamber of the United States Congress which, along with the Senate, composes the legislature of the United States. The composition and powers of the House are established by Article One of the United States Constitution, since its inception in 1789, all representatives are elected popularly. The total number of voting representatives is fixed by law at 435, the House is charged with the passage of federal legislation, known as bills, which, after concurrence by the Senate, are sent to the President for consideration. The presiding officer is the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members thereof and is traditionally the leader of the controlling party. He or she and other leaders are chosen by the Democratic Caucus or the Republican Conferences. The House meets in the wing of the United States Capitol. Under the Articles of Confederation, the Congress of the Confederation was a body in which each state was equally represented. All states except Rhode Island agreed to send delegates, the issue of how to structure Congress was one of the most divisive among the founders during the Convention. The House is referred to as the house, with the Senate being the upper house. Both houses approval is necessary for the passage of legislation, the Virginia Plan drew the support of delegates from large states such as Virginia, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania, as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, the Constitution was ratified by the requisite number of states in 1788, but its implementation was set for March 4,1789. The House began work on April 1,1789, when it achieved a quorum for the first time, during the first half of the 19th century, the House was frequently in conflict with the Senate over regionally divisive issues, including slavery. The North was much more populous than the South, and therefore dominated the House of Representatives, However, the North held no such advantage in the Senate, where the equal representation of states prevailed. Regional conflict was most pronounced over the issue of slavery, One example of a provision repeatedly supported by the House but blocked by the Senate was the Wilmot Proviso, which sought to ban slavery in the land gained during the Mexican–American War. Conflict over slavery and other issues persisted until the Civil War, the war culminated in the Souths defeat and in the abolition of slavery. Because all southern senators except Andrew Johnson resigned their seats at the beginning of the war, the years of Reconstruction that followed witnessed large majorities for the Republican Party, which many Americans associated with the Unions victory in the Civil War and the ending of slavery. The Reconstruction period ended in about 1877, the ensuing era, the Democratic and the Republican Party held majorities in the House at various times. The late 19th and early 20th centuries also saw an increase in the power of the Speaker of the House
28.
White House
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The White House is the official residence and principal workplace of the President of the United States, located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D. C. It has been the residence of every U. S. president since John Adams in 1800, the term White House is often used to refer to actions of the president and his advisers, as in The White House announced that. The residence was designed by Irish-born architect James Hoban in the Neoclassical style, construction took place between 1792 and 1800 using Aquia Creek sandstone painted white. When Thomas Jefferson moved into the house in 1801, he added low colonnades on each wing that concealed stables and storage. In 1814, during the War of 1812, the mansion was set ablaze by the British Army in the Burning of Washington, destroying the interior, reconstruction began almost immediately, and President James Monroe moved into the partially reconstructed Executive Residence in October 1817. Exterior construction continued with the addition of the semi-circular South portico in 1824, because of crowding within the executive mansion itself, President Theodore Roosevelt had all work offices relocated to the newly constructed West Wing in 1901. Eight years later in 1909, President William Howard Taft expanded the West Wing and created the first Oval Office, in the main mansion, the third-floor attic was converted to living quarters in 1927 by augmenting the existing hip roof with long shed dormers. A newly constructed East Wing was used as an area for social events. East Wing alterations were completed in 1946, creating additional office space, by 1948, the houses load-bearing exterior walls and internal wood beams were found to be close to failure. Under Harry S. Truman, the rooms were completely dismantled. Once this work was completed, the rooms were rebuilt. The Executive Residence is made up of six stories—the Ground Floor, State Floor, Second Floor, the property is a National Heritage Site owned by the National Park Service and is part of the Presidents Park. In 2007, it was ranked second on the American Institute of Architects list of Americas Favorite Architecture, in May 1790, New York began construction of Government House for his official residence, but he never occupied it. The national capital moved to Philadelphia in December 1790, the July 1790 Residence Act named Philadelphia, Pennsylvania the temporary national capital for a 10-year period while the Federal City was under construction. The City of Philadelphia rented Robert Morriss city house at 190 High Street for Washingtons presidential residence, the first president occupied the Market Street mansion from November 1790 to March 1797, and altered it in ways that may have influenced the design of the White House. As part of an effort to have Philadelphia named the permanent national capital, Pennsylvania built a much grander presidential mansion several blocks away. President John Adams also occupied the Market Street mansion from March 1797 to May 1800, on Saturday, November 1,1800, he became the first president to occupy the White House. The Presidents House in Philadelphia became a hotel and was demolished in 1832, the Presidents House was a major feature of Pierre Charles LEnfants plan for the newly established federal city, Washington, D. C
29.
