1.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
2.
England
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England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west, the Irish Sea lies northwest of England and the Celtic Sea lies to the southwest. England is separated from continental Europe by the North Sea to the east, the country covers five-eighths of the island of Great Britain in its centre and south, and includes over 100 smaller islands such as the Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight. England became a state in the 10th century, and since the Age of Discovery. The Industrial Revolution began in 18th-century England, transforming its society into the worlds first industrialised nation, Englands terrain mostly comprises low hills and plains, especially in central and southern England. However, there are uplands in the north and in the southwest, the capital is London, which is the largest metropolitan area in both the United Kingdom and the European Union. In 1801, Great Britain was united with the Kingdom of Ireland through another Act of Union to become the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1922 the Irish Free State seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain, the name England is derived from the Old English name Englaland, which means land of the Angles. The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that settled in Great Britain during the Early Middle Ages, the Angles came from the Angeln peninsula in the Bay of Kiel area of the Baltic Sea. The earliest recorded use of the term, as Engla londe, is in the ninth century translation into Old English of Bedes Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, its spelling was first used in 1538. The earliest attested reference to the Angles occurs in the 1st-century work by Tacitus, Germania, the etymology of the tribal name itself is disputed by scholars, it has been suggested that it derives from the shape of the Angeln peninsula, an angular shape. An alternative name for England is Albion, the name Albion originally referred to the entire island of Great Britain. The nominally earliest record of the name appears in the Aristotelian Corpus, specifically the 4th century BC De Mundo, in it are two very large islands called Britannia, these are Albion and Ierne. But modern scholarly consensus ascribes De Mundo not to Aristotle but to Pseudo-Aristotle, the word Albion or insula Albionum has two possible origins. Albion is now applied to England in a poetic capacity. Another romantic name for England is Loegria, related to the Welsh word for England, Lloegr, the earliest known evidence of human presence in the area now known as England was that of Homo antecessor, dating to approximately 780,000 years ago. The oldest proto-human bones discovered in England date from 500,000 years ago, Modern humans are known to have inhabited the area during the Upper Paleolithic period, though permanent settlements were only established within the last 6,000 years
3.
Author
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An author is narrowly defined as the originator of any written work and can thus also be described as a writer. More broadly defined, an author is the person who originated or gave existence to anything, in the copyright laws of various jurisdictions, there is a necessity for little flexibility regarding what constitutes authorship. The United States Copyright Office, for example, defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States to authors of works of authorship. After a fixed amount of time, the copyright expires on intellectual work and it enters the public domain, however, copyright is merely the legal reassurance that one owns his/her work. Technically, someone owns their work from the time its created, an interesting aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that, in many jurisdictions, it can be passed down to another upon ones death. The person who inherits the copyright is not the author, questions arise as to the application of copyright law. How does it, for example, apply to the issue of fan fiction. If the media responsible for the authorized production allows material from fans, what is the limit before legal constraints from actors, music. Additionally, how does copyright apply to fan-generated stories for books, what powers do the original authors, as well as the publishers, have in regulating or even stopping the fan fiction. In literary theory, critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting, in the wake of postmodern literature, critics such as Roland Barthes and Michel Foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a text. Barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author and he writes, in his essay Death of the Author, that it is language which speaks, not the author. The words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for Barthes, with this, the perspective of the author is removed from the text, and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice, one ultimate and universal meaning, are destroyed. The psyche, culture, fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text, because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language. To expose meanings in a work without appealing to the celebrity of an author, their tastes, passions, vices, is, to Barthes, to allow language to speak. Michel Foucault argues in his essay What is an author and that all authors are writers, but not all writers are authors. He states that a letter may have a signatory—it does not have an author. For a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to certain standards upon the text which. Foucaults author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a work, a part of its structure
4.
Journalist
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A journalist is a person who collects, writes, or distributes news or other current information. A journalists work is called journalism, a journalist can work with general issues or specialize in certain issues. However, most journalists tend to specialize, and by cooperating with other journalists, for example, a sports journalist covers news within the world of sports, but this journalist may be a part of a newspaper that covers many different topics. A reporter is a type of journalist who researches, writes, and reports on information in order to present in sources, conduct interviews, engage in research, and make reports. The information-gathering part of a job is sometimes called reporting. Reporters may split their time working in a newsroom and going out to witness events or interviewing people. Reporters may be assigned a beat or area of coverage. Depending on the context, the term journalist may include various types of editors, editorial writers, columnists, Journalism has developed a variety of ethics and standards. While objectivity and a lack of bias are of concern and importance, more liberal types of journalism, such as advocacy journalism and activism. This has become prevalent with the advent of social media and blogs, as well as other platforms that are used to manipulate or sway social and political opinions. These platforms often project extreme bias, as sources are not always held accountable or considered necessary in order to produce a written, nor did they often directly experience most social problems, or have direct access to expert insights. These limitations were made worse by a media that tended to over-simplify issues and to reinforce stereotypes, partisan viewpoints. As a consequence, Lippmann believed that the public needed journalists like himself who could serve as analysts, guiding “citizens to a deeper understanding of what was really important. ”Journalists sometimes expose themselves to danger. Organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists and Reporters Without Borders publish reports on press freedom, as of November 2011, the Committee to Protect Journalists reports that 887 journalists have been killed worldwide since 1992 by murder, crossfire or combat, or on dangerous assignment. The ten deadliest countries for journalists since 1992 have been Iraq, Philippines, Russia, Colombia, Mexico, Algeria, Pakistan, India, Somalia, Brazil and Sri Lanka. The Committee to Protect Journalists also reports that as of December 1st 2010,145 journalists were jailed worldwide for journalistic activities. The ten countries with the largest number of currently-imprisoned journalists are Turkey, China, Iran, Eritrea, Burma, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Cuba, Ethiopia, apart from the physical harm, journalists are harmed psychologically. This applies especially to war reporters, but their offices at home often do not know how to deal appropriately with the reporters they expose to danger
5.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
6.
Thomas Hardy
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Thomas Hardy, OM was an English novelist and poet. A Victorian realist in the tradition of George Eliot, he was influenced both in his novels and in his poetry by Romanticism, especially William Wordsworth. He was highly critical of much in Victorian society, especially on the status of rural people in Britain. While Hardy wrote poetry throughout his life and regarded himself primarily as a poet, initially, therefore, he gained fame as the author of such novels as Far from the Madding Crowd, The Mayor of Casterbridge, Tess of the dUrbervilles, and Jude the Obscure. During his lifetime, Hardys poetry was acclaimed by poets who viewed him as a mentor. After his death his poems were lauded by Ezra Pound, W. H. Auden, Two of his novels, Tess of the dUrbervilles and Far from the Madding Crowd, were listed in the top 50 on the BBCs survey The Big Read. Jemima was well-read, and she educated Thomas until he went to his first school at Bockhampton at the age of eight, for several years he attended Mr. Lasts Academy for Young Gentlemen in Dorchester, where he learned Latin and demonstrated academic potential. Because Hardys family lacked the means for a university education, his formal education ended at the age of sixteen, when he apprenticed to James Hicks. Hardy trained as an architect in Dorchester before moving to London in 1862 and he won prizes from the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Architectural Association. He joined Arthur Blomfields practice as assistant architect in April 1862 and worked with Blomfield on All Saints parish church in Windsor, a reredos, possibly designed by Hardy, was discovered behind panelling at All Saints in August 2016. Hardy never felt at home in London, because he was conscious of class divisions. During this time he became interested in reform and the works of John Stuart Mill. He was also introduced by his Dorset friend Horace Moule to the works of Charles Fourier, after five years, concerned about his health, he returned to Dorset, settling in Weymouth, and decided to dedicate himself to writing. In 1870, while on a mission to restore the parish church of St Juliot in Cornwall, Hardy met and fell in love with Emma Gifford. In 1885 Thomas and his wife moved into Max Gate, a designed by Hardy. In 1914, Hardy married his secretary Florence Emily Dugdale, who was 39 years his junior, however, he remained preoccupied with his first wifes death and tried to overcome his remorse by writing poetry. In 1910, Hardy had been awarded the Order of Merit and was also for the first time nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature and he would be nominated for the prize eleven years later. His funeral was on 16 January at Westminster Abbey, and it proved a controversial occasion because Hardy had wished for his body to be interred at Stinsford in the grave as his first wife
7.
