1.
Federal Art Project
–
The Federal Art Project was a New Deal program to fund the visual arts in the United States. Under national director Holger Cahill, it was one of five Federal Project Number One projects sponsored by the Works Progress Administration, the Federal Art Project was the visual arts arm of the Great Depression-era Works Progress Administration, a Federal One program. Funded under the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935, it operated from August 29,1935, the Federal Art Project operated community art centers throughout the country where craft workers and artists worked, exhibited and educated others. The project created more than 200,000 separate works, some of them remaining among the most significant pieces of art in the country. The Federal Art Projects primary goals were to employ out-of-work artists and to art for non-federal municipal buildings. Artists were paid $23.60 a week, tax-supported institutions such as schools, hospitals, the work was divided into art production, art instruction and art research. The primary output of the group was the Index of American Design. As many as 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the WPA Federal Art Project. The WPA program made no distinction between representational and nonrepresentational art, abstraction had not yet gained favor in the 1930s and 1940s and, thus, was virtually unsalable. As a result, the Federal Art Project supported such artists as Jackson Pollock before their work could earn them income. One particular success was the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, which started in 1935 as an experiment that employed 900 people who were classified as unemployable due to their age or disability. The project came to employ approximately 5,000 unskilled workers, many of them women, historian John Gurda observed that the citys unemployment hovered at 40 percent in 1933. In that year, he said,53 percent of Milwaukees property taxes went unpaid because people just could not afford to make the tax payments, workers were taught bookbinding, block printing and design, which they used to create handmade art books and childrens books. They produced toys, dolls, theatre costumes, quilts, rugs, draperies, wall hangings and furniture that were purchased by schools, hospitals and municipal organizations for the cost of materials only. In 2014, when the Museum of Wisconsin Art mounted an exhibition of items created by the Milwaukee Handicraft Project, Holger Cahill was national director of the Federal Art Project. Other administrators included Audrey McMahon, director of the New York Region, haupers, director for Minnesota, and Robert Bruce Inverarity, director for Washington state. Some 10,000 artists were commissioned to work for the Federal Art Project, notable artists include the following, The first federally sponsored community art center opened in December 1936 in Raleigh, North Carolina. The Index of American Design program of the Federal Art Project produced a survey of the crafts
Federal Art Project
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Eagle and palette design regarded as the logo of the Federal Art Project
Federal Art Project
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Poster summarizing Federal Art Project employment and activities (November 1, 1936)
Federal Art Project
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Holger Cahill, national director of the Federal Art Project, speaking at the
Harlem Community Art Center (October 24, 1938)
Federal Art Project
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WPA National Park Service poster (1940)
2.
Work relief program
–
During periods of recession, an economy usually experiences a relatively high unemployment rate. According to International Labour Organization report, more than 200 million people globally or 6% of the workforce were without a job in 2012. There remains considerable debate regarding the causes, consequences and solutions for unemployment. Classical economics, new classical economics, and the Austrian School of economics argue that market mechanisms are reliable means of resolving unemployment, Keynesian economics emphasizes the cyclical nature of unemployment and recommends government interventions in the economy that it claims will reduce unemployment during recessions. This theory focuses on recurrent shocks that suddenly reduce aggregate demand for goods and services, Keynesian models recommend government interventions designed to increase demand for workers, these can include financial stimuli, publicly funded job creation, and expansionist monetary policies. Structural arguments emphasize causes and solutions related to disruptive technologies and globalization, Causes and solutions for frictional unemployment often address job entry threshold and wage rates. Behavioral economists highlight individual biases in decision making, and often involve problems and solutions concerning sticky wages, for centuries, experts have predicted that machines would make workers obsolete and increase unemployment. The state of being without any work both for an educated & uneducated person, for earning ones livelihood is meant by unemployment, some additional types of unemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonal unemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hidden unemployment. Though there have been several definitions of voluntary and involuntary unemployment in the economics literature, voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individuals decisions, whereas involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of frictional unemployment is voluntary, on the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. So, in practice, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary unemployment is hard to draw and this happens with cyclical unemployment, as macroeconomic forces cause microeconomic unemployment which can boomerang back and exacerbate these macroeconomic forces. Classical, or real-wage unemployment, occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market-clearing level causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies. On the other hand, some argue that as wages fall below a livable wage many choose to drop out of the labor market. This is especially true in countries where low-income families are supported through public welfare systems, in such cases, wages would have to be high enough to motivate people to choose employment over what they receive through public welfare. Wages below a livable wage are likely to result in lower labor market participation in above stated scenario, in addition it must be noted that consumption of goods and services is the primary driver of increased need for labor. Higher wages leads to workers having more available to consume goods. Therefore, higher wages increase general consumption and as a result need for labor increases, many economists have argued that unemployment increases with increased governmental regulation. For example, minimum wage laws raise the cost of some low-skill laborers above market equilibrium, laws restricting layoffs may make businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky
Work relief program
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Unemployed men outside a soup kitchen in
Depression -era
Chicago, 1931.
Work relief program
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Karl Marx, Theorien über den Mehrwert, 1956
Work relief program
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A government unemployment office with job listings, Berlin, Germany, 1982.
Work relief program
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Migrant Mother,
Dorothea Lange, 1936
3.
New Deal
–
The New Deal was a series of programs, including, most notably, Social Security, that were enacted in the United States between 1933 and 1938, and a few that came later. They included both laws passed by Congress as well as executive orders during the first term of the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt. The Republicans were split, with opposing the entire New Deal as an enemy of business and growth. By 1936 the term liberal typically was used for supporters of the New Deal, from 1934 to 1938, Roosevelt was assisted in his endeavours by a pro-spender majority in Congress. In the 1938 midterm elections, however, Roosevelt and his supporters lost control of Congress to the bipartisan conservative coalition. Many historians distinguish between a First New Deal and a Second New Deal, with the one more liberal. The First New Deal dealt with the banking crises through the Emergency Banking Act. The Securities Act of 1933 was enacted to prevent a repeated stock market crash, the controversial work of the National Recovery Administration was also part of the First New Deal. The economic downturn of 1937–38, and the split between the AFL and CIO labor unions led to major Republican gains in Congress in 1938. Conservative Republicans and Democrats in Congress joined in the informal Conservative Coalition, by 1942–43 they shut down relief programs such as the WPA and Civilian Conservation Corps and blocked major liberal proposals. Roosevelt himself turned his attention to the war effort, and won reelection in 1940 and 1944, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration and the first version of the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional, however the AAA was rewritten and then upheld. As the first Republican president elected after Franklin D. Roosevelt, Dwight D. Eisenhower left the New Deal largely intact, Johnsons Great Society used the New Deal as inspiration for a dramatic expansion of liberal programs, which Republican Richard M. Nixon generally retained. After 1974, however, the call for deregulation of the economy gained bipartisan support, the New Deal regulation of banking was suspended in the 1990s. The largest programs still in existence today are the Social Security System, the phrase New Deal was coined by an adviser to Roosevelt, Stuart Chase. Although the term was used by Mark Twain in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthurs Court. From 1929 to 1933 manufacturing output decreased by one third, prices fell by 20%, causing deflation that made repaying debts much harder. Unemployment in the U. S. increased from 4% to 25%, additionally, one-third of all employed persons were downgraded to working part-time on much smaller paychecks. In the aggregate, almost 50% of the nations human work-power was going unused, before the New Deal, there was no insurance on deposits at banks
New Deal
–
Top left: The
Tennessee Valley Authority, part of the New Deal, being signed into law in 1933. Top right: President Roosevelt was responsible for initiatives and programs of the New Deal. Bottom: A public mural from one of the artists employed by the Works Progress Administration, part of the New Deal.
New Deal
–
USA annual real GDP from 1910 to 1960, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
New Deal
–
1935 cartoon by
Vaughn Shoemaker; he parodied the New Deal as a card game with alphabetical agencies.
New Deal
–
Roosevelt's ebullient public personality, conveyed through his declaration that "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself" and his "fireside chats" on the radio did a great deal to help restore the nation's confidence.
4.