Report to the American People on Civil Rights
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The address transformed civil rights from a legal issue to a moral one. In the Civil Rights Address, Kennedy explained the economic, educational, the president further announced that he would be submitting legislation to Congress to ensure equal access to public accommodations, education and to address other aspects of discrimination. On May 21,1963 a federal judge ruled that the University of Alabama must allow two black students to be admitted for its summer courses, starting in June. Alabama Governor George Wallace was determined to, at the least, as the ensuing standoff intensified, Kennedy debated with his staff over the value of giving a speech. He himself was unsure of the idea and his advisers were opposed to it, with the exception of his brother, Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. Hours after giving his American University speech on June 10, President Kennedy met with his top aides to discuss the issue. Robert Kennedy said, Well, weve got a draft which doesnt fit all these points, but its something to work with, the president then concluded the meeting, saying, It will help us get ready anyway, because we may want to do it tomorrow. In reality, no such draft existed, on June 11, Governor Wallace stood in the doorway of Foster Auditorium to prevent the black students from registering for classes. Shortly after noon Kennedy, unsure of what Wallace would do, less than three hours after the standoff began, Wallace yielded to Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and National Guard General Henry V. Graham. Kennedy and his staff watched the situation resolve on television, Kennedys speechwriter, Ted Sorenson, figured that with the confrontation over, no speech would be given. But Kennedy thought the moment was opportune to educate the public on civil rights, turning his chair towards Sorenson, Kennedy said, We better give that civil rights speech tonight. Deputy Attorney General Burke Marshall said of Robert Kennedys influence on the decision, He urged it, he felt it, he understood it, and he prevailed. I dont think there was there was anybody in the Cabinet—except the president himself—who felt that way on these issues, with roughly six hours until the broadcast at 8,00 PM, no work had been done on a speech. After consulting the president on what he wanted to say, Sorenson and several others, including Robert Kennedy and Marshall, at around 7,00 PM President Kennedy checked in on the groups progress. Sorenson had managed to create two drafts, one incomplete, and was revising them. Kennedy remarked, Cmon Burke, you must have some ideas, at 7,40 PM the Kennedy brothers met in the Oval Office to outline an extemporaneous speech in case Sorenson wasnt able to finish a draft. The president wrote notes on an envelope and available scrap paper, less than five minutes before 8,00 PM, Sorenson entered the room and presented him with a draft. Kennedy told Sorenson later that evening, For the first time, Kennedy opened his speech by briefly reviewing the integration of the University of Alabama
30.
Birmingham campaign
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Led by Martin Luther King Jr. In the early 1960s, Birmingham was one of the most racially divided cities in the United States, Black citizens faced legal and economic disparities, and violent retribution when they attempted to draw attention to their problems. Martin Luther King Jr. called it the most segregated city in the country, when local business and governmental leaders resisted the boycott, SCLC agreed to assist. Organizer Wyatt Tee Walker joined Birmingham activist Shuttlesworth and began what they called Project C, when the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, James Bevel, SCLCs Director Direct Action, thought of the idea of having students become the main demonstrators in the Birmingham campaign. Not all of the bystanders were peaceful, despite the intentions of SCLC to hold a completely nonviolent walk. King and the SCLC drew both criticism and praise for allowing children to participate and put themselves in harms way, the Birmingham campaign was a model of nonviolent direct action protest and, through the media, drew the worlds attention to racial segregation in the South. Birmingham, Alabama was, in 1963, probably the most thoroughly segregated city in the United States, Black secretaries could not work for white professionals. Jobs available to blacks were limited to labor in Birminghams steel mills, work in household service and yard maintenance. When layoffs were necessary, black employees were often the first to go, the unemployment rate for blacks was two and a half times higher than for whites. The average income for blacks in the city was less than half that of whites, significantly lower pay scales for black workers at the local steel mills were common. Racial segregation of public and commercial facilities throughout Jefferson County was legally required, covered all aspects of life, only 10 percent of the citys black population was registered to vote in 1960. In addition, Birminghams economy was stagnating as the city was shifting from blue collar to white collar jobs, according to Time magazine in 1958, the only thing white workers had to gain from desegregation was more competition from black workers. Fifty unsolved racially motivated bombings between 1945 and 1962 had earned the city the nickname Bombingham, a neighborhood shared by white and black families experienced so many attacks that it was called Dynamite Hill. Black churches in which rights were discussed became specific targets for attack. Birminghams black population began to organize to effect change, when the courts overturned the segregation of the citys parks, the city responded by closing them. Shuttlesworths home was bombed, as was Bethel Baptist Church. After Shuttlesworth was arrested and jailed for violating the citys segregation rules in 1962, Hanes responded with a letter informing Shuttlesworth that his petition had been thrown in the garbage. Looking for outside help, Shuttlesworth invited Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC to Birmingham, saying, If you come to Birmingham, you not only gain prestige
31.