Samuel Pepys
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Samuel Pepys FRS was an administrator of the navy of England and Member of Parliament who is most famous for the diary that he kept for a decade while still a relatively young man. Pepys had no experience, but he rose to be the Chief Secretary to the Admiralty under both King Charles II and King James II through patronage, hard work, and his talent for administration. His influence and reforms at the Admiralty were important in the early professionalisation of the Royal Navy, the detailed private diary that Pepys kept from 1660 until 1669 was first published in the 19th century and is one of the most important primary sources for the English Restoration period. It provides a combination of personal revelation and eyewitness accounts of events, such as the Great Plague of London, the Second Dutch War. Pepys was born in Salisbury Court, Fleet Street, London on 23 February 1633, the son of John Pepys, a tailor and his great uncle Talbot Pepys was Recorder and briefly Member of Parliament for Cambridge in 1625. His fathers first cousin Sir Richard Pepys was elected MP for Sudbury in 1640, appointed Baron of the Exchequer on 30 May 1654, Pepys was the fifth of eleven children, but child mortality was high and he was soon the oldest survivor. He was baptised at St Brides Church on 3 March, Pepys did not spend all of his infancy in London, for a while, he was sent to live with nurse Goody Lawrence at Kingsland, just north of the city. In about 1644, Pepys attended Huntingdon Grammar School before being educated at St Pauls School, London and he attended the execution of Charles I in 1649. In 1650, he went to Cambridge University, having received two exhibitions from St Pauls School and a grant from the Mercers Company. In October, he was admitted as a sizar to Magdalene College, he moved there in March 1651, later in 1654 or early in 1655, he entered the household of another of his fathers cousins, Sir Edward Montagu, who was later created 1st Earl of Sandwich. From a young age, Pepys suffered from stones in his urinary tract – a condition from which his mother and brother John also later suffered. He was almost never without pain, as well as other symptoms, by the time of his marriage, the condition was very severe. In 1657 Pepys decided to undergo surgery, not an option, as the operation was known to be especially painful. Nevertheless, Pepys consulted surgeon Thomas Hollier and, on 26 March 1658, Pepys stone was successfully removed and he resolved to hold a celebration on every anniversary of the operation, which he did for several years. However, there were long-term effects from the operation, the incision on his bladder broke open again late in his life. The procedure may have left him sterile, though there is no evidence for this. In mid-1658 Pepys moved to Axe Yard, near the modern Downing Street and he worked as a teller in the Exchequer under George Downing. On 1 January 1660, Pepys began to keep a diary and he recorded his daily life for almost ten years
8.
Jane Austen
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Jane Austen was an English novelist known primarily for her six major novels, which interpret, critique and comment upon the British landed gentry at the end of the 18th century. Austens plots often explore the dependence of women on marriage in the pursuit of social standing. Her works critique the novels of sensibility of the half of the 18th century and are part of the transition to 19th-century literary realism. With the publications of Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Mansfield Park and Emma and she wrote two additional novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion, both published posthumously in 1818, and began another, eventually titled Sanditon, but died before its completion. Her novels have rarely been out of print, although they were published anonymously, a significant transition in her posthumous reputation occurred in 1869, fifty-two years after her death, when her nephews publication of A Memoir of Jane Austen introduced her to a wider audience. Austen has inspired a number of critical essays and literary anthologies. Her novels have inspired many films, from 1940s Pride and Prejudice to more recent productions, Sense and Sensibility, Jane Austens use of biting irony, along with her realism and social commentary have earned her great and historical importance to critics and scholars. The Bank of England has confirmed that the face of the new plastic £10 note will be Austen, the notes are expected to be released in summer 2017. There is little information about Jane Austens life except the few letters that survive. During her lifetime Austen wrote approximately 3,000 letters but only about 160 survive, many of the letters were written to Austens older sister Cassandra, who in 1843 burned the greater part of them and cut pieces out of those she kept. Cassandra believed that in the interest of tact and Janes penchant for forthrightness, the paucity of record of Austens life leaves modern biographers little to work with. The situation was compounded as successive generations of the family expunged and sanitized the already opaque details of Austens biography, Jane Austen was born in Steventon, Hampshire, on 16 December 1775. She was born a month later than her parents expected, her father wrote of her arrival in a letter that her mother certainly expected to have brought to bed a month ago. He added that her arrival was particularly welcome as a companion to her sister. The winter of 1776 was particularly harsh and it was not until 5 April that she was baptised at the church with the single name Jane. For much of Janes life, George Austen served as the rector of the Anglican parishes at Steventon, and he came from an old, respected, and wealthy family of wool merchants. Over the centuries as each generation of eldest sons received inheritances their wealth was consolidated and he and his two sisters were orphaned as children and had to be taken in by relatives. His sister Philadelphia went to India to find a husband and George entered St Johns College, Oxford on a fellowship and she came from the prominent Leigh family, her father was rector at All Souls College, Oxford, where she grew up among the gentry
9.
Mary Wollstonecraft
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Mary Wollstonecraft was an English writer, philosopher, and advocate of womens rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men and she suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. Until the late 20th century, Wollstonecrafts life, which encompassed several unconventional personal relationships, after two ill-fated affairs, with Henry Fuseli and Gilbert Imlay, Wollstonecraft married the philosopher William Godwin, one of the forefathers of the anarchist movement. Wollstonecraft died at the age of 38, eleven days after giving birth to her second daughter and this daughter, Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, became an accomplished writer herself, as Mary Shelley, the author of Frankenstein. After Wollstonecrafts death, her widower published a Memoir of her life, revealing her unorthodox lifestyle, today Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the founding feminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and work as important influences. Wollstonecraft was born on 27 April 1759 in Spitalfields, London and she was the second of the seven children of Elizabeth Dixon and Edward John Wollstonecraft. Although her family had a comfortable income when she was a child, consequently, the family became financially unstable and they were frequently forced to move during Wollstonecrafts youth. The familys financial situation became so dire that Wollstonecrafts father compelled her to turn over money that she would have inherited at her maturity. Moreover, he was apparently a violent man who would beat his wife in drunken rages, as a teenager, Wollstonecraft used to lie outside the door of her mothers bedroom to protect her. Wollstonecraft played a similar role for her sisters, Everina and Eliza. The human costs, however, were severe, her sister suffered social condemnation and, because she could not remarry, was doomed to a life of poverty, two friendships shaped Wollstonecrafts early life. The first was with Jane Arden in Beverley, the two frequently read books together and attended lectures presented by Ardens father, a self-styled philosopher and scientist. Wollstonecraft revelled in the atmosphere of the Arden household and valued her friendship with Arden greatly. Wollstonecraft wrote to her, I have formed romantic notions of friendship, I am a little singular in my thoughts of love and friendship, I must have the first place or none. In some of Wollstonecrafts letters to Arden, she reveals the volatile, unhappy with her home life, Wollstonecraft struck out on her own in 1778 and accepted a job as a ladys companion to Sarah Dawson, a widow living in Bath. However, Wollstonecraft had trouble getting along with the irascible woman, in 1780 she returned home, called back to care for her dying mother. Rather than return to Dawsons employ after the death of her mother and she realized during the two years she spent with the family that she had idealized Blood, who was more invested in traditional feminine values than was Wollstonecraft
10.