Robert Fechner
–
Robert Fechner was a national labor union leader and director of the Civilian Conservation Corps, which played a central role in the development of state and national parks in the United States. With only a public elementary education he had risen to become an American labor union leader. He had a reputation for fairness, tact, and patience in all his dealings, on 5 April 1933 he was appointed by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt to be the Director of the Civilian Conservation Corps. It was Fechners fairness and ability for organization and administration that impressed the president to his appointment as director, although he had been an important labor figure, Fechner objected to attempts of union organizers to form unions among CCC enrollees in the camps. Upon Fechners death while serving as CCC Director he was succeeded by James McEntee. Fechners likeness appeared on the cover of Time magazine on February 6,1939 and he was buried in Arlington National Cemetery. Into the Woods, The First Year of the Civilian Conservation Corps Time cover, February 6,1939 Robert Fechner grave in Arlington National Cemetery
Robert Fechner
–
Fechner with
Franklin D. Roosevelt and
Henry A. Wallace
5.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
–
Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Roosevelt in 1933
Franklin D. Roosevelt
–
Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years old.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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The birthplace of FDR at Springwood.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
–
Roosevelt sailing with half-niece Helen and father James, 1899.
6.
Natural resources
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Natural resources are resources that exist without actions of humankind. This includes all valued characteristics such as magnetic, gravitational, on earth it includes, sunlight, atmosphere, water, land along with all vegetation and animal life that naturally subsists upon or within the heretofore identified characteristics and substances. Particular areas such as the rainforest in Fatu-Hiva are often characterized by the biodiversity and geodiversity existent in their ecosystems, Natural resources may be further classified in different ways. Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment, every man-made product is composed of natural resources. Some natural resources such as sunlight and air can be found everywhere, however, most resources only occur in small sporadic areas, and are referred to as localised resources. There are very few resources that are considered inexhaustible – these are solar radiation, geothermal energy, the vast majority of resources are theoretically exhaustible, which means they have a finite quantity and can be depleted if managed improperly. There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of origin, stage of development, fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category because they are formed from decayed organic matter. Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material, examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various regions, Actual resources — Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of a resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available. Reserve resources — The part of a resource which can be developed profitably in the future is called a reserve resource. Stock resources — Stock resources are those that have been surveyed, renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as either renewable or non-renewable, Renewable resources — Renewable resources can be replenished naturally. Some of these resources, like sunlight, air, wind, water, etc. are continuously available, though many renewable resources do not have such a rapid recovery rate, these resources are susceptible to depletion by over-use. Non-renewable resources – Non-renewable resources either form slowly or do not naturally form in the environment, minerals are the most common resource included in this category. Some resources actually naturally deplete in amount without human interference, the most notable of these being radio-active elements such as uranium, of these, the metallic minerals can be re-used by recycling them, but coal and petroleum cannot be recycled. Once they are used they take millions of years to replenish. Resource extraction involves any activity that withdraws resources from nature and this can range in scale from the traditional use of preindustrial societies, to global industry. Extractive industries are, along with agriculture, the basis of the sector of the economy
Natural resources
–
The rainforest in Fatu-Hiva, in the
Marquesas Islands, is an example of an undisturbed natural resource. Forest provides timber for humans, food and shelter for the flora and fauna. The nutrient cycle between organisms form food chains and biodiversity of species.
Natural resources
–
The Carson Fall in
Mount Kinabalu,
Malaysia is an example of undisturbed natural resource. Waterfalls provide spring water for humans, animals and plants for survival and also habitat for marine organisms. The water current can be used to turn turbines for
hydroelectric generation.
Natural resources
–
The
ocean is an example of a natural resource. Ocean waves can be used to generate
wave power which is a
renewable energy. Ocean water is important for salt production and providing habitat for deep water fishes. There are biodiversity of marine species in the sea where nutrient cycles are common.
Natural resources
–
A picture of the
Udachnaya pipe, an
open-pit diamond mine in
Siberia. An example of a non-renewable natural resource.
7.
Great Depression in the United States
–
The Great Depression was the worst economic times in American history. Though, it was not just in the United States it was a world wide conundrum, Great Depression began in August 1929, when the United States economy first went into an economic recession. Although the country spent two months with declining Gross Domestic Product, the Gross Domestic Rate is a very important part of the United States economy. It is so important because it represents each total dollar value of all goods and it was not until the Wall Street Crash in October 1929 that the effects of a declining economy were felt, and a major worldwide economic downturn ensued. The market crash marked the beginning of a decade of unemployment, poverty, low profits, deflation, plunging farm incomes. Although its causes are uncertain and controversial, the net effect was a sudden. The economy reached bottom in the winter of 1932–33, then four years of very rapid growth until 1937. The Depression caused major changes in America. Three years into the depression, President Herbert Hoover, widely blamed for not doing enough to combat the crisis, Roosevelts economic recovery plan, the New Deal, instituted unprecedented programs for relief, recovery and reform, and brought about a major realignment of American politics. The Depression also resulted in an increase of emigration of people to countries for the first time in American history. For example, some went back to their native countries, and some native US citizens went to Canada, Australia. It also resulted in the migration of people from badly hit areas in the Great Plains and the South to places such as California. Racial tensions also increased during this time, by the 1940s immigration had returned to normal, and emigration declined. A well-known example of an emigrant was Frank McCourt, who went to Ireland and it also shaped modern American literature, resulting in famous novels such as John Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath and Of Mice and Men. Banks began to fail in October 1930 when farmers defaulted on loans, there was no federal deposit insurance during that time as bank failures were considered quite common. This worried depositors that they might have a chance of losing all their savings, therefore, people started to withdraw money, the decreased money supply further aggravated price deflation, putting further pressure on already struggling businesses. The U. S. paper value lost an astonishing 40% value loss, the US governments commitment to the gold standard prevented it from engaging in expansionary monetary policy. High interest rates needed to be maintained, in order to attract investors who bought foreign assets with gold
Great Depression in the United States
–
The
Great Depression of the 1930s started with the stock market crash of October 1929.
Great Depression in the United States
–
USA annual real GDP 1910–60, with the years of the Great Depression (1929–1939) highlighted.
Great Depression in the United States
–
A $10 US
Gold certificate. The U.S. used the
Gold standard until 1934 and controlled nearly half of the global gold supply during the inter-war period.
Great Depression in the United States
–
Huts and unemployed men in New York City, 1935.
8.
Michigan
–
Michigan /ˈmɪʃᵻɡən/ is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The name Michigan is the French form of the Ojibwa word mishigamaa, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit, Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula, to which the name Michigan was originally applied, is noted to be shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, the two peninsulas are connected by the Mackinac Bridge. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, as a result, it is one of the leading U. S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds, a person in the state is never more than six miles from a natural water source or more than 85 miles from a Great Lakes shoreline. What is now the state of Michigan was first settled by Native American tribes before being colonized by French explorers in the 17th century, the area was organized as part of the larger Northwest Territory until 1800, when western Michigan became part of the Indiana Territory. Eventually, in 1805, the Michigan Territory was formed, which lasted until it was admitted into the Union on January 26,1837, the state of Michigan soon became an important center of industry and trade in the Great Lakes region and a popular immigrant destination. Though Michigan has come to develop an economy, it is widely known as the center of the U. S. automotive industry. When the first European explorers arrived, the most populous tribes were Algonquian peoples, which include the Anishinaabe groups of Ojibwe, Odaawaa/Odawa, the three nations co-existed peacefully as part of a loose confederation called the Council of Three Fires. The Ojibwe, whose numbers are estimated to have been between 25,000 and 35,000, were the largest, French voyageurs and coureurs des bois explored and settled in Michigan in the 17th century. The first Europeans to reach what became Michigan were those of Étienne Brûlés expedition in 1622, the first permanent European settlement was founded in 1668 on the site where Père Jacques Marquette established Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan as a base for Catholic missions, missionaries in 1671–75 founded outlying stations at Saint Ignace and Marquette. Jesuit missionaries were received by the areas Indian populations, with relatively few difficulties or hostilities. In 1679, Robert Cavelier, Sieur de la Salle built Fort Miami at present-day St. Joseph, in 1691, the French established a trading post and Fort St. Joseph along the St. Joseph River at the present day city of Niles. The hundred soldiers and workers who accompanied Cadillac built a fort enclosing one arpent, cadillacs wife, Marie Thérèse Guyon, soon moved to Detroit, becoming one of the first European women to settle in the Michigan wilderness. The town quickly became a major fur-trading and shipping post, the Église de Saint-Anne was founded the same year
Michigan
–
Père Marquette and the Indians (1869), Wilhelm Lamprecht
Michigan
–
Flag
Michigan
–
Approximate area of Michigan highlighted in
Guillaume de L'Isle 's 1718 map
Michigan
–
Lumbering pines in the late 1800s
9.