Civil Rights Act of 1875
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The bill was passed by the 43rd United States Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1,1875. Several years later, the Supreme Court ruled in Civil Rights Cases that sections of the act were unconstitutional, the bill was proposed by Senator Sumner and co-sponsored by Representative Benjamin F. Butler, both Republicans from Massachusetts, in the 41st Congress of the United States in 1870. The act was passed by the 43rd Congress in February 1875. The Supreme Court, in an 8–1 decision, declared sections of the act unconstitutional in the Civil Rights Cases on October 15,1883, Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the lone dissent. The Court also held that the Thirteenth Amendment was meant to eliminate the badge of slavery, but not to prohibit racial discrimination in public accommodations. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 was the last civil rights bill to be signed into law by the government until the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957 during the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 is notable as one of the pieces of legislation related to Reconstruction that were passed by Congress after the American Civil War. Provisions contained in the Civil Rights Act of 1875 were later adopted by Congress during the Civil Rights Movement as part of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and this legislation relied on the Commerce Clause contained in Article One of the Constitution of the United States. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America, An Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia of American Civil Liberties. The Supreme Courts Sanction of Racial Hatred, The 1883 Civil Rights Cases, shades of Freedom, Racial Politics and Presumptions of the American Legal Process. The Shifting Wind, The Supreme Court and Civil Rights from Reconstruction to Brown, New York, State University of New York Press. State Response to the Civil Right Issue, 1883-1885, the Civil Rights Act of 1875, A Failure Reconsidered. Encyclopedia of African American History, 1619-1895, From The Colonial Period to the Age of Frederick Douglass, accommodating Jim Crow, The Law of Hospitality and the Struggle for Civil Rights. Badges and Incidents of Slavery In the Supreme Court, the Promises of Liberty, The History and Contemporary Relevance of the Thirteenth Amendment. The Reconstruction Desegregation Debate, The Politics of Equality and the Rhetoric of Place, east Lansing, Michigan State University Press. In Jessie Carney Smith, Linda T. Wynn, Freedom Facts and Firsts,400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. The Civil Rights Act of 1875, Some Reflected Light on the Fourteenth Amendment, the Enforcement of the Civil Rights Act of 1875. Gudridge, Patrick O. Privileges and Permissions, The Civil Rights Act of 1875, Charles Sumner, the Constitution, and the Civil Rights Act of 1875
32.
United States Attorney General
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The United States Attorney General is the head of the United States Department of Justice per 28 U. S. C. §503, concerned with affairs, and is the chief law enforcement officer. The 84th and current Attorney General is Jeff Sessions, who assumed the office on February 9,2017, the attorney general serves as a member of the Cabinet of the President of the United States and is the only cabinet officer who does not have the title Secretary of. The Attorney General is appointed by the President and takes office after confirmation by the United States Senate, the office of Attorney General was established by Congress by the Judiciary Act of 1789. In 1870, the Department of Justice was established to support the general in the discharge of their responsibilities. Parties No party Federalist Democratic-Republican Democratic Whig Republican Status As of April 2017, there are eleven, living former US Attorneys General, the most recent Attorney General to die was Janet Reno on November 7,2016. Barr served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. 2 Richard L. Thornburgh and Eric Holder served as acting general in their capacity as deputy attorney general. Both subsequently served as general, Thornburgh 1988–1991 and Holder 2009–2015. 4 Assistant Attorney General for the DOJ Civil Division Stuart M. Gerson was acting general from January 20,1993. Gerson was fourth in the line of succession at the Justice Department, during his time as Acting AG, Gerson supported the Brady bill and was in office in the beginnings of the Waco siege. Janet Reno, President Clintons nominee for attorney general, was confirmed on March 12, Acting Attorney General Gersons last day at the Justice Department was March 19. 5 On August 27,2007, President Bush named Solicitor General Paul Clement as the acting attorney general, to take office upon the resignation of Alberto Gonzales. According to administration officials, Clement took that office at 12,01 am September 17,2007, keisler served as acting attorney general until the nomination of Michael Mukasey on November 9,2007. 6 Deputy Attorney General Mark Filip was asked to assume the position of acting attorney general by then President-elect Obama, Filip led the Department while President Obamas nominee, then Attorney-General Designate Eric Holder, awaited confirmation by the United States Senate. Holder was confirmed on February 2,2009, and sworn in the next day, thus ending Filips tenure as the acting attorney general
33.