Hitchin
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Hitchin is a market town in the North Hertfordshire District in Hertfordshire, England, with an estimated population of 33,350. Hitchin is first noted as the place of the Hicce people mentioned in a 7th-century document. The tribal name is Brittonic rather than Old English and derives from *siccā, meaning dry, which is perhaps a reference to the local stream, the Hiz. Evidence has been found to suggest that the town was provided with an earthen bank and ditch fortification, probably in the early tenth century. The modern spelling Hitchin first appears in 1618 in the Hertfordshire Feet of Fines, the name of the town also is associated with the small river that runs through the town, most picturesquely in front of the east end of St. Marys Church, the towns parish church. The river is noted on maps as the River Hiz, contrary to how most people now pronounce the name, that is to say as spelt, the z is an abbreviated character for a tch sound in Domesday Book. It would have been pronounced River Hitch, Hitchin is notable for St. Marys Church, which is remarkably large for a town of its size. The size of the church is evidence of how Hitchin prospered from the wool trade and it is the largest parish church in Hertfordshire. Most of the dates from the 15th century, with its tower dating from around 1190. During the laying of a new floor in the church in 1911, in form, they appear to be a basilican church of a 7th-century type, with a later enlarged chancel and transepts, perhaps added in the 10th century. This makes the older than the story that the church was founded by Offa. In 1697, Hitchin were subject to what is thought to have been the most severe hailstorm in recorded British history, by the middle of the 19th century the railway had arrived, and with it a new way of life for Hitchin. The corn exchange was built in the place and within a short time Hitchin established itself as a major centre for grain trading. The latter half of the 20th century has brought great changes in communication to Hitchin. Motorways have shortened the time and brought Luton, a few miles away on the M1. By the close of the 20th century, Hitchin had become a dormitory town for London. Hitchin also developed a fairly strong Sikh community based around the Walsworth area, during the medieval period, both a priory and a friary were established, both of which closed during Henry VIIIs Dissolution of the Monasteries. They were never reformed, although The Biggin was for years used as almshouses
11.
Hertfordshire
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Hertfordshire is a county in southern England, bordered by Bedfordshire to the north, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Buckinghamshire to the west and Greater London to the south. For government statistical purposes, it is placed in the East of England region, in 2013, the county had a population of 1,140,700 living in an area of 634 square miles. Four towns have between 50,000 and 100,000 residents, Hemel Hempstead, Stevenage, Watford and St Albans. Hertford, once the market town for the medieval agricultural county derives its name from a hart. Elevations are high for the region in the north and west and these reach over 240m in the western projection around Tring which is in the Chilterns. The countys borders are approximately the watersheds of the Colne and Lea, hertfordshires undeveloped land is mainly agricultural and much is protected by green belt. The countys landmarks span many centuries, ranging from the Six Hills in the new town of Stevenage built by local inhabitants during the Roman period, Leavesden filmed much of the UK-based $7.7 Bn box office Harry Potter film series and has the countrys studio tour. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill and his martyrs cross of a yellow saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag and coat of arms of Hertfordshire. Hertfordshire is well-served with motorways and railways, providing access to London. The largest sector of the economy of the county is in services, Hertfordshire was the area assigned to a fortress constructed at Hertford under the rule of Edward the Elder in 913. Hertford is derived from the Anglo-Saxon heort ford, meaning deer crossing, the name Hertfordshire is first recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle in 1011. Deer feature in many county emblems, there is evidence of humans living in Hertfordshire from the Mesolithic period. It was first farmed during the Neolithic period and permanent habitation appeared at the beginning of the Bronze Age and this was followed by tribes settling in the area during the Iron Age. 293 the first recorded British martyrdom is believed to have taken place. Saint Alban, a Romano-British soldier, took the place of a Christian priest and was beheaded on Holywell Hill. His martyrs cross of a saltire on a blue background is reflected in the flag. He is the Patron Saint of Hertfordshire, with the departure of the Roman Legions in the early 5th century, the now unprotected territory was invaded and colonised by the Anglo-Saxons. By the 6th century the majority of the county was part of the East Saxon kingdom
12.
Dartington Hall
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The Trust currently runs 16 charitable programmes, including Schumacher College and the Dartington International Summer School. In addition to developing and promoting arts and educational programmes, the Trust hosts other groups, the hall itself is a Grade I listed building. The gardens are Grade II* listed in the National Register of Historic Parks, the Dartington Hall Trust is based on a 1,200 acres estate near Dartington in south Devon. The medieval hall was built between 1388 and 1400 for John Holand, Earl of Huntingdon, half-brother to Richard II, after John was beheaded, the Crown owned the estate until it was acquired in 1559 by Sir Arthur Champernowne, Vice-Admiral of the West under Elizabeth I. The Champernowne family then lived in the Hall for 366 years until 1925, the hall was mostly derelict by the time it was bought by Leonard and Dorothy Elmhirst in 1925. They commissioned architect William Weir to renovate the buildings and restored the Great Halls hammerbeam roof, in 1935, the Dartington Hall Trust, a registered charity, was set up in order to run the estate. In North Devon, the Beaford Centre, set up as a centre by the Trust in the 1960s to bring employment and culture to a rurally depressed area. Until June 2010, prior to the contentious merger with University College Falmouth. The Hall and medieval courtyard functions in part as a centre and wedding venue and provides bed and breakfast accommodation for people attending courses. The Barn Cinema and the White Hart Bar and Restaurant are used by estate dwellers, residents from the surrounding countryside, in May 2010, Sothebys sold a group of 12 paintings by Rabindranath Tagore, which had been given by Tagore to his friend Leonard Elmhirst. In Autumn 2011, The Trust proposed the sale of artworks by Ben Nicholson, Christopher Wood, Alfred Wallis and others. The sale generated some criticism from people, who voiced concerns about deaccessioning of the Trusts art assets. Dartington Hall held by the MARTIN FAMILY between the early 12th and mid 14th centuries and on the death of Lord William Martin in 1326, Dartington International Summer School is a department of The Dartington Hall Trust. The Summer School is both a festival and a music school, participants, both amateur musicians and advanced students, spend the daytime studying a variety of different musical courses, and the evenings attending concerts. In addition to instrumental and vocal masterclasses, there are courses at various levels on subjects such as composition, opera, chamber music, conducting, courses include choirs, orchestras, individual masterclasses, and non classical music such as Jazz, Salsa and Gamelan. Composition teachers have included Luciano Berio, Luigi Nono, Bruno Maderna, Harrison Birtwistle, Peter Maxwell Davies, Brian Ferneyhough, Witold Lutosławski and Elliott Carter. There is an ancient yew tree reputed to be nearly 2000 years old and rumour has it that Knights Templar are buried in the graveyard there, Dartington Hall School, founded in 1926, offered a progressive coeducational boarding life. When it started there was a minimum of formal classroom activity and the children learnt by involvement in estate activities. ”With time more academic rigour was imposed, a noted alumnus was Lord Young, a founder of Which. and the Open University
13.