Conscription in the United States
–
The third incarnation of the draft came into being in 1940 through the Selective Training and Service Act. It was the countrys first peacetime draft, from 1940 until 1973, during both peacetime and periods of conflict, men were drafted to fill vacancies in the United States Armed Forces that could not be filled through voluntary means. The draft was ended when the United States Armed Forces moved to a military force. In colonial times, the Thirteen Colonies used a system for defense. This earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen for service in particular campaigns, for long-term operations, conscription was occasionally used when volunteers or paid substitutes were insufficient to raise the needed manpower. President James Madison and his Secretary of War James Monroe unsuccessfully attempted to create a draft of 40,000 men during the War of 1812. This proposal was criticized on the House floor by antiwar Congressman Daniel Webster of New Hampshire. The United States first employed national conscription during the American Civil War, the vast majority of troops were volunteers, of the 2,100,000 Union soldiers, about 2% were draftees, and another 6% were substitutes paid by draftees. The Confederacy had far fewer inhabitants than the Union, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis proposed the first conscription act on March 28,1862, Resistance was both widespread and violent, with comparisons made between conscription and slavery. Both sides permitted conscripts to hire substitutes to serve in their place, in the Union, many states and cities offered bounties and bonuses for enlistment. They also arranged to take credit against their draft quota by claiming freed slaves who enlisted in the Union Army, although both sides resorted to conscription, the system did not work effectively in either. The Confederate Congress on April 16,1862, passed an act requiring military service for three years from all males aged eighteen to thirty-five not legally exempt, it extended the obligation. The U. S. Congress followed with the Militia Act of 1862 authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers, quotas were assigned in each state, the deficiencies in volunteers required to be met by conscription. Still, men drafted could provide substitutes, and until mid-1864 could even avoid service by paying commutation money, many eligible men pooled their money to cover the cost of any one of them drafted. Families used the provision to select which member should go into the army. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union Army through the draft,117,986 were substitutes, the problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by the inequitable inclinations of conscription officers and local judges. Attempts to effectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conflict between state and local governments on the one hand and the government of the Confederacy. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community and these boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions
Conscription in the United States
–
Young men registering for conscription during
World War I in New York City on June 5, 1917
Conscription in the United States
–
A World War I era draft card
Conscription in the United States
–
Secretary of War
Newton Baker draws the first draft number on 20 July 1917.
Conscription in the United States
–
President
Gerald Ford announces amnesty for draft evaders at the White House, Washington, D.C., in 1974.
10.
United States Department of Labor
–
The department is headed by the U. S. Secretary of Labor. In carrying out this mission, the Department of Labor administers and enforces more than 180 federal laws and these mandates and the regulations that implement them cover many workplace activities for about 10 million employers and 125 million workers. The U. S. Congress first established a Bureau of Labor Statistics in 1884 with the Bureau of Labor Act, to information about labor. This bureau was under the Department of the Interior, the Bureau started collecting economic data in 1884, and published their first report in 1886. Later, the Bureau of Labor became an independent Department of Labor and it became a bureau again within the Department of Commerce and Labor, which was established February 15,1903. President William Howard Taft signed the March 4,1913, bill establishing the Department of Labor as a Cabinet-level Department, William B. Wilson was appointed as the first Secretary of Labor on March 5,1913 by President Wilson. Secretary Wilson chaired the first meeting of the International Labour Organization in October 1919, the Federal Employees Compensation Act, signed Sept.7,1916, provided benefits to workers who are injured or contract illnesses in the workplace. Frances Perkins, the first female member, was appointed to be Secretary of Labor by President Roosevelt on March 4,1933. Perkins served for 12 years, making her the longest serving Secretary of Labor, during the John F. Kennedy Administration, planning was undertaken to consolidate most of the departments offices, then scattered around more than 20 locations. Construction on the New Labor Building began in the mid‑1960s and finished in 1975 and it was named in honor of Perkins in 1980. President Lyndon Johnson asked Congress to consider the idea of reuniting Commerce and he argued that the two departments had similar goals and that they would have more efficient channels of communication in a single department. However, Congress never acted on it, in the 1970s, following the civil rights movement, the Labor Department under Secretary George P. Shultz made a concerted effort to promote racial diversity in unions. In 1978, the Department of Labor created the Philip Arnow Award, Department officials said the program was modern and fair and that it was part of ongoing contract negotiations with the local. In August 2010, the Partnership for Public Service ranked the Department of Labor 23rd out of 31 large agencies in its annual Best Places to Work in the Federal Government list. In December 2010, then-Department of Labor Secretary Hilda Solis was named the Chair of the U. S. Interagency Council on Homelessness, in July 2011, the Department was rocked by the resignation of Ray Jefferson, Assistant Secretary for VETS, in a contracting scandal. On March 4,2013, the Department began commemorating its centennial, tom Perez was appointed as Secretary of Labor on July 23,2013. According to remarks by Perez at his swearing-in ceremony, Boiled down to its essence, did not earn a satisfactory overall grade. Title 20 of the Code of Federal Regulations Equal Employment Opportunity Commission National Labor Relations Board Occupational Information Network Ticket to Work Lombardi, labors Voice in the Cabinet, A History of the Department of Labor from Its Origins to 1921
United States Department of Labor
–
The
Frances Perkins Building, which serves as the headquarters of the U.S. Department of Labor.
United States Department of Labor
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of Labor
11.
United States Department of War
–
The Secretary of War, a civilian with such responsibilities as finance and purchases and a minor role in directing military affairs, headed the War Department throughout its existence. Retired senior General Henry Knox, then in civilian life, served as the first United States Secretary of War, forming and organizing the department and the army fell to Secretary Knox. On November 8,1800 the War Department building with its records, foundation of the new military academy at West Point along the Hudson River upstream from New York City in 1802 was important to the future growth of the American army. The multiple failures and fiascos of the War of 1812 convinced Washington that thorough reform of the War Department was necessary, winfield Scott became the senior general until the start of the American Civil War in 1861. The bureau chiefs acted as advisers to the Secretary of War while commanding their own troops, the bureaus frequently conflicted among themselves, but in disputes with the commanding general, the Secretary of War generally supported the bureaus. Congress regulated the affairs of the bureaus in detail, and their chiefs looked to that body for support, during the American Civil War, the War Department responsibilities expanded. It handled the recruiting, training, supply, medical care, transportation, a separate command structure took charge of military operations. In the late stages of the war, the Department took charge of refugees and freedmen in the American South through the Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, during Reconstruction, this bureau played a major role in supporting the new Republican governments in the southern states. When military Reconstruction ended in 1877, the U. S. Army removed the last troops from military occupation of the American South, and the last Republican state governments in the region ended. The Army comprised hundreds of small detachments in forts around the West, dealing with Indians, the United States Army, with 39,000 men in 1890 was the smallest and least powerful army of any major power in the late 19th century. By contrast, France had an army of 542,000, temporary volunteers and state militia units mostly fought the Spanish–American War of 1898. This conflict demonstrated the need for effective control over the department. Elihu Root enlarged the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York and established the United States Army War College and he changed the procedures for promotions and organized schools for the special branches of the service. He also devised the principle of rotating officers from staff to line, indeed, Secretary Taft exercised little power, President Theodore Roosevelt made the major decisions. In 1911, Secretary Henry L. Stimson and Major General Leonard Wood, his chief of staff, the general staff assisted them in their efforts to rationalize the organization of the army along modern lines and in supervising the bureaus. Assisted by industrial advisers, they reorganized the system of the army. General March reorganized the general staff along similar lines and gave it authority over departmental operations. After the war, the Congress again granted the bureaus their former independence, in the 1920s, General John J. Pershing realigned the general staff on the pattern of his American Expeditionary Force field headquarters, which he commanded
United States Department of War
–
State, War, and Navy Building in 1917
United States Department of War
–
The seal of the U.S. Department of War.
12.