Martin Luther King Jr.
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Martin Luther King Jr. was an American Baptist minister and activist who was a leader in the Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience based on his Christian beliefs, King became a civil rights activist early in his career. He led the 1955 Montgomery bus boycott and helped found the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in 1957, with the SCLC, King led an unsuccessful 1962 struggle against segregation in Albany, Georgia, and helped organize the 1963 nonviolent protests in Birmingham, Alabama. King also helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington, where he delivered his famous I Have a Dream speech, on October 14,1964, King received the Nobel Peace Prize for combating racial inequality through nonviolent resistance. In 1965, he helped to organize the Selma to Montgomery marches, in the final years of his life, King expanded his focus to include opposition towards poverty and the Vietnam War, alienating many of his liberal allies with a 1967 speech titled Beyond Vietnam. In 1968, King was planning a national occupation of Washington, D. C. to be called the Poor Peoples Campaign, Kings death was followed by riots in many U. S. cities. Ray, who fled the country, was arrested two months later at London Heathrow Airport, King was posthumously awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the Congressional Gold Medal. Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states beginning in 1971, hundreds of streets in the U. S. have been renamed in his honor, and a county in Washington State was also renamed for him. The Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial on the National Mall in Washington, King was born on January 15,1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, to the Reverend Martin Luther King, Sr. and Alberta Williams King. It was during this time he chose to be called Martin Luther King in honor of the German reformer Martin Luther, King had Irish ancestry through his paternal great-grandfather, as well as African ancestry. King was a child, between an older sister, Willie Christine King, and a younger brother, Alfred Daniel Williams King. King sang with his choir at the 1939 Atlanta premiere of the movie Gone with the Wind. His mother was an accomplished organist and choir leader, and she took him to various churches to sing and he received attention for singing I Want to Be More and More Like Jesus. King later became a member of the choir in his church. King said that his father regularly whipped him until he was fifteen, King saw his fathers proud and fearless protests against segregation, such as King Sr. When King was a child, he befriended a boy whose father owned a business near his familys home. When the boys were six, they started school, King had to attend a school for African Americans, King lost his friend because the childs father no longer wanted the boys to play together. King suffered from depression throughout much of his life, in his adolescent years, he initially felt resentment against whites due to the racial humiliation that he, his family, and his neighbors often had to endure in the segregated South
34.
Party leaders of the United States Senate
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The Senate Majority and Minority Leaders are two United States Senators and members of the party leadership of the United States Senate. They are elected to their positions in the Senate by their party caucuses, the Senate Democratic Caucus. By rule, the Presiding Officer gives the Majority Leader priority in obtaining recognition to speak on the floor of the Senate, the Assistant Majority and Minority Leaders of the United States Senate are the second-ranking members of each partys leadership. The main function of the Majority and Minority Whips is to gather votes on major issues, because they are the second ranking member of the Senate, if there is no floor leader present, the whip may become acting floor leader. Before 1969, the titles were Majority Whip and Minority Whip. The Senate is currently composed of 52 Republicans,46 Democrats, the current leaders are Republican Majority Leader Mitch McConnell of Kentucky and Democratic Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York. The current Assistant Majority Leader is Republican John Cornyn of Texas, the current Assistant Minority Leader/Whip is Democrat Dick Durbin of Illinois. The Democrats began the practice of electing floor leaders in 1920 while they were in the minority, John W. Kern was a Democratic Senator from Indiana. While the title was not official, he is considered to be the first Senate party leader from 1913 through 1917, the Constitution designates the Vice President of the United States as President of the United States Senate. The Constitution also calls for a President pro tempore to serve as the leader of the body when the President of the Senate is absent, for these reasons, it is the Majority Leader who, in practice, manages the Senate. This is in contrast to the House of Representatives where the elected Speaker of the House has a deal of discretionary power. The Democratic Party first selected a leader in 1920, the Republican Party first formally designated a leader in 1925. gov Republican Majority Democratic Minority
35.