Dartington
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Dartington is a village in Devon, England. The electoral ward of Dartington includes the area and had a population of 1,753 at the 2011 census. It is located west of the River Dart, south of Dartington Hall, Dartington is home to an obsolete cider press, the Cott Inn, a public house dating from 1320, and Dartington Hall. Dartington International Summer School of music, every summer since 1953 Dartington College of Arts, schumacher College Dartington Primary School, a state Church of England school. Bidwell Brook School David Gawen Champernowne, economist and mathematician, Dartington Hall was the family seat. He is buried in Dartington church, the Dartington Hall Trust Dartington Parish Council Devon County Councils page on Dartington The Social Research Unit at Dartington Dartington in 1868 Bidwell Brook School
14.
Totnes
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Totnes is a market town and civil parish at the head of the estuary of the River Dart in Devon, England within the South Devon Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It is about 22 miles south southwest of the city of Exeter and is the centre of the South Hams District Council. Totnes has a recorded history, dating back to AD907 when its first castle was built. Indications of its wealth and importance are given by the number of merchants houses built in the 16th and 17th centuries. Today, the town is a centre for music, art, theatre. It has an alternative and New Age community, and is known as a place where one can live a bohemian lifestyle. Their combined populations at the 2011 census was 8,076, set into the pavement of Fore Street is the Brutus Stone, a small granite boulder onto which, according to local legend, Brutus first stepped from his ship. As he did so, he was supposed to have declaimed, Here I stand, and this town shall be called Totnes. The stone is far above the highest tides and the tradition is not likely to be of great antiquity, also according to the Historia, Ambrosius Aurelius and his brother Uther Pendragon landed at Totnes to win back the throne of Britain from the usurper Vortigern. The site was chosen because it was on an ancient trackway which forded the river at low tide, between the reigns of Edgar and William II Totnes intermittently minted coins. Juhel did not retain his lordship for long, however, as he was deprived of his lands in 1088 or 1089, the name Totnes comes from the Old English personal name Totta and ness or headland. Before reclamation and development, the areas around this hill were largely marsh or tidal wetland. By 1523, according to a tax assessment, Totnes was the second richest town in Devon, in 1553, King Edward VI granted Totnes a charter allowing a former Benedictine priory building that had been founded in 1088 to be used as Totnes Guildhall and a school. In 1624, the Guildhall was converted to be a magistrates court, until 1887, the Guildhall was also used as the town prison with the addition of prison cells. It remained a court until 1974. Totnes borough charter was granted by King John, probably around 1206, at any rate, Totnes lost its borough status in local government reorganisation in 1974. Totnes was served by Totnes electoral borough from 1295 until the act of 1867. In August 2009, Totnes became the first constituency to select the Conservative PPC through a primary that was organised by the local Conservative Association
15.
Devon
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Devon, also known as Devonshire, which was formerly its common and official name, is a county of England, reaching from the Bristol Channel in the north to the English Channel in the south. It is part of South West England, bounded by Cornwall to the west, Somerset to the northeast, combined as a ceremonial county, Devons area is 6,707 km2 and its population is about 1.1 million. Devon derives its name from Dumnonia, which, during the British Iron Age, Roman Britain, the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain resulted in the partial assimilation of Dumnonia into the Kingdom of Wessex during the eighth and ninth centuries. The western boundary with Cornwall was set at the River Tamar by King Æthelstan in 936, Devon was constituted as a shire of the Kingdom of England thereafter. The north and south coasts of Devon each have both cliffs and sandy shores, and the bays contain seaside resorts, fishing towns. The inland terrain is rural, generally hilly, and has a low density in comparison to many other parts of England. Dartmoor is the largest open space in southern England at 954 km2, to the north of Dartmoor are the Culm Measures and Exmoor. In the valleys and lowlands of south and east Devon the soil is fertile, drained by rivers including the Exe, the Culm, the Teign, the Dart. As well as agriculture, much of the economy of Devon is linked with tourism, in the Brittonic, Devon is known as Welsh, Dyfnaint, Breton, Devnent and Cornish, Dewnens, each meaning deep valleys. One erroneous theory is that the suffix is due to a mistake in the making of the original letters patent for the Duke of Devonshire. However, there are references to Defenascire in Anglo-Saxon texts from before 1000 AD, the term Devonshire may have originated around the 8th century, when it changed from Dumnonia to Defenascir. Kents Cavern in Torquay had produced human remains from 30–40,000 years ago, Dartmoor is thought to have been occupied by Mesolithic hunter-gatherer peoples from about 6000 BC. The Romans held the area under occupation for around 350 years. Devon became a frontier between Brittonic and Anglo-Saxon Wessex, and it was absorbed into Wessex by the mid 9th century. This suggests the Anglo-Saxon migration into Devon was limited rather than a movement of people. The border with Cornwall was set by King Æthelstan on the east bank of the River Tamar in 936 AD, the arrival of William of Orange to launch the Glorious Revolution of 1688 took place at Brixham. Devon has produced tin, copper and other metals from ancient times, Devons tin miners enjoyed a substantial degree of independence through Devons Stannary Parliament, which dates back to the 12th century. The last recorded sitting was in 1748, agriculture has been an important industry in Devon since the 19th century
16.