United States Department of Agriculture
–
Approximately 80% of USDAs $140 billion budget goes to the Food and Nutrition Service program. The largest component of the FNS budget is the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, after the resignation of Thomas Vilsack on January 13,2017 and the departure of President Barack Obama from office on January 20,2017, the acting Secretary of Agriculture is Michael Young. Activities in this include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, which provides healthy food to over 40 million low-income. The USDA also is concerned with assisting farmers and food producers with the sale of crops and it plays a role in overseas aid programs by providing surplus foods to developing countries. This aid can go through USAID, foreign governments, international bodies such as World Food Program, the Agricultural Act of 1949, section 416 and Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954, also known as Food for Peace, provides the legal basis of such actions. The USDA is a partner of the World Cocoa Foundation, early in its history, the economy of the United States was largely agrarian. Officials in the government had long sought new and improved varieties of seeds, plants. In 1837 Henry Leavitt Ellsworth, a Yale-educated attorney interested in improving agriculture, became Commissioner of Patents and he began collecting and distributing new varieties of seeds and plants through members of the Congress and agricultural societies. In 1839, Congress established the Agricultural Division within the Patent Office and allotted $1,000 for the collection of agricultural statistics, Ellsworth was called the Father of the Department of Agriculture. In 1849, the Patent Office was transferred to the newly created Department of the Interior, in the ensuing years, agitation for a separate bureau of agriculture within the department or a separate department devoted to agriculture kept recurring. Lincoln called it the peoples department, in the 1880s, varied advocacy groups were lobbying for Cabinet representation. Business interests sought a Department of Commerce and Industry, and farmers tried to raise the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet rank, finally, on February 9,1889, President Grover Cleveland signed a bill into law elevating the Department of Agriculture to Cabinet level. In 1887, the Hatch Act provided for the funding of agricultural experiment stations in each state. The Smith-Lever Act of 1914 then funded cooperative extension services in each state to teach agriculture, home economics, with these and similar provisions, the USDA reached out to every county of every state. During the Great Depression, farming remained a way of life for millions of Americans. The Department of Agricultures Bureau of Home Economics, established in 1923, published shopping advice and recipes to stretch family budgets and make food go farther. USDA helped ensure that continued to be produced and distributed to those who needed it, assisted with loans for small landowners. The Department of Agriculture was authorized a budget for Fiscal Year 2015 of $139.7 billion, the Washington Post reports that he said There are days when I have literally nothing to do, he recalled thinking as he weighed his decision to quit
United States Department of Agriculture
–
The
Jamie L. Whitten Building in
Washington D.C., the USDA headquarters.
United States Department of Agriculture
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
United States Department of Agriculture
–
Harvey Washington Wiley, Chief Chemist of the Department of Agriculture's Division of Chemistry (third from the right) with his staff, not long after he joined the division in 1883
United States Department of Agriculture
–
The
Beagle Brigade are part of the USDAs
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. This piece of luggage at
Washington Dulles International Airport may contain contraband.
13.
United States Department of the Interior
–
The United States Department of the Interior is the United States federal executive department of the U. S. About 75% of federal land is managed by the department. The Department is administered by the United States Secretary of the Interior, the current Secretary is Ryan Zinke. The Inspector General position is vacant, with Mary Kendall serving as acting Inspector General. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the ministries of other nations. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily, the Department of the Interior has often been humorously called The Department of Everything Else because of its broad range of responsibilities. A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, the idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by Presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the new steam as the responsibilities of federal government grew. Polks Secretary of the Treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the Department passed the House of Representatives on February 15,1849, the Department was established on March 3,1849, the eve of President Zachary Taylors inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the Department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill, the first Secretary of the Interior was Thomas Ewing. Many of the concerns the Department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other Departments. Other agencies became separate Departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, however, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. As of mid-2004, the Department managed 507 million acres of surface land, energy projects on federally managed lands and offshore areas supply about 28% of the nations energy production. Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans, the current acting Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. Several cases have sought accounting of such funds from the departments of Interior, in addition, some Native American nations have sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US
United States Department of the Interior
–
Main Interior Building 1849 C Street
NW Washington, D.C., U.S. 38°53′37.11″N 77°2′33.33″W / 38.8936417°N 77.0425917°W / 38.8936417; -77.0425917
United States Department of the Interior
–
Seal of the U.S. Department of the Interior
United States Department of the Interior
–
The
hierarchy of the U.S. Department of the Interior.
14.
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
–
The United States Department of Veterans Affairs is a government-run military veteran benefit system with Cabinet-level status. While veterans benefits have been provided since the Revolutionary War, the Veterans Administration itself was founded in 1930, with a total 2009 budget of about $87. In 2012, the budget for VA was $132 billion. VA2014 budget request for 2014 was $152.7 billion and this included $66.5 billion in discretionary resources and $86.1 billion in mandatory funding. The discretionary budget request represented an increase of $2.7 billion, or 4.3 percent and it is administered by the United States Secretary of Veterans Affairs. The Continental Congress of 1776 encouraged enlistments during the American Revolutionary War by providing pensions for soldiers who were disabled, direct medical and hospital care given to veterans in the early days of the U. S. was provided by the individual states and communities. In 1811, the first domiciliary and medical facility for veterans was authorized by the federal government, in the 19th century, the nations veterans assistance program was expanded to include benefits and pensions not only for veterans, but also their widows and dependents. After the end of the American Civil War in 1865, many state veterans homes were established, since domiciliary care was available at all state veterans homes, incidental medical and hospital treatment was provided for all injuries and diseases, whether or not of service origin. Indigent and disabled veterans of the Civil War, Indian Wars, Spanish–American War, Congress established a new system of veterans benefits when the United States entered World War I in 1917. Included were programs for disability compensation, insurance for servicepersons and veterans, the establishment of the Veterans Administration came in 1930 when Congress authorized the president to consolidate and coordinate Government activities affecting war veterans. The three component agencies became bureaus within the Veterans Administration, brigadier General Frank T. Hines, who directed the Veterans Bureau for seven years, was named as the first Administrator of Veterans Affairs, a job he held until 1945. The close of World War II resulted in not only a vast increase in the veteran population, in addition, during the late 1940s, the VA had to contend with aging World War I veterans. During that time, the clientele of the VA increased almost fivefold with an addition of nearly 15,000,000 World War II veterans and approximately 4,000,000 World War I veterans. Prior to World War II, in response to scandals at the Veterans Bureau, programs that cared for veterans were centralized in Washington and this centralization caused delays and bottlenecks as the agency tried to serve the World War II veterans. As a result, the VA went through a decentralization process, the World War II GI Bill was signed into law on June 22,1944, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The United States government began serious consolidated services to veterans in 1930, the GI Bill of Rights, which was passed in 1944, had more effect on the American way of life than any other legislation - with the possible exception of the Homestead Act. VA health care facilities provide a spectrum of medical, surgical. The responsibilities and benefits programs of the Veterans Administration grew enormously during the six decades
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
–
VA Medical Center in
Manhattan,
New York City
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
–
Seal of the Department of Veterans Affairs
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
–
VA Medical Center in
Palo Alto, California
United States Department of Veterans Affairs
–
VA Medical Center in
Long Beach, California
15.
William Green (labor leader)
–
William Green was an American trade union leader. Green is best remembered as the President of the American Federation of Labor from 1924 to 1952, Green was a strong supporter for labor-management cooperation and was in the frontlines on wage and benefit protections and industrial unionism legislation. As president of the AFL, he continued the development of the federation away from the foundations of pure and he was born March 3,1873 in Coshocton, Ohio, the son of Welsh immigrants. His father was a coal miner, Green went to work himself in the coal mines in 1889, aged 16. He became involved in the union movement as a young miner. The Coshocton Progressive Miners Union later became a local of the United Mine Workers of America, in 1890, Green became the subdistrict president of the UMWA, and then becoming UMWA Ohio district president in 1906. In 1910, he was elected to the Ohio Senate, where he served as both Senate president pro tempore and Democratic floor leader, as Ohio state senator, Green drafted and won passage for a model Workmen’s Compensation Act in 1911. Green’s experience and accomplishments contributed to his appointment as the UMWAs international statistician in 1911 and he was named to the AFLs Executive Council in 1914 and became Secretary-Treasurer in 1916. His intensive involvement in labor had him serve as one of five delegates to the Paris Peace Conference in 1918, in 1924, he became president of the AFL following the death of Samuel Gompers, which he held until his death. In 1933, Greens endeavors persuaded President Franklin D. Roosevelt to appoint him to the Labor Advisory Council of the National Recovery Administration, the following year, Green served on the National Labor Board. Moreover, Harry Truman appointed Green to the National Advisory Committee on Mobilization during the Korean War and he is best remembered for having presided over the split in the AFL which led to the founding of the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Under Greens presidency in the 1920s, the AFL changed their strategy of confrontation to one of co-operation. Unlike Green, Gompers had frequently projected an independent and confrontational approach for the federation despite his affiliation to the National Civic Federation, Green favored a more co-operative style for the labor movement. He won public support for legislating benefits for all workers and co-operated with employers in the name of mutual self-interest, Green supported union-management cooperation in everyday functions at the workplace. He also promoted for a cutback in the hours of labor, as it would increase the living standards. Ultimately, Green supported a voluntary incomes policy among labor and management and his support was critical to winning passage of the Norris-La Guardia Act of 1932, directed at reducing the practice of labor restrictions and banning of the yellow-dog contract. Green was also successful in acquiring federation support for an unemployment insurance system sponsored largely by employer donations. In 1935, Green facilitated the passage if the National Labor Relations Act, aimed at empowering workers rights to organize, furthermore, in 1938 Green helped pass the Fair Labor Standards Act, becoming the first federal law in instituting minimum wages and the 40-hour workweek
William Green (labor leader)
–
William Green (1873-1952), American trade union leader.