Everett Dirksen
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Everett McKinley Dirksen was an American politician of the Republican Party. He represented Illinois in the House of Representatives and the Senate, Dirksen, a conservative, was one of the Senates strongest supporters of the Vietnam War and was also known as The Wizard of Ooze because of his flamboyant oratorical style. Dirksen was born in Pekin, Illinois, a city near Peoria. He was the son of German immigrants Johann Friedrich Dirksen and his wife Antje Conrady, Everett had a fraternal twin, Thomas Dirksen, and a brother named Benjamin Harrison, a nod to the Republican leanings of his father. The boys father died when the twins were nine years old, Dirksen grew up on a farm on Pekins outskirts, in a section called Beantown because immigrants grew beans instead of flowers. After attending the schools, he entered the University of Minnesota Law School. He served as a lieutenant in a field artillery battery. He was a member of the Reformed Church in America, founded in the 18th century by Dutch immigrants, after the war, Dirksen invested money in an electric washing machine business, but it failed. He joined his brothers in running a bakery and he expressed his artistic side by writing a number of unpublished short stories, as well as plays with former classmate Hubert Ropp. In addition, Dirksen was active in the American Legion, and his political career began in 1926, when he was elected to the nonpartisan Pekin City Council. He placed first in field of eight candidates vying for four seats, at the time, the top votegetter also received appointment as the citys commissioner of accounts and finance, and Dirksen held both posts from 1927 to 1931. Dirksen was a Freemason and was a member of Pekin Lodge #29 in Pekin, in 1954, he was Grand Orator of the Grand Lodge of Illinois. He was honored with the 33rd degree in 1954, after losing in the 1930 Republican primary, Dirksen won the nomination and the congressional seat in 1932 and was re-elected seven times. His support for many New Deal programs marked him as a moderate, Dirksen was able to secure the passage of an amendment to the Lend Lease Act by introducing a resolution while 65 of the Houses Democrats were at a luncheon. It provided that the Senate and the House could, by a majority in a concurrent resolution. Dirksen studied law privately in Washington, D. C. after he was elected and he was admitted to the District of Columbia Bar in 1936 and the bar of Illinois in 1937. In December 1943, Dirksen announced that he would be a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in 1944 and he stated that a coalition of midwestern Republican representatives had urged him to run and that his campaign was serious. Dirksens presidential campaign was still alive on the eve of the 1944 convention
36.
Mike Mansfield
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Michael Joseph Mike Mansfield was an American politician and diplomat. A member of the Democratic Party, he served as a U. S and he was the longest-serving Senate Majority Leader, serving from 1961 to 1977. During his tenure, he shepherded Great Society programs through the Senate, after retiring from the Senate, Mansfield served as U. S. Mansfield is the longest-serving American ambassador to Japan in history. After his ambassadorship, Mansfield served for a time as an adviser on East Asian affairs to Goldman Sachs. Mansfield was born in the Brooklyn borough of New York City, the son of Patrick J. Mansfield and Josephine Mansfield, who were both Irish Catholic immigrants. His mother died from pneumonia in 1906, and his father subsequently sent Michael and he attended local public schools, and worked in his relatives grocery store. He turned into a runaway, even living at a state orphanage in Twin Bridges for half a year. At 14, Mansfield dropped out of school and lied about his age in order to enlist in the U. S. Navy during World War I. He went on several overseas convoys on the USS Minneapolis, but was discharged by the Navy after his age was discovered. After his Navy discharge, he enlisted in the U. S. Army, Mansfield was a Private First Class in the U. S. Marine Corps from 1920 to 1922. He served in the Western Recruiting Division at San Francisco until January 1921, the following month, he was detached to the Guard Company, Marine Barracks, Navy Yard, Mare Island, California. In April, he boarded the USAT Sherman, bound for the Philippines, after a brief stopover at the Marine Barracks at Cavite, he arrived at his duty station on May 5,1921, the Marine Barracks, Naval Station, Olongapo, Philippine Islands. One year later, Mansfield was assigned to Company A, Marine Battery, a short tour of duty with the Asiatic Fleet took him along the coast of China, before he returned to Olongapo in late May 1922. His service with the Marines established a lifelong interest in Asia and that August, Mansfield returned to Cavite in preparation for his return to the United States and eventual discharge. On November 9,1922, Marine Private Michael J. Mansfield was released on the completion of his enlistment and he was awarded the Good Conduct Medal, his character being described as “excellent” during his two years as a Marine. Following his return to Montana in 1922, Mansfield worked as a mucker, shoveling ore and other waste, having never attended high school, he took entrance examinations to attend the Montana School of Mines, studying to become a mining engineer. He later met a schoolteacher and his future wife, Maureen Hayes. With her financial support, Mansfield studied at the University of Montana in Missoula and he was also a member of Alpha Tau Omega fraternity
37.