Newnham College, Cambridge
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Newnham College is a women-only constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded in 1871 by Henry Sidgwick, and was the second Cambridge college to admit women after Girton College, the co-founder of the college was Millicent Garrett Fawcett. The history of Newnham begins with the formation of the Association for Promoting the Higher Education of Women in Cambridge in 1869, the progress of women at Cambridge University owes much to the pioneering work undertaken by the philosopher Henry Sidgwick, fellow of Trinity. He persuaded Anne Jemima Clough, who had run a school in the Lake District. The following year, this moved to Merton House on Queens Road, demand continued to increase and the supporters of the enterprise formed a limited company to raise funds, lease land and build on it. In 1875 the first building for Newnham College was built on the site off Sidgwick Avenue where the college remains, in 1876 Henry Sidgwick married Elizabeth Balfour who was already a supporter of womens education. They lived at Newnham from 1893, the college formally came into existence in 1880 with the amalgamation of the Association and the Company. Women were admitted to titles of degrees from 1881, the demand from prospective students remained buoyant and the Newnham Hall Company built steadily, providing three more halls, a laboratory and a library, in the years up to the First World War. The architect Basil Champneys was employed throughout this period and designed the buildings in the Queen Anne style to much acclaim, so Newnhams founders allowed the young women to work at and to a level which suited their attainments and abilities. Some of them, with a years preparation, did indeed go on to degree-level work. In 1890 the Newnham student Philippa Fawcett was ranked above the Senior Wrangler, by the First World War the vast majority of Newnham students were going straight into degree-level courses. In tailoring the curriculum to the students, Newnham found itself at odds with the other Cambridge college for women, Girton, emily Davies, Girtons founder, believed passionately that equality could only be expressed by women doing the same courses as the men, on the same time-table. This meant that Girton attracted a much smaller population in its early years, in 1948 Newnham, like Girton, attained the full status of a college of the university. The university as an institution at first took no notice of these women, in 1868 Cambridges Local Examinations Board allowed women to take exams for the first time. By 1881, however, a permission to sit examinations was negotiated. Undergraduates demonstrating against the women and their supporters did hundreds of pounds worth of damage in the market square, the First World War brought a catastrophic collapse of fee income for the mens colleges and Cambridge and Oxford both sought state financial help for the first time. In Oxford this was secured in 1920 but in Cambridge the women went down to again in 1921, having to settle for the titles - the much-joked-about BA tit -. This time the male undergraduates celebrating victory over the women used a handcart as a ram to destroy the lower half of the bronze gates at Newnham
17.
University of Cambridge
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The University of Cambridge is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England, often regarded as one of the most prestigious universities in the world. Founded in 1209 and given royal status by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople, the two ancient universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as Oxbridge. Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent colleges, Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the worlds oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridges libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library. In the year ended 31 July 2015, the university had an income of £1.64 billion. The central university and colleges have an endowment of around £5.89 billion. The university is linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as Silicon Fen. It is a member of associations and forms part of the golden triangle of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners. As of 2017, Cambridge is ranked the fourth best university by three ranking tables and no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. Cambridge is consistently ranked as the top university in the United Kingdom, the university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors, and foreign Heads of State. Ninety-five Nobel laureates, fifteen British prime ministers and ten Fields medalists have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, faculty, by the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to such as Paris, Reading. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university. A bull in 1233 from Pope Gregory IX gave graduates from Cambridge the right to teach everywhere in Christendom, the colleges at the University of Cambridge were originally an incidental feature of the system. No college is as old as the university itself, the colleges were endowed fellowships of scholars. There were also institutions without endowments, called hostels, the hostels were gradually absorbed by the colleges over the centuries, but they have left some indicators of their time, such as the name of Garret Hostel Lane. Hugh Balsham, Bishop of Ely, founded Peterhouse, Cambridges first college, the most recently established college is Robinson, built in the late 1970s
18.
Whitbread Book Awards
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The Costa Book Awards are a set of annual literary awards recognising English-language books by writers based in Britain and Ireland. They were inaugurated for 1971 publications and known as the Whitbread Book Awards until 2006 when Costa Coffee, the companion Costa Short Story Award was established in 2012. The awards are given both for literary merit but also for works that are enjoyable reading and whose aim is to convey the enjoyment of reading to the widest possible audience. As such, they are a more populist literary prize than the Booker Prize, authors need not be British or Irish but they must have been resident in the UK or Ireland for at least six months in each of the previous three years. There are five book award categories, without change since the Poetry Award was introduced in 1985, novel First novel Childrens book Poetry Biography The winning books are selected from shortlists by five distinct panels of judges. Each of the five winning writers receives £5,000, the prize requires a £5,000 fee from publishers if a book is to be shortlisted. One of the books is then named Costa Book of the Year with a further £25,000 prize. That overall award is determined by a panel comprising five judges from the first round, Short story The short story award was established in 2012 with a prize of £3,500 for the first, £1,500 for the second and £500 for the third. The winning story is determined by public vote from a shortlist of six that are selected by a panel of judges, the process is blind at both stages for the unpublished entries are anonymous until the conclusion. In the inaugural year, the six short story finalists had been published online by 28 November 2012. The winner was to be announced 29 January 2013, bold font and blue ribbon distinguish the overall Costa Book of the Year
19.
Katherine Mansfield
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Kathleen Mansfield Murry was a prominent New Zealand modernist short story writer who was born and brought up in colonial New Zealand and wrote under the pen name of Katherine Mansfield. At 19, Mansfield left New Zealand and settled in the United Kingdom, in 1917 she was diagnosed with extrapulmonary tuberculosis, which led to her death at the age of 34. Mansfield was born Kathleen Mansfield Beauchamp in 1888 into a prominent family in Wellington. Her father was a banker and she was a cousin of the author Countess Elizabeth von Arnim and she had two older sisters, a younger sister and a younger brother, born in 1894. Her father, Harold Beauchamp, became the chairman of the Bank of New Zealand and was knighted and her grandfather was Arthur Beauchamp, who briefly represented the Picton electorate in Parliament. In 1893 the Mansfield family moved from Thorndon to Karori, where Mansfield spent the happiest years of her childhood and she used some of her memories of this time as an inspiration for the Prelude story. Her first published stories appeared in the High School Reporter and the Wellington Girls High School magazine, in 1902 she became enamoured of a cellist, Arnold Trowell, although the feelings were largely unreciprocated. Mansfield herself was an accomplished cellist, having received lessons from Trowells father, Mansfield wrote in her journals of feeling alienated in New Zealand, and of how she had become disillusioned because of the repression of the Māori people. Māori characters are portrayed in a sympathetic or positive light in her later stories. In 1903 she moved to London, where she attended Queens College along with her sisters and she was particularly interested in the works of the French Symbolists and Oscar Wilde, and she was appreciated among her peers for her vivacious and charismatic approach to life and work. She met fellow writer Ida Baker, a South African, at the college, Mansfield did not become involved in much political activity when she lived in London. For example, she did not actively support the movement in the UK. Mansfield travelled in continental Europe between 1903 and 1906, staying mainly in Belgium and Germany. After finishing her schooling in England, she returned to New Zealand in 1906 and she had several works published in the Native Companion, her first paid writing work, and by this time she had her heart set on becoming a professional writer. It was also the first occasion on which she used the pseudonym K. Mansfield and she rapidly wearied of the provincial New Zealand lifestyle and of her family, and two years later headed again for London. Her father sent her an allowance of 100 pounds for the rest of her life. In later years she expressed admiration and disdain for New Zealand in her journals, but she was never able to return there because of her tuberculosis. Mansfield had two relationships with women that are notable for their pre-eminence in her journal entries. She continued to have lovers, and attempted to repress her feelings at certain times
20.