16.
American Federation of Labor
–
The American Federation of Labor was a national federation of labor unions in the United States. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio, in December 1886 by an alliance of craft unions disaffected from the Knights of Labor, a national labor association. Samuel Gompers of the Cigar Makers International Union was elected president of the Federation at its convention and was reelected every year except one until his death in 1924. The American Federation of Labor organized as an association of trade unions in 1886, the Federation of Organized Trades and Labor Unions also merged into what would become the American Federation of Labor. In January 1886, the Cigar Manufacturers Association of New York City attempted to flex its muscle by announcing a 20 percent wage cut in factories around the city. The Cigar Makers International Union refused to accept the cut and 6,000 of its members in 19 factories were locked out by the owners, a strike lasting four weeks ensued. The leadership of the CMIU was enraged and demanded that the New York District Assembly be investigated and punished by the officials of the Knights of Labor. The committee of investigation was controlled by individuals friendly to the New York District Assembly, however, the American Federation of Labor was thus originally formed as an alliance of craft unions outside the Knights of Labor as a means of defending themselves against this and similar incursions. The call stated that an element of the Knights of Labor was doing work and causing incalculable mischief by arousing antagonisms. Forty-three invitations were mailed, which drew the attendance of 20 delegates, the actions of the New York District Assembly of the K of L were upheld. Forty-two delegates representing 13 national unions and various local labor organizations responded to the call. Revenue for the new organization was to be raised on the basis of a tax of its member organizations. Governance of the organization was to be by annual conventions, with one delegate allocated for every 4,000 members of each affiliated union. Gompers would ultimately be re-elected to the position by annual conventions of the organization for every year one until his death nearly four decades later. Headway was made in the form of endorsement by various local labor bodies, the group from the outset concentrated upon the income and working conditions of its membership as its almost sole focus. The AFLs founding convention declaring higher wages and a shorter workday to be preliminary steps toward great, participation in partisan politics was avoided as inherently divisive, and the groups constitution was structured to prevent the admission of political parties as affiliates. The AFL faced its first major reversal when employers launched an open shop movement in 1903 designed to drive out of construction, mining, longshore. Ever the pragmatist, Gompers argued that labor should reward its friends, after 1908, the organizations tie to the Democratic party grew increasingly strong
American Federation of Labor
–
AFL
American Federation of Labor
–
Terence Powderly, Grand Master Workman of the
Knights of Labor, whose refusal to negotiate with craft unions led to formation of the AFL.
American Federation of Labor
–
Samuel Gompers in the office of the American Federation of Labor, 1887.
American Federation of Labor
–
Samuel Gompers with
John Mitchell of the
United Mine Workers of America.
17.
Douglas MacArthur
–
Douglas MacArthur was an American five-star general and field marshal of the Philippine Army. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and he received the Medal of Honor for his service in the Philippines Campaign, which made him and his father Arthur MacArthur, Jr. the first father and son to be awarded the medal. He was one of five men ever to rise to the rank of General of the Army in the US Army. During the 1914 United States occupation of Veracruz, he conducted a reconnaissance mission, in 1917, he was promoted from major to colonel and became chief of staff of the 42nd Division. From 1919 to 1922, MacArthur served as Superintendent of the U. S, Military Academy at West Point, where he attempted a series of reforms. His next assignment was in the Philippines, where in 1924 he was instrumental in quelling the Philippine Scout Mutiny, in 1925, he became the Armys youngest major general. He served on the martial of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell and was president of the American Olympic Committee during the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1930, he became Chief of Staff of the United States Army, as such, he was involved in the expulsion of the Bonus Army protesters from Washington, D. C. in 1932, and the establishment and organization of the Civilian Conservation Corps. He retired from the US Army in 1937 to become Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines, MacArthur was recalled to active duty in 1941 as commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East. A series of disasters followed, starting with the destruction of his air forces on 8 December 1941, MacArthurs forces were soon compelled to withdraw to Bataan, where they held out until May 1942. In March 1942, MacArthur, his family and his staff left nearby Corregidor Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia, upon his arrival in Australia, MacArthur gave a speech in which he famously promised I shall return to the Philippines. For his defense of the Philippines, MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor, after more than two years of fighting in the Pacific, he fulfilled a promise to return to the Philippines. He officially accepted Japans surrender on 2 September 1945, aboard USS Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay, as the effective ruler of Japan, he oversaw sweeping economic, political and social changes. He led the United Nations Command in the Korean War until he was removed from command by President Harry S. Truman on 11 April 1951 and he later became Chairman of the Board of Remington Rand. A military brat, Douglas MacArthur was born 26 January 1880, at Little Rock Barracks, Little Rock, Arkansas, to Arthur MacArthur, Jr. a U. S. Army captain, Pinkney came from a prominent Norfolk, Virginia, family. Two of her brothers had fought for the South in the Civil War, Arthur and Pinky had three sons, of whom Douglas was the youngest, following Arthur III, born on 1 August 1876, and Malcolm, born on 17 October 1878. The family lived on a succession of Army posts in the American Old West, conditions were primitive, and Malcolm died of measles in 1883. In his memoir, Reminiscences, MacArthur wrote I learned to ride and shoot even before I could read or write—indeed and this time on the frontier ended in July 1889 when the family moved to Washington, D. C. where Douglas attended the Force Public School
Douglas MacArthur
–
MacArthur in
Manila, Philippines c. 1945, smoking a
corncob pipe
Douglas MacArthur
–
Douglas MacArthur as a student at West Texas Military Academy in the late 1890s
Douglas MacArthur
–
Brigadier General MacArthur holding a crop at a French chateau, September 1918
Douglas MacArthur
–
General
Pershing (second from left) decorates Brigadier General MacArthur (third from left) with the Distinguished Service Cross. Major General
Charles T. Menoher (left) reads out the citation while Colonel
George E. Leach (fourth from left) and Lieutenant Colonel
William Joseph Donovan await their decorations.
18.
NF-1, Camp Roosevelt
–
The George Washington and Jefferson National Forests are U. S. National Forests that combine to form one of the largest areas of public land in the Eastern United States. They cover 1.8 million acres of land in the Appalachian Mountains of Virginia, West Virginia, approximately 1 million acres of the forest are remote and undeveloped and 139,461 acres have been designated as wilderness areas, which eliminates future development. George Washington National Forest was established on May 16,1918 as the Shenandoah National Forest, the forest was renamed after the first President on June 28,1932. Natural Bridge National Forest was added on July 22,1933, Jefferson National Forest was formed on April 21,1936 by combining portions of the Unaka and George Washington National Forests with other land. In 1995, the George Washington and Jefferson National Forests were administratively combined, the border between the two forests roughly follows the James River. The combined forest is administered from its headquarters in Roanoke, Virginia, the northern portion of the Blue Ridge Parkway, which is separately administered by the National Park Service, runs through the Forest. Over 2,000 miles of hiking trails, including segments of the Appalachian Trail, virginias highest point, Mount Rogers, is located in the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area that is part of the forest. Other notable mountains include Elliott Knob, which has one of the last remaining fire towers in the eastern U. S. Approximately 230,000 acres of old-growth forests, the deepest gorge east of the Mississippi River, Breaks Interstate Park, is located in the forest. Roaring Run Furnace is the site on the National Register of Historic Places owned by the Jefferson National Forest. The Forests vast and mountainous terrain harbors a variety of plant life—over 50 species of trees and over 2,000 species of shrubs. The Forests contain some 230,000 acres of old growth forests, the Ramseys Draft and Kimberling Creek Wildernesses in particular are mostly old-growth. The black bear is relatively common, enough so there is a short hunting season to prevent overpopulation. White-tailed deer, bobcat, bald eagles, weasel, otter, the forests are popular hiking, mountain biking, and hunting destinations. The Appalachian Trail extends for 330 miles from the end of Shenandoah National Park through the forest. The forest is within a two-hour drive for over ten people and thus receives large numbers of visitors. The George Washington National Forest is a destination for trail runners. It is the location for several Ultramarathons, including the Massanutten Mountain Trails 100 miler, the Old Dominion 100 miler, George Washington Forest is also the venue for Nature Camp, a natural science education-oriented summer camp for youth
NF-1, Camp Roosevelt
–
White Rocks on Little Sluice Mountain in George Washington National Forest.
NF-1, Camp Roosevelt
–
A split rail fence at the entrance to Sherando Lake
NF-1, Camp Roosevelt
–
Parks
NF-1, Camp Roosevelt
19.