United States House Committee on Rules
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The Committee on Rules, or Rules Committee, is a committee of the United States House of Representatives. Rather than being responsible for an area of policy, as most other committees are. As such, it is one of the most powerful committees and is described as an arm of the leadership. Instead, what may be said and done to a bill is strictly limited and this limitation is performed by the Rules Committee. When a bill is reported out of another committee with legislative jurisdiction, common practice, though, is for bills reported from committees to be considered in the Rules Committee, which will decide for how long and under what rules the full body will debate the proposition. Consideration by the body can be in one of two forums, the Committee of the Whole, or on the floor of the full House of Representatives itself. For instance, there might be a limit on the number or types of amendments, amendments might only be allowed to specific sections of the bill, or no amendments might be allowed at all. Besides control over amendments, the rule issued by the Rules Committee also determines the amount of speaking time assigned on each bill or resolution, between control over amendments, debate, and when measures will be considered, the Rules Committee exerts vast power in the House. As such, the majority party will usually be very keen on controlling it tightly, while most House committees maintain membership in a rough proportion to the full chamber, membership on the Rules Committee is disproportionately in favor of the majority party. The Rules Committee was formed on April 2,1789, during the first Congress, however, it had nowhere near the powerful role it has today. Instead, it merely proposed general rules for the House to follow when debating bills and these general rules still have a great impact on the tone of the House floor today. The Rules Committee, for a time, lay dormant. For the first fifty years of its existence, it accomplished little beyond simply reaffirming these rules, and its role was very noncontroversial. On June 16,1841, it made a policy change. In 1880, the modern Rules Committee began to emerge from the reorganization of the House Committees, when the Republican party took over the House in the election of 1880, they quickly realized the power that the Rules Committee possessed. One member, Thomas Brackett Reed, used a seat on the Rules Committee to vault himself to the Speakership, in the 1890s and 1900s, Reed and his successor, Joseph Gurney Cannon used the Rules Committee to centralize the power of the Speakership. Although their power to members in committees and perform other functions was limited by a forced rule change in 1910. This state of affairs would continue until the 1960s, the bill passed,217 votes to 212
38.
Howard W. Smith
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Representative from Virginia, was a leader of the powerful but informal conservative coalition who supported both racial segregation and womens rights. Born in Broad Run, Virginia, on February 2,1883, he attended schools and graduated from Bethel Military Academy, Warrenton, Virginia. He took his LLB at the law department of the University of Virginia at Charlottesville in 1903, was admitted to the bar in 1904, during World War I, he was assistant general counsel to the Federal Alien Property Custodian. From 1918 to 1922 he was Commonwealths Attorney of Alexandria and he served as a judge 1922 to 1930, and also engaged in banking, farming, and dairying. He was elected in 1930 to the House of Representatives and he initially supported New Deal measures such as the Tennessee Valley Authority Act and the National Industrial Recovery Act. A leader of the coalition, he led the opposition to the National Labor Relations Board. Conservatives created a special House committee to investigate the NLRB that was headed by Smith, the committee conducted a sensationalist investigation that undermined public support for the NLRB and, more broadly, for the New Deal. In June 1940, amendments proposed by the Smith Committee passed by a margin in the House, partly because Smiths new alliance with William Green. The AFL was convinced the NLRB was controlled by leftists who supported the rival Congress of Industrial Organizations in organizing drives, §2385, which became known as the Smith Act. It required resident aliens to register and it also banned advocating the overthrow of the US government or its political subdivisions. American Communist Party chairman Gus Hall was one of many communists later convicted of violating its provisions, the US Supreme Court ruled in Yates v. United States that the First Amendment protected much radical speech, which halted Smith Act prosecutions under the Act. As chairman of the all-powerful United States House Committee on Rules after 1955, an opponent of racial integration, Smith used his power as chairman of the Rules Committee to keep much civil rights legislation from coming to a vote on the House floor. When the Civil Rights Act of 1957 came before Smiths committee, Smith said, as the white people of the South. Speaker Sam Rayburn tried to reduce his power in 1961, with limited success. Smith delayed passage the Civil Rights Act of 1964, one of Rayburns reforms was the Twenty-One Day Rule that required a bill to be sent to the floor within 21 days. Under pressure, Smith released the bill, Two days before the vote, Smith offered an amendment to insert sex after the word religion as a protected class of Title VII of the Act. The Congressional Record shows Smith made serious arguments, voicing concerns that women would suffer greater discrimination without a protection for gender. Liberals, who knew Smith was hostile to rights for blacks, assumed that he was doing so to defeat the whole bill
39.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
40.