Nelly Ternan
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Ellen Ternan is sometimes confused with her near contemporary, the Shakespearean actress Ellen Terry, whose career was more distinguished, but who did not have an affair with Dickens. Ellen Lawless Ternan, also known as Nelly Ternan or Nelly Robinson, was an English actress who is known as the mistress of Charles Dickens. Ellen Lawless Ternan was born in Rochester, Kent and she was the third of four children, she had a brother who died in infancy and two sisters named Maria and Frances. Her parents, Thomas Lawless Ternan and Frances Eleanor Ternan, were actors of some distinction. Ternan made her debut in Sheffield at the age of three, and she and her two sisters were presented as infant phenomena. In 1857, she was spotted by Dickens performing at Londons Haymarket Theatre and he cast her, on the recommendation of his friend the actor and playwright Alfred Wigan, along with her mother and sister Maria, in a performance of The Frozen Deep in Manchester in August 1857. Dickens was forty-five when he met Ellen Ternan and she was eighteen, Dickens began an affair with Ternan, but the relationship was kept secret from the general public. Ternan was clever and charming, forceful of character, and interested in literature, Dickens referred to Ternan as his magic circle of one. Matters came to a head in 1858 when Catherine Dickens opened a packet delivered by a London jeweller which contained a gold bracelet meant for Ternan with a written by her husband. The Dickenses separated that May, after 22 years of marriage, Ternan left the stage in 1860, and was supported by Dickens from then on. She sometimes travelled with him, and Dickens was travelling with Ternan and he abandoned a plan to take her on his visit to America in 1867 for fear that their relationship would be publicised by the American press. She lived in houses he took under false names at Slough and later at Nunhead, Dickens left a legacy of £1,000 to Ternan in his will on his death in 1870 and sufficient income from a trust fund to ensure that she would never have to work again. In 1876, six years after Dickens death, Ternan married George Wharton Robinson, an Oxford graduate, who was years her junior. She presented herself as 14 years younger, the couple had a son, Geoffrey, and a daughter, Gladys, and ran a boys school in Margate. Ternans husband died in 1910, and she spent her last years in Southsea with her sister Frances and she died of cancer in Fulham, London. She was buried in Highland Road Cemetery in Portsmouth, Ellen Ternan was the subject of a bestselling biography by Claire Tomalin in 1990, which brought the relationship to a broader general audience. A summary of the story of the discovery of the relationship was published in 2012 by Professor Michael Slater, some records relating to Ellen Ternan and her family are held by Senate House Library, University of London. Simon Grays play about her life, Little Nell had its premiere in 2007 at the Theatre Royal
21.
James Tait Black Memorial Prize
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The James Tait Black Memorial Prizes are literary prizes awarded for literature written in the English language. They, along with the Hawthornden Prize, are Britains oldest literary awards, Prizes are awarded in three categories, Fiction, Biography and Drama. From inception, the James Tait Black prize was organised without overt publicity, there was a lack of press and publisher attention, initially at least, because Edinburgh was distant from the literary centres of the country. The decision on the award would be made by the Regius Chair of Rhetoric, the original endowment is now supplemented by the University and, as a consequence, the total prize fund rose from £6,000 to £20,000 for the 2005 awards. This increase made the two prizes, one for fiction and the other for biography, the largest literary prizes on offer in Scotland. The annual prize for drama is worth £10,000, the University is advised in relation to the development and administration of the Prize by a small committee which includes Ian Rankin, Alexander McCall Smith and James Naughtie amongst its members. In August 2007 the prize ceremony was held at the Edinburgh International Book Festival for the first time, only those works of fiction and biographies written in English and first published in Britain in the 12-month period prior to the submission date are eligible for the award. Both prizes may go to the author, but neither prize can be awarded to the same author on more than one occasion. For the drama category, the work should have written in English, Gaelic or Welsh. In 2012, a prize was given called the Best of the James Tait Black. The award celebrated the fiction winners over the past 93 years, a shortlist of six previous winners competed for the title of Best. A judging panel of celebrity alumni and writers decided on the winner announced on 6 December 2012 as Angela Carters Nights at the Circus
22.
The Invisible Woman (2013 film)
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The Invisible Woman is a 2013 British biographical drama film directed by Ralph Fiennes and starring Fiennes, Felicity Jones, Kristin Scott Thomas and Tom Hollander. The film premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on 31 August 2013, the film received a Best Costume Design nomination at the 86th Academy Awards. In 1857, eighteen-year-old English actress Ellen Nelly Ternan is noticed by forty-five-year-old writer Charles Dickens while she is performing at Londons Haymarket Theatre. Soon after, he casts her, along with her mother and sister Maria, at a party following the performance, the famous author and the actress share a brief moment alone. Sometime later, Nelly and her family one of Dickenss readings at the Harrow Speech Room in London. Afterwards, Dickens is delighted to see Nelly again, soon after, Dickens takes the Ternan family to Doncaster Racecourse and begins to spend more time with them. Having become disillusioned with his wife, who does not share his energy and passion for literature and ideas, Dickens cherishes his time with the actress who shares his interests. Nelly in turn loves spending time with the famous novelist, one day, Dickens walks from his Gads Hill Place country home to East London to see Nelly perform in a play. Afterwards her mother invites him back to their modest cottage for a visit, noticing the shared looks between Dickens and her daughter, Mrs. Ternan later cautions him that she cannot afford to put her daughters reputation at risk. Dickens assures her that he has no intention of compromising her good name, when they are alone, they share details and secrets about their lives and upbringings, and the two grow closer. Later, Mrs. Nelly overhears the conversation and is angered and confused by her mothers plans for her to become the mistress of a married man. Soon after, Dickenss wife Catherine visits Nelly at her home to deliver a jewelled bracelet birthday gift from her husband, after the birthday party, Dickens and Collins arrive and take her to the house that Collins shares with his mistress Caroline Graves and her daughter. There, Nelly sees the kind of arrangement Dickens may have in mind for her, later in the carriage outside her cottage, she confronts Dickens about the suggested arrangement and objects to the idea of being his whore. After apologizing and confessing that he no longer loves his wife, soon after, Dickens announces in The Times his amicable separation from his wife while boldly denying the rumours of an affair with Nelly. Dickenss wife and children are devastated by the news, in the coming days, Nellys mother assures her that he is an honourable man, while Collins reminds her that he is a great man and urges her to break with old conventions. When she visits Dickens at his home, he assures her that he has broken with the past and shows her the manuscript of a new novel that hes just completed, after reading it, she expresses her approval of the ending which does not bring Estella and Pip together. You have been the embodiment of every graceful fancy that my mind has become acquainted with. Estella, to the last hour of my life, you choose but remain part of my character, part of the little good in me
23.
Dorothea Jordan
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Dorothea Jordan was an Anglo-Irish actress, courtesan, and the mistress and companion of the future King William IV of the United Kingdom, for 20 years while he was Duke of Clarence. Together they had ten children, all of whom took the surname FitzClarence. Dorothea Bland was born near Waterford, Ireland, on 22 November 1761 and she was the third of six children born from Francis Bland and his mistress, Grace Phillips. Her older siblings are George Bland and Hester Bland, and her siblings are Lucy Bland, Francis Bland. Her paternal grandparents were Nathaniel Bland, Vicar General of Ardfert and Aghada, and Judge of the Prerogative Court of Dublin, Ireland, before April 1774, when she was 13, Dorotheas father, who worked as a stagehand, abandoned the family to marry an Irish actress. However, he continued to support the family by sending them meagre sums of money and this situation forced Dorothea to work to help her siblings. Her mother, an actress by profession, saw potential in Dorothea and she became a famous actress of the day and was said to have the most beautiful legs ever seen on the stage. She made her first appearance in 1777, in Dublin, as Phoebe in As You Like It, after acting elsewhere in Ireland she appeared in 1782 at Leeds, and other Yorkshire towns, in a variety of parts, including Lady Teazle in The School for Scandal. It was at time that she began calling herself Mrs Jordan. In 1785, she made her first London appearance at Drury Lane as Peggy in A Country Girl and her engagement at Drury Lane lasted until 1809, and she played a large variety of parts. But gradually it came to be recognized that her talent lay in comedy, her Lady Teazle, Rosalind. Audiences also enjoyed her performances in roles such as William in Rosina. During the rebuilding of Drury Lane she played at the Haymarket, here, in 1814, she made her last appearance on the London stage, and the following year, at Margate, retired altogether. She had an affair with her first manager, Richard Daly, the manager of the Theatre Royal, Cork, who was married, in England, she had a short lived affair with an army lieutenant, Charles Doyne, who proposed marriage. But she turned him down and went to work for the company operated by Tate Wilkinson. It was at this point she adopted the name Mrs. Jordan – a reference to her escape across the Irish Sea and she appeared at Wilkinsons York Circuit theatres, including The Theatre, Leeds, where she complained of uncomfortable working conditions. Shortly after her affair with Wilkinson was over, she began an affair with George Inchbald, according to Claire Tomalin, Dorotheas biographer, Dorothea would have married Inchbald, so greatly was she in love with him, but he never asked. Broken-hearted, she left him in 1786 to begin an affair with Sir Richard Ford, a police magistrate and she moved in with Ford when he promised to marry her
24.