George Washington National Forest
–
The George Washington and Jefferson National Forests are U. S. National Forests that combine to form one of the largest areas of public land in the Eastern United States. They cover 1.8 million acres of land in the Appalachian Mountains of Virginia, West Virginia, approximately 1 million acres of the forest are remote and undeveloped and 139,461 acres have been designated as wilderness areas, which eliminates future development. George Washington National Forest was established on May 16,1918 as the Shenandoah National Forest, the forest was renamed after the first President on June 28,1932. Natural Bridge National Forest was added on July 22,1933, Jefferson National Forest was formed on April 21,1936 by combining portions of the Unaka and George Washington National Forests with other land. In 1995, the George Washington and Jefferson National Forests were administratively combined, the border between the two forests roughly follows the James River. The combined forest is administered from its headquarters in Roanoke, Virginia, the northern portion of the Blue Ridge Parkway, which is separately administered by the National Park Service, runs through the Forest. Over 2,000 miles of hiking trails, including segments of the Appalachian Trail, virginias highest point, Mount Rogers, is located in the Mount Rogers National Recreation Area that is part of the forest. Other notable mountains include Elliott Knob, which has one of the last remaining fire towers in the eastern U. S. Approximately 230,000 acres of old-growth forests, the deepest gorge east of the Mississippi River, Breaks Interstate Park, is located in the forest. Roaring Run Furnace is the site on the National Register of Historic Places owned by the Jefferson National Forest. The Forests vast and mountainous terrain harbors a variety of plant life—over 50 species of trees and over 2,000 species of shrubs. The Forests contain some 230,000 acres of old growth forests, the Ramseys Draft and Kimberling Creek Wildernesses in particular are mostly old-growth. The black bear is relatively common, enough so there is a short hunting season to prevent overpopulation. White-tailed deer, bobcat, bald eagles, weasel, otter, the forests are popular hiking, mountain biking, and hunting destinations. The Appalachian Trail extends for 330 miles from the end of Shenandoah National Park through the forest. The forest is within a two-hour drive for over ten people and thus receives large numbers of visitors. The George Washington National Forest is a destination for trail runners. It is the location for several Ultramarathons, including the Massanutten Mountain Trails 100 miler, the Old Dominion 100 miler, George Washington Forest is also the venue for Nature Camp, a natural science education-oriented summer camp for youth
George Washington National Forest
–
White Rocks on Little Sluice Mountain in George Washington National Forest.
George Washington National Forest
–
A split rail fence at the entrance to Sherando Lake
George Washington National Forest
–
Parks
George Washington National Forest
20.
Soil erosion
–
Soil erosion is the displacement of upper layer of soil. The erosion of soil is a naturally occurring process on all land, the agents of soil erosion are water and wind, each contributing a significant amount of soil loss each year. Soil erosion may be a process that continues relatively unnoticed. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower water quality. While erosion is a process, human activities have increased by 10–40 times the rate at which erosion is occurring globally. Excessive erosion causes both on-site and off-site problems, on-site impacts include decreases in agricultural productivity and ecological collapse, both because of loss of the nutrient-rich upper soil layers. In some cases, the end result is desertification. Off-site effects include sedimentation of waterways and eutrophication of bodies, as well as sediment-related damage to roads. Intensive agriculture, deforestation, roads, anthropogenic climate change and urban sprawl are amongst the most significant human activities in regard to their effect on stimulating erosion, however, there are many prevention and remediation practices that can curtail or limit erosion of vulnerable soils. Rainfall, and the surface runoff which may result from rainfall, produces four types of soil erosion, splash erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion. Splash erosion is generally seen as the first and least severe stage in the erosion process. In splash erosion, the impact of a falling raindrop creates a crater in the soil. The distance these soil particles travel can be as much as 0.6 m vertically and 1.5 m horizontally on level ground. If the soil is saturated, or if the rate is greater than the rate at which water can infiltrate into the soil. If the runoff has sufficient flow energy, it will transport loosened soil particles down the slope, sheet erosion is the transport of loosened soil particles by overland flow. Rill erosion refers to the development of small, ephemeral concentrated flow paths which function as both sediment source and sediment delivery systems for erosion on hillslopes, generally, where water erosion rates on disturbed upland areas are greatest, rills are active. Flow depths in rills are typically of the order of a few centimeters or less and this means that rills exhibit hydraulic physics very different from water flowing through the deeper, wider channels of streams and rivers. Gully erosion occurs when water accumulates and rapidly flows in narrow channels during or immediately after heavy rains or melting snow
Soil erosion
–
An actively eroding
rill on an
intensively-farmed field in
eastern Germany
Soil erosion
–
A
natural arch produced by the wind erosion of differentially weathered rock in Jebel Kharaz,
Jordan.
Soil erosion
–
A wave-like sea cliff produced by
coastal erosion, in Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark,
Dalian,
Liaoning Province,
China.
Soil erosion
–
Soil and water being
splashed by the impact of a single
raindrop.
21.
Veterans
–
A veteran is a person who has had long service or experience in a particular occupation or field. This page refers to military veterans, i. e. a person who has served or is serving in the armed forces and those veterans that have had direct exposure to acts of military conflict may also be referred to as war veterans. Military veterans often receive special treatment in their countries due to the sacrifices they made during wars. Different countries handle this differently, some openly support veterans through government programs, Veterans are also subject to illnesses directly related to their military service such as posttraumatic stress disorder. War veterans are generally treated with respect and honour for their contribution to the world. Veterans of unpopular or lost conflicts may be discriminated against, Veterans of short or small conflicts are often forgotten when the country fought bigger conflicts. Many countries have longstanding traditions, ceremonies, and holidays to honour their veterans, in the UK Remembrance Day is held on November the 11th and is focused mostly on the veterans who died in service to the monarch and country. A red or white poppy is worn on the lapel in the weeks up to the date, in Russia, a tradition was established after World War II where newly married couples would on their wedding day visit a military cemetery. In France, for instance, those wounded in war are given the first claim on any seat on public transit, most countries have a holiday such as Veterans Day to honour their veterans, along with the war dead. Britain, with its historic distrust of standing armies, did little for its veterans before the 19th century and it did set up two small hospitals for them in the 1680s. In London and other cities the streets teemed with disabled or disfigured veterans begging for alms, the First World War focused national attention on veterans, especially those who had been partly or wholly disabled. The Kings National Roll Scheme was an employment program for disabled veterans of the First World War, kowalsky says it was practical, innovative, and ahead of its time and was the most important piece of legislation enacted for disabled veterans in interwar Britain. In the 21st century Britain has one of the highest densities of veterans in a country, with 13 million in 2000. Some veterans from the Belgian commitment of the Congolese to WWII live in communities throughout the Congo, though they received compensation from the government during the rule of the dictator Mobutu Sese Seko, after his overthrow they no longer receive pensions. The most common usage is for former armed services personnel, a veteran is one who has served in the armed forces, especially one who has served in combat. The National Guard and Reserve is included and it is especially applied to those who served for an entire career, usually of 20 years or more, but may be applied for someone who has only served one tour of duty. A common misconception is that only those who have served in combat or those who have retired from active duty can be called military veterans, the American Civil War produced veterans organizations, such as the Grand Army of the Republic and United Confederate Veterans. The treatment of veterans changed after the First World War, in the years following, discontented veterans became a source of instability
Veterans
–
The
Hôpital des Invalides in
Paris is a hospital and retirement home for French war veterans
Veterans
–
An Iranian veteran and
war wounded man of
Iran–Iraq War on
wheelchair in
Nishapur, funeral of his comrade
Veterans
–
Russian WW2 veteran dancing in celebration of
Den Pobedy in
Gorki Park, Moscow
Veterans
–
A Korean War veteran at Hawaii in July 2001.
22.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Quechua women in
Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
23.