Assassination of John F. Kennedy
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On November 22,1963, John F. Kennedy, the 35th President of the United States, was fatally shot in Dallas, Texas while riding in a motorcade in Dallas Dealey Plaza, at 12,30 p. m. Fatally shot by Lee Harvey Oswald, he was traveling with his wife, Jacqueline, Texas Governor John Connally, Kennedys death marked the fourth and most recent assassination of an American President. The Committee was not able to identify any individuals or groups involved with the conspiracy, in addition, the HSCA found that the original federal investigations were seriously flawed in respect of information-sharing and the possibility of conspiracy. As recommended by the HSCA, the evidence indicating conspiracy was subsequently re-examined and rejected. However, Kennedys assassination is still the subject of debate and has spawned numerous conspiracy theories. Polling in 2013 showed that 60% of Americans believe that a group of conspirators was responsible for the assassination, President Kennedy traveled to Texas to smooth over frictions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough and conservative John Connally. A presidential visit to the state of Texas was first agreed upon by Lyndon B. Johnson, President John F. Kennedys vice president, and Texas native, President Kennedys trip to Dallas was first announced to the public in September 1963. The exact motorcade route was finalized on November 18 and announced to the public a few days before November 22, the White House staff informed the Secret Service that the President would arrive there via a short flight from Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth to Dallas Love Field. Leaving from Dallas Love Field,45 minutes had been allotted for the motorcade to reach the Trade Mart at an arrival time of 12,15 p. m. The actual route was chosen to be a meandering 10-mile route between the two places, which could be driven slowly in the allotted time, on November 14, both men attended a meeting at Love Field and drove over the route that Sorrels believed best suited for the motorcade. From Love Field, the route passed through a portion of Dallas, through Downtown along Main Street. The planned route to the Trade Mart was widely reported in Dallas newspapers several days before the event, for the benefit of people who wished to view the motorcade. The route on Main Street precluded a direct turn onto the Fort Worth Turnpike exit, the Texas School Book Depository was situated at this corner of Houston and Elm. Three vehicles were used for Secret Service and police protection in the Dallas motorcade, the first car, an unmarked white Ford, carried Dallas Police Chief Jesse Curry, Secret Service Agent Win Lawson, Sheriff Bill Decker and Dallas Field Agent Forrest Sorrels. The second car, a 1961 Lincoln Continental convertible, held driver Agent Bill Greer, SAIC Roy Kellerman, Governor John Connally, Nellie Connally, President Kennedy, Secret Service agents Clint Hill, Jack Ready, Tim McIntyre and Paul Landis rode on the running boards. By the time the motorcade reached Dealey Plaza, they were five minutes away from their planned destination. At 12,30 p. m. President, you cant say Dallas doesnt love you and those were the last words ever spoken by John F. Kennedy
41.
Joint session of the United States Congress
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Joint sessions and meetings are traditionally presided over by the Speaker of the House and take place at the House chamber. However, the Constitution requires the Vice President to preside over the counting of electoral votes, the speech is modeled on the Speech from the Throne, given by the British monarch. There is a difference, however. The President is the author of his own State of the Union message. Written reports were standard until 1913, when Woodrow Wilson reestablished the practice of attending to deliver the speech. Few Presidents have deviated from this custom since, the Twelfth Amendment mandates that the Congress assemble in joint session to count the electoral votes and declare the winners of the election. The session is ordinarily required to place on January 6 in the calendar year immediately following the meetings of the presidential electors. Since the Twentieth Amendment, the newly elected Congress declares the winner of the election, in elections before 1936, the outgoing Congress counted the electoral votes. The meeting is held at 1,00 p. m. Eastern time in the Chamber of the U. S. House of Representatives. The sitting Vice President is expected to preside, but in cases the President pro tempore of the Senate has chaired the proceedings instead. The Vice President and the Speaker of the House sit at the podium, Senate pages bring in the two mahogany boxes containing each states certified vote and place them on tables in front of the Senators and Representatives. Each house appoints two tellers to count the vote, relevant portions of the Certificate of Vote are read for each state, in alphabetical order. Members of Congress can object to any states vote count, provided that the objection is supported by at least one member of house of Congress. Bush of Texas and the Vice President of the United States, if there are no objections or all objections are overruled, the presiding officer declares the result of the vote and states who is elected President and Vice President. The Senators then depart from the House Chamber, in addition to State of the Union Addresses, inaugurals and counting of electoral votes, Joint Sessions usually fall into one of several topics. Foreign heads of state and heads of government from 48 countries have addressed joint meetings of Congress more than a hundred times, Israel, the United Kingdom, and France lead the list with eight joint meeting addresses by heads of state or dignitaries. Other leading countries are, Mexico, Italy, Ireland, South Korea, Germany, including West Germany and unified Germany, India, Canada, Australia, Argentina, and the Philippines. Prime Minister of Israel Benjamin Netanyahu and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Winston Churchill have each made three joint addresses to Congress, more than any other foreign dignitaries
42.