The South Bank Show
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The South Bank Show is a television arts magazine show. It was originally produced by London Weekend Television and broadcast on ITV between 1978 and 2010, a new version of the series began on Sky Arts from 27 May 2012. Conceived, written and presented by former BBC arts broadcaster Melvyn Bragg, the programme was a replacement for Aquarius, the arts series which had been running since 1970. Presenter Melvyn Bragg was already known for his arts broadcasting on BBC television, notably Monitor. It first aired on 14 January 1978, covering many subjects, including Germaine Greer, Gerald Scarfe and it is the longest continuously running arts programme on UK television. From the beginning the intent was to mix high art. This has remained, and the programme has focused predominantly on art of the 20th. For much of its life, the show was produced by London Weekend Television for the ITV network, in May 2009, ITV announced that the show was to come to an end. On Monday 28 December 2009 the final edition of The South Bank Show was broadcast featuring The Royal Shakespeare Company as its subject, the show resumed airing in 2012. The programme has been awarded more than 110 awards, pat Gavins animated title sequences have won two BAFTAs. This is based on the theme from Paganinis 24th Caprice, the brand image of the programme is an animated version of a detail from Michelangelos Sistine Chapel ceiling painting, specifically the image of the Hand of God giving life to Adam. It shows the two hands meeting, generating a lightning bolt, the comedy series Dead Ringers often parodied The South Bank Show. It does this in a series of sketches called South Bank, in these sketches, Melvyn Bragg is Stan Marsh, Alan Yentob is Kyle Broflovski, Mark Lawson is Eric Cartman and Kenneth Branagh is Kenny McCormick. A sketch in The Smell of Reeves and Mortimer featured Vic Reeves as Melvyn Bragg presenting a feature on fictional folk singers Mulligan, Reeves depicts Bragg as an unlikely A-Team obsessive. Harry Enfields TV film Norbert Smith - a Life is an edition of The South Bank Show. Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchants second series of Extras featured a reference to an episode of The South Bank Show focused on madcap childrens television presenters Dick. Private Eye tends to parody Melvyn Braggs name, and Spitting Image would rather accentuate his nasal accent, Benny Hill once parodied Bragg in a 1978 episode of The Benny Hill Show as Melvyn Dragg. The name of the show was parodied, and it was called The South Blank Show
25.
Mary Shelley
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Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was an English novelist, short story writer, dramatist, essayist, biographer, and travel writer, best known for her Gothic novel Frankenstein, or, The Modern Prometheus. She also edited and promoted the works of her husband, the Romantic poet and her father was the political philosopher William Godwin, and her mother was the philosopher and feminist Mary Wollstonecraft. When Mary was four, her father married a neighbour, with whom, as her stepmother, in 1814, Mary began a romance with one of her fathers political followers, Percy Bysshe Shelley, whom she eventually married. Together with Marys stepsister Claire Clairmont, Mary and Shelley left for France, upon their return to England, Mary was pregnant with Percys child. Over the next two years, she and Percy faced ostracism, constant debt, and the death of their prematurely born daughter and they married in late 1816, after the suicide of Percy Shelleys first wife, Harriet. In 1816, the couple spent a summer with Lord Byron, John William Polidori, and Claire Clairmont near Geneva, Switzerland. The Shelleys left Britain in 1818 for Italy, where their second and third died before Mary Shelley gave birth to her last and only surviving child. In 1822, her husband drowned when his boat sank during a storm near Viareggio. A year later, Mary Shelley returned to England and from then on devoted herself to the upbringing of her son, the last decade of her life was dogged by illness, probably caused by the brain tumour that was to kill her at the age of 53. Recent scholarship has yielded a comprehensive view of Mary Shelley’s achievements. Mary Shelleys works often argue that cooperation and sympathy, particularly as practised by women in the family, were the ways to reform civil society. This view was a challenge to the individualistic Romantic ethos promoted by Percy Shelley. Mary Shelley was born as Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin in Somers Town, London and she was the second child of the feminist philosopher, educator, and writer Mary Wollstonecraft, and the first child of the philosopher, novelist, and journalist William Godwin. Wollstonecraft died of fever shortly after Mary was born. Godwin was left to bring up Mary, along with her older half-sister, Fanny Imlay, a year after Wollstonecrafts death, Godwin published his Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, which he intended as a sincere and compassionate tribute. However, because the Memoirs revealed Wollstonecrafts affairs and her illegitimate child, Mary Godwin read these memoirs and her mothers books, and was brought up to cherish her mothers memory. Marys earliest years were happy ones, judging from the letters of William Godwins housekeeper and nurse, but Godwin was often deeply in debt, feeling that he could not raise the children by himself, he cast about for a second wife. In December 1801, he married Mary Jane Clairmont, a woman with two young children of her own—Charles and Claire
26.
Maurice (Shelley)
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Maurice, or the Fishers Cot is a childrens story by the Romantic writer Mary Shelley. Written in 1820 for Laurette Tighe, a daughter of friends of Percy and Mary Shelley, Mary Shelley tried to have it published by her father, William Godwin, the text was lost until 1997, when a manuscript copy was discovered in Italy. Maurice tells the story of a boy searching for a home, the story is narrated in a melancholy tone from several points of view and focuses on the theme of loss, particularly the separation of parents and children. Shelley explored this partly autobiographical theme in works written at the same time, including her novel Mathilda. The storys straightforward language reflects that of the Romantic poet William Wordsworth, in 1814, the seventeen-year-old Mary Shelley ran off with Percy Bysshe Shelley to continental Europe, accompanied by Claire Clairmont, Marys stepsister. After six weeks of travelling, they returned to England but continued to live together, Mary returned pregnant with Percys child, but their infant daughter died soon after her premature birth. Percy was alienated from his family and received financial support from them. In 1816, Mary and Percy had a child, William. The same year, Claire Clairmont began an affair with the poet Lord Byron, the group spent the summer of 1817 with Byron at Lake Geneva, where Mary Shelley wrote Frankenstein. That fall, Percys wife, Harriet, committed suicide, and in December Percy, in September 1817, Mary and Percy had another child, Clara. The group traveled to Italy in early 1818 and they first surrendered Allegra to Byron in April, much to Claires distress. In August, Percy Shelley took Claire to see Allegra, at her request, Percy arrived in Venice, telling Byron he had the entire family. Mary was thus summoned to Venice to substantiate Percys story, however, baby Clara Shelley was sick and traveling made her even more ill. She died shortly after arriving in Venice, in the winter of 1818, Percy registered a child in Naples to himself and Mary, Elena Adelaide. However, it is unclear who this childs parents really were, in 1819, the group moved to Rome, where Mary and Percy Shelleys son William died. Mary Shelley had now lost all three of her children and was very depressed, Claire became increasingly concerned about Allegra, as Byron refused to allow her to see their daughter or reveal where she was. Mary, however, became pregnant again, with Percy Florence, both were poets and, like the Shelleys, were republicans and freethinkers. Lady Mountcashell referred to herself as Mrs. Mason after a character from Wollstonecrafts own childrens story Original Stories from Real Life, the couple had two children, Anna Laura Georgiana and Nerina, who quickly became attached to Mary and Claire
27.