Bonus Army
–
The Bonus Army was the popular name for an assemblage of some 43,000 marchers—17,000 U. S. World War I veterans, their families, and affiliated groups—who gathered in Washington, the contingent was led by Walter W. Waters, a former sergeant. Many of the war veterans had been out of work since the beginning of the Great Depression, the World War Adjusted Compensation Act of 1924 had awarded them bonuses in the form of certificates they could not redeem until 1945. Each service certificate, issued to a veteran soldier, bore a face value equal to the soldiers promised payment plus compound interest. The principal demand of the Bonus Army was the cash payment of their certificates. On July 28, U. S. Attorney General William D. Mitchell ordered the veterans removed from all government property, Washington police met with resistance, shots were fired and two veterans were wounded and later died. President Herbert Hoover then ordered the Army to clear the veterans campsite, Army Chief of Staff General Douglas MacArthur commanded the infantry and cavalry supported by six tanks. The Bonus Army marchers with their wives and children were driven out and those who chose not to work for the CCC by the May 22 deadline were given transportation home. In 1936, Congress overrode President Franklin D. Roosevelts veto, in 1781, most of the Continental Army was demobilized. Two years later, hundreds of Pennsylvania war veterans marched on Philadelphia, then the capital, surrounded the State House. Congress fled to Princeton, New Jersey, and several weeks later, the practice of war-time military bonuses began in 1776, as payment for the difference between what a soldier earned and what he could have earned had he not enlisted. Breaking with tradition, the veterans of the Spanish–American War did not receive a bonus and after World War I, the American Legion, created in 1919, led a political movement for an additional bonus. On May 15,1924, President Calvin Coolidge vetoed a bill granting bonuses to veterans of World War I, saying, bought and paid for is not patriotism. Congress overrode his veto a few later, enacting the World War Adjusted Compensation Act. Each veteran was to receive a dollar for each day of service, up to a maximum of $500. Amounts of $50 or less were immediately paid, all other amounts were issued as Certificates of Service maturing in 20 years. There were 3,662,374 Adjusted Service Certificates issued, Congress established a trust fund to receive 20 annual payments of $112 million that, with interest, would finance the 1945 disbursement of the $3.638 billion for the veterans. The Veterans of Foreign Wars continued to press the government to allow the early redemption of military service certificates. C
Bonus Army
–
Members of the Bonus Army camped out on the lawn of the U.S. Capitol building
Bonus Army
–
Bonus Army marchers (left) confront the police.
Bonus Army
–
Cinderella stamp (USA, 1932) supporting the Bonus Army
Bonus Army
–
Shacks that members of the Bonus Army erected on the Anacostia Flats burning after the confrontation with the military.
24.
Leadership
–
Leadership is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to lead or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. The literature debates various viewpoints, contrasting Eastern and Western approaches to leadership, US academic environments define leadership as a process of social influence in which a person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task. Leadership seen from a European and non-academic perspective encompasses a view of a leader who can be moved not only by communitarian goals but also by the search for personal power. Studies of leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, the search for the characteristics or traits of leaders has continued for centuries. Philosophical writings from Platos Republic to Plutarchs Lives have explored the question What qualities distinguish an individual as a leader, underlying this search was the early recognition of the importance of leadership and the assumption that leadership is rooted in the characteristics that certain individuals possess. This idea that leadership is based on individual attributes is known as the theory of leadership. In Heroes and Hero Worship, Carlyle identified the talents, skills, galtons Hereditary Genius examined leadership qualities in the families of powerful men. After showing that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when his focus moved from first-degree to second-degree relatives, in other words, leaders were born, not developed. Both of these notable works lent great initial support for the notion that leadership is rooted in characteristics of a leader, international networks of such leaders could help to promote international understanding and help render war impossible. This vision of leadership underlay the creation of the Rhodes Scholarships, in the late 1940s and early 1950s, however, a series of qualitative reviews of these studies prompted researchers to take a drastically different view of the driving forces behind leadership. Subsequently, leadership was no longer characterized as an individual trait, as situational approaches posited that individuals can be effective in certain situations. The focus then shifted away from traits of leaders to an investigation of the behaviors that were effective. Additionally, during the 1980s statistical advances allowed researchers to conduct meta-analyses and this advent allowed trait theorists to create a comprehensive picture of previous leadership research rather than rely on the qualitative reviews of the past. Equipped with new methods, leadership researchers revealed the following, Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations, fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes. Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable over time and those that are shaped by, do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity necessary for effective leadership. Considering the criticisms of the theory outlined above, several researchers have begun to adopt a different perspective of leader individual differences—the leader attribute pattern approach. David McClelland, for example, posited that leadership takes a strong personality with a well-developed positive ego, to lead, self-confidence and high self-esteem are useful, perhaps even essential. Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lipitt, and Ralph White developed in 1939 the seminal work on the influence of leadership styles, the researchers evaluated the performance of groups of eleven-year-old boys under different types of work climate
Leadership
–
General Petraeus talks with U.S. soldiers serving in Afghanistan
Leadership
–
A graphical representation of the managerial grid model
Leadership
–
Julius Caesar, one of the world's greatest military leaders
Leadership
–
Niccolò Machiavelli 's
The Prince argues that it is better to be feared rather than to be loved.
25.
Milford, Utah
–
Milford is a city in Beaver County, Utah, United States. The population was 1,420 at the 2010 census and 1,368 as of a 2012 Census Bureau estimate, Milford is a constructed name, an abbreviated form of mill and ford. During the Great Depression, workers from a nearby CCC camp constructed a road from Milford to Beaver, Utah, lightning caused a massive wildfire to start near Milford at 3,45 p. m. Friday, July 6,2007. On July 8 the fire was declared the largest in Utahs history, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,451 people,484 households, and 357 families residing in the city. The population density was 753.7 people per square mile, there were 589 housing units at an average density of 306.0 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 90. 42% White,1. 45% Native American,1. 45% Asian,4. 07% from other races, hispanic or Latino of any race were 6. 13% of the population. 24. 0% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.95 and the average family size was 3.58. In the city, the population was out with 37. 2% under the age of 18,9. 7% from 18 to 24,23. 6% from 25 to 44,17. 2% from 45 to 64. The median age was 28 years, for every 100 females there were 97.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 95.1 males, the median income for a household in the city was $35,809, and the median income for a family was $41,750. Males had an income of $35,568 versus $19,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,889, about 9. 2% of families and 10. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11. 1% of those under age 18 and 17. 4% of those age 65 or over. Milford is located in east-central Beaver County in the Escalante Desert, state Route 21 passes through the city, leading south 14 miles to Minersville and northwest 84 miles to U. S. Routes 6 and 50 near the Nevada line, state Route 257 runs north from Milford 74 miles to Delta. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 3.1 square miles
Milford, Utah
–
Train depot in Milford, Utah during the winter of 1936-1937
Milford, Utah
–
Location in
Beaver County and the state of
Utah
Milford, Utah
–
Civilian Conservation Corp camp at Milford, Utah
Milford, Utah
–
Barracks at CCC camp 2530
26.
Beaver, Utah
–
Beaver is a city in Beaver County, Utah, United States. The population was 3,112 at the 2010 census and it is the county seat of Beaver County. Indigenous peoples lived in area for thousands of years, as shown by archeological evidence. A number of identified prehistoric sites have found in Beaver County, dating to the Archaic. A prehistoric obsidian quarry site has been identified in the nearby Mineral Mountains, the historic Southern Paiute inhabited the region well before encounter with the first European explorers. The 1776 Dominguez–Escalante Expedition is the first known European exploration in this area, the original route crossed the river 3 miles downstream from Beaver at the site that later was developed as Greenville. This route became known during the California Gold Rush as the Southern Route of the California Trail, later called the Mormon Road or California Road, it passed over the Black Mountains between the crossing and Muley Point. Following United States victory in the Mexican-American War, it took over California, in 1855, as part of improvements, the Mormon Road over the Black Mountains was realigned eastward. This road became a commercial wagon road, known in California as the Los Angeles - Salt Lake Road. Beaver was settled in 1856 by Mormon pioneers traveling this road, by design, these settlements were located a days ride on horseback apart, which explains the regularity of their spacing. They were generally 30 miles apart, where intervening settlements failed or were absorbed, they became 60 miles apart. Beaver was developed between the settlements in the Pahvant Valley and those in the Parowan Valley, in 1873 the US Army established Fort Cameron two miles from Beaver because of Indian raids on the area Mormon settlements. To serve this area, the territorial government placed the Second Judicial Court of the Utah Territory in Beaver from 1870 until 1896. Also included in this courts jurisdiction were Iron, Washington, Kane, Garfield, in 1856 Mormons migrated to the Beaver Valley from Parowan to the south. George A. Smith called a meeting in February 1856. In 1858, numerous migrants from San Bernardino, California, settled here. In December 1859, W. W. Willis and P. K. Smith were authorized by the council to build a sawmill and gristmill on North Creek, by 1869, the Mormon settlers in Beaver were numerous enough to organize a stake. The first stake president was John Murdock, during the 1870s, settlers made an effort to establish a woolen mill, a tannery, and a dairy industry
Beaver, Utah
–
Welcome sign
Beaver, Utah
–
Mt. Baldy viewed from Beaver, photographed by
William Bell during the 1872
Wheeler Survey
27.