Discharge petition
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Discharge petitions are most often associated with the U. S. House of Representatives, though many state legislatures in the United States have similar procedures. The discharge petition, and the threat of one, gives power to individual members of the House and usurps a small amount of power from the leadership. In the U. S. House, successful discharge petitions are rare, an early form of the discharge petition was introduced into U. S. House rules in 1910 as part of a series of measures intended to check the power of the disliked Speaker Joseph Gurney Cannon. The modern version, however, was adopted in 1931 by the 71st House, in 1935, the rules were changed so the number of signatures required to force a vote went from one-third of the chamber to an absolute majority. Originally, signatories to a discharge petition were secret, only once the petition acquired a majority would the clerk announce who signed. In 1993, the procedure was changed to every step of the process public. This change was spearheaded by then–Rep, there are three basic forms of discharge petition, Directly on an unreported measure. This makes it difficult to amend, which may be considered a benefit or a drawback, the committee to be discharged can circumvent this to a degree by reporting the measure. To make a rule providing that the unreported measure be recalled from committee. This is the most common variety in modern times, since the 107th Congress, to make a special rule providing that a reported measure that was never called for floor consideration be considered. Once the House acts on a motion, any further discharge petitions on the same subject are precluded for the remainder of the session of Congress. This is only relevant if the petition succeeds but the bill is rejected anyway, if the motion is budget-related, then the Committee of the Whole is convened to amend it. Once the requisite number of signatures is reached, the petition is placed on the Discharge Calendar and this layover is waived during the last six days of a session before sine die adjournment. At the end of session of Congress, any discharge petitions remaining unresolved or lacking the required number of signatures are removed from consideration. 563 discharge petitions were filed between 1931 and 2003, of which only 47 obtained the majority of signatures. The House voted for discharge 26 times and passed 19 of the measures, overall, either the petition was completed or else the measure made it to the floor by other means in 16 percent of cases. A successful discharge petition embarrasses the leadership, as such, members of the majority party are hesitant to support something that would make the Speaker and their own leaders look bad. Furthermore, since the signers of a petition are not private, majority party members are pressured not to sign, when signing of a petition was secret, petitions were generally only used for serious discontent in the majority
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Voting methods in deliberative assemblies
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Deliberative assemblies – bodies that use parliamentary procedure to arrive at decisions – use several methods of voting on motions. The regular methods of voting in such bodies are a voice vote, a vote. Additional forms of voting include a vote and balloting. The assembly could decide on the method by adopting a motion on it. Legislatures may have their own voting methods, Roberts Rules of Order Newly Revised states that a voice vote is the usual method of voting on any motion that does not require more than a majority vote for its adoption. It is considered the simplest and quickest of voting methods used by deliberative assemblies, the chair will then estimate which side had more members. A simple rising vote is used principally in cases in which the chair believes a voice vote has taken with an inconclusive result. A rising vote is also the method of voting on motions requiring a two-thirds vote for adoption. It can also be used as the first method of voting when only a majority vote is required if the chair believes in advance that a vote will be inconclusive. The chair can also order the rising vote to be counted, a show of hands is an alternate to voice voting and can be used as the basic voting method in small boards or committees, and it is so used in other informal or small gatherings for voting. It is more precise than a vote but does not require members to leave their seats. However, it does not count as a division of the assembly, a recorded vote is a vote in which the votes of each member of the assembly are recorded. RONR explains, Taking a vote by roll call has the effect of placing on the record how each member, or sometimes each delegation, votes, therefore, it has exactly the opposite effect of a ballot vote. It is usually confined to representative bodies, where the proceeds are published and it should not be used in a mass meeting or in any assembly whose members are not responsible to a constituency. Recorded votes may either be taken by actually calling the roll or, in some assemblies, a signed ballot is sometimes used as a substitute for a roll call vote. It allows the members votes can be recorded in the minutes without the chair having to call the names of each member individually, a motion to use a signed ballot is one of the motions relating to methods of voting and the polls. Balloting is a form of voting in which the secrecy of the choices is desired. Members mark their choices on pieces of paper and deposit the paper into a ballot box and this procedure is typically the usual method in elections
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