Fire lookout tower
–
A fire lookout tower, fire tower or lookout tower, provides housing and protection for a person known as a fire lookout whose duty it is to search for wildfires in the wilderness. The fire lookout tower is a building, usually located on the summit of a mountain or other high vantage point, in order to maximize the viewing distance and range. From this vantage point the fire lookout can see smoke that may develop, determine the location by using a known as an Osborne Fire Finder. Lookouts also report weather changes and plot the location of lightning strikes during storms, the location of the strike is monitored for a period of days after in case of ignition. The typical fire lookout tower consists of a room, known as a cab located atop a large steel. Historically, the tops of trees have also been used to mount permanent platforms. Sometimes natural rock may be used to create a lower platform, in some cases, the terrain makes it possible so there is no need for an additional tower and these are known as ground cabs. Ground cabs are called towers, even if they dont sit on a tower, towers gained popularity in the early 1900s, and fires were reported using telephones, carrier pigeons, and heliographs. The history of fire lookout towers predates the United States Forest Service, many townships, private lumber companies, and State Forestry organizations operated fire lookout towers on their own accord. The Great Fire of 1910, also known as the Big Blowup, burned 3,000,000 acres through the states of Washington, Idaho and it is still arguably the largest forest fire ever in recorded history. The smoke from this fire drifted across the country to Washington D. C. One of the rules as a result of the 1910 fire stated all fires must be extinguished by 10 a. m. the following morning, to prevent and suppress fires, the U. S. As a result of the rules, early fire detection and suppression became a priority. Towers began to be built across the country, while earlier lookouts used tall trees and high peaks with tents for shelters, by 1911 permanent cabins and cupolas were being constructed on mountaintops. Beginning in 1910, the New Hampshire Timberlands Owners Association, a protection group, was formed and soon after, similar organizations were set up in Maine. A leader of efforts, W. R. In 1933, during the Great Depression, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt formed the Civilian Conservation Corps, consisting of young men and it was during this time that the CCC set about building fire lookout towers, and access roads to those towers. The U. S. Forest Service took great advantage of the CCC workforce and initiated a program of construction projects
Fire lookout tower
–
Angeles National Forest, Vetter Mountain fire lookout tower near
Los Angeles, California.
Fire lookout tower
–
A
fire lookout uses an
Osborne Fire Finder to obtain the
azimuth and
distance to a suspected fire. From these measurements he will call in a "Smoke Report".
Fire lookout tower
–
Elba Fire Tower in Minnesota
Fire lookout tower
–
Fire lookout tower in south Georgia, United States
28.
Hiking trail
–
A trail is usually a path, track or unpaved lane or road, though the term is also applied, in North America, to routes along rivers, and sometimes to highways. In the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland path or footpath is the term for a walking trail. There are also unpaved trails used by dirt bikes and other off-road vehicles, in some places, like the Alps, trails are used for moving cattle and other livestock. In the US, the term was used for a route into or through wild territory used by emigrants. In Australia, the track can be used interchangeably with trail. Walkway is used similarly in St. Johns, Newfoundland, Canada, in the United Kingdom, the term trail is in common usage. Longer distance walking routes, and government-promoted long distance paths, collectively known as National Trails, are frequently called ways, as in the Pennine Way. Generally the term footpath is preferred for pedestrian routes, including long distance trails, track is used for wider paths, often used for hiking. The terms bridleway, byway, restricted byway are all recognised legal terms, the increased popularity of mountain biking has led to a proliferation of mountain bike trails in many countries. Often these will be grouped to form complexes, known as trail centers. A particularly unusual use of the term is in the Canadian province of Alberta, Shared use may be achieved by sharing a trail easement, but within it maintaining segregated and sometimes also separated trail treads. This is common in rail trails, Shared use may also refer to alternate day arrangements, whereby two uses are segregated by being permitted on alternate days. The Trans Canada Trail can be used by hikers, walkers, cyclists, horseback riders, the network makes use of towpaths on river banks and disused railway or vicinal tramway lines. Old railway lines have been leased by the Walloon Government for 99 years using emphyteutic lease contracts, where necessary, new paths are created to link parts of the network. Thus the right to cycle exists even though it may be difficult to exercise on occasion, Cyclists using a bridleway are obliged to give way to other users on foot or horseback. The seawall in Stanley Park, Vancouver, Canada is popular for walking, running, cycling, there are two paths, one for skaters and cyclists and the other for pedestrians. The lane for cyclists and skaters goes one-way in a counterclockwise loop, foreshoreway is a term used in Australia for a type of greenway that provides a public right-of-way along the edge of the sea open to both walkers and cyclists. A forest road is a type of access road, built mainly for the forest industry
Hiking trail
–
A country track, or
fieldway, in
Slovenia
Hiking trail
–
Mountain bike trail in the
Forest of Dean,
England.
Hiking trail
–
Trail at the "
Serra dos Órgãos " National Park,
Petrópolis,
Brazil
Hiking trail
–
An abandoned mining trail in the
Jinguashi mining area in
Taiwan
29.
Erosion control
–
Erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water erosion in agriculture, land development, coastal areas, river banks and construction. Effective erosion controls handle surface runoff and are important techniques in preventing water pollution, soil loss, wildlife habitat loss, erosion controls are used in natural areas, agricultural settings or urban environments. In urban areas erosion controls are part of stormwater runoff management programs required by local governments. The controls often involve the creation of a barrier, such as vegetation or rock. They also involve building and maintaining storm drains, on construction sites they are often implemented in conjunction with sediment controls such as sediment basins and silt fences. Bank erosion is a process, without it, rivers would not meander. However, land management patterns that change the hydrograph and/or vegetation cover can act to increase or decrease channel migration rates, in many places, whether or not the banks are unstable due to human activities, people try to keep a river in a single place. This can be done for environmental reclamation or to prevent a river from changing course into land that is being used by people, one way that this is done is by placing riprap or gabions along the bank. These models have addressed both gully and sheet erosion, earliest models were a simple set of linked equations which could be employed by manual calculation. By the 1970s the models had expanded to complex computer models addressing nonpoint source pollution with thousands of lines of computer code, the more complex models were able to address nuances in micrometerology, soil particle size distributions and micro-terrain variation
Erosion control
–
Terraces, conservation tillage, and conservation buffers save soil and improve water quality on this Iowa farm.
Erosion control
–
Hydroseeding in UK
Erosion control
–
Rivers
30.
Flood control
–
Flood control refers to all methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flood relief refers to methods used to reduce the effects of flood waters or high water levels, Flooding can be exacerbated by increased amounts of impervious surface or by other natural hazards such as wildfires, which reduce the supply of vegetation that can absorb rainfall. Periodic floods occur on many rivers, forming a region known as the flood plain. During times of rain, some of the water is retained in ponds or soil, some is absorbed by grass and vegetation, some evaporates, floods occur when ponds, lakes, riverbeds, soil, and vegetation cannot absorb all the water. Water then runs off the land in quantities that cannot be carried within stream channels or retained in ponds, lakes. About 30 percent of all precipitation becomes runoff and that amount might be increased by water from melting snow, River flooding is often caused by heavy rain, sometimes increased by melting snow. A flood that rises rapidly, with little or no warning, is called a flash flood, flash floods usually result from intense rainfall over a relatively small area, or if the area was already saturated from previous precipitation. Even when rainfall is light, the shorelines of lakes. Coastal areas are flooded by unusually high tides, such as spring tides, especially when compounded by high winds. It damages property and endangers the lives of humans and other species, rapid water runoff causes soil erosion and concomitant sediment deposition elsewhere. The spawning grounds for fish and other wildlife habitats can become polluted or completely destroyed, some prolonged high floods can delay traffic in areas which lack elevated roadways. Floods can interfere with drainage and economical use of lands, such as interfering with farming, structural damage can occur in bridge abutments, bank lines, sewer lines, and other structures within floodways. Waterway navigation and hydroelectric power are often impaired, financial losses due to floods are typically millions of dollars each year, with the worst floods in recent U. S. history having cost billions of dollars. There are many effects of flooding on human settlements and economic activities. However, flooding can bring benefits, such as making soil more fertile, periodic flooding was essential to the well-being of ancient communities along the Tigris-Euphrates Rivers, the Nile River, the Indus River, the Ganges and the Yellow River, among others. The viability for hydrologically based renewable sources of energy is higher in flood-prone regions, some methods of flood control have been practiced since ancient times. These methods include planting vegetation to retain water, terracing hillsides to slow flow downhill. Other techniques include the construction of levees, lakes, dams, reservoirs and this is the method used for remote sensing the disasters
Flood control
–
A
weir was built on the
Humber River (Ontario) to prevent a recurrence of a catastrophic flood.
Flood control
–
Flood blocking the road in
Jerusalem
Flood control
–
Air