Regent
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A regent is a person appointed to administer a state because the monarch is a minor, is absent or is incapacitated. The rule of a regent or regents is called a regency, a regent or regency council may be formed ad hoc or in accordance with a constitutional rule. Regent is sometimes a formal title, if the formally appointed regent is unavailable or cannot serve on a temporary basis, a Regent ad interim may be appointed to fill the gap. In a monarchy, a regent usually governs due to one of these reasons and this was the case in the Kingdom of Finland and the Kingdom of Hungary, where the royal line was considered extinct in the aftermath of World War I. In Iceland, the regent represented the King of Denmark as sovereign of Iceland until the country became a republic in 1944, in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, kings were elective, which often led to a fairly long interregnum. In the interim, it was the Roman Catholic Primate who served as the regent, in the small republic of San Marino, the two Captains Regent, or Capitani Reggenti, are elected semi-annually as joint heads of state and of government. Famous regency periods include that of the Prince Regent, later George IV of the United Kingdom, giving rise to terms such as Regency era. Strictly this period lasted from 1811 to 1820, when his father George III was insane, as of 1 December 2016, Liechtenstein is the only country with an active regency. The term regent may refer to lower than the ruler of a country. The term may be used in the governance of organisations, typically as an equivalent of director, some university managers in North America are called regents and a management board for a college or university may be titled the Board of Regents. The term regent is used for members of governing bodies of institutions such as the national banks of France. This type of group portrait was popular in Dutch Golden Age painting during the 17th century, in the Dutch East Indies, a regent was a native prince allowed to rule de facto colonized state as a regentschap. Consequently, in the state of Indonesia, the term regent is used in English to mean a bupati. Again in Belgium and France, Regent is the title of a teacher in a lower secondary school. In the Philippines, specifically, the University of Santo Tomas, the Father Regent and they also form the Council of Regents that serves as the highest administrative council of the university. In the Society of Jesus, a regent is a training to be a Jesuit. A regent in the Jesuits is often assigned to teach in a school or some other academic institution as part of the formation toward final vows, list of regents Viceroy, an individual who, in a colony or province, exercised the power of a monarch on his behalf
28.
Kenwood House
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Kenwood House is a former stately home, in Hampstead, London, on the northern boundary of Hampstead Heath. It served as a seat for the aristocratic Murray and Guinness families and had various tenants before it was left to the nation under the care of English Heritage, the original house dates from the early 17th century when it was known as Caen Wood House. The orangery was added in about 1700, in 1754 it was bought by William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield. He commissioned Robert Adam to remodel it from 1764–1779, Adam added the library to balance the orangery, and added the Ionic portico at the entrance. In 1793-6 George Saunders added two wings on the side, and the offices and kitchen buildings and brewery to the side. The 2nd Earl and Countess of Mansfield added a dairy to supply Kenwood House with milk, after two years of negotiations, the 6th Earl of Mansfield leased the house to the exiled Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia and his wife Countess Sophie of Merenberg in 1910. The furnishings had already sold by then, but some furniture has since been bought back. The paintings are from Iveaghs collection, part of the grounds were bought by the Kenwood Preservation Council in 1922, after there had been threats that it would be sold for building. In the late 1990s the house received approximately 150,000 visitors a year, there is also a new garden by Arabella Lennox-Boyd. One third of the estate is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and these are home to many birds and insects and the largest Pipistrelle bat roost in London. There are sculptures by Barbara Hepworth, Henry Moore and Eugène Dodeigne in the gardens near the house, in February 2007, English Heritage decided to abandon these concerts owing to restrictions placed on them after protests from some local residents. On 19 March 2008, it was announced that the concerts would return to a new location on the Pasture Ground within the Kenwood Estate, the house was closed for major renovations from 2012 until late 2013. The house was the subject of a Margaret Calkin James poster in the 1930s, the 1999 British feature film Notting Hill had a scene filmed here. Many scenes in the 2013 film Belle, in which William Murray figures as a character, are set in the house or its grounds, a scene from the 2016 novel Swing Time by Zadie Smith is set on the grounds of the estate. Others were not part of the Iveagh Bequest but were added to the collection after his death because of a connection with Kenwood House, there is also a collection of shoe buckles, jewellery and portrait miniatures. The exhibit opened 6 June 2013 in Little Rock, Arkansas at the Arkansas Arts Center, the Buildings of England London 4, North. English Heritage website for the house Staff
29.
Blue plaque
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The brainchild of British politician William Ewart in 1863, it is the oldest such scheme in the world. The worlds first blue plaques were erected in London in the 19th century to mark the homes and workplaces of famous people. This scheme continues to the present day, having been administered successively by the Society of Arts, the London County Council, the Greater London Council, many other plaque schemes have since been initiated in the United Kingdom. Some are restricted to a geographical area, others to a particular theme of historical commemoration. The plaques erected by these schemes are manufactured in a variety of designs, shapes, materials, the term blue plaque may be used narrowly to refer to the official English Heritage scheme, but is often used informally to encompass all similar schemes. There are also commemorative plaque schemes throughout the world such as those in Paris, Rome, Oslo, Dublin, and in cities in Australia, Canada, Russia. The forms these take vary, and they tend to be known as historical markers, the original blue plaque scheme was established by the Society of Arts in 1867, and since 1986 has been run by English Heritage. It is the oldest such scheme in the world, since 1984 English Heritage have commissioned Frank Ashworth to make the plaques which have then been inscribed by his wife, Sue, at their home in Cornwall. English Heritage plans to erect an average of twelve new blue plaques each year in London. After being conceived by politician William Ewart in 1863, the scheme was initiated in 1866 by Ewart, Henry Cole and the Society of Arts, the first plaque was unveiled in 1867 to commemorate Lord Byron at his birthplace,24 Holles Street, Cavendish Square. This house was demolished in 1889, the earliest blue plaque to survive, also put up in 1867, commemorates Napoleon III in King Street, St Jamess. Byron’s plaque was blue, but the colour was changed by the manufacturer Minton, in total the Society of Arts put up 35 plaques, fewer than half of which survive today. The Society only erected one plaque within the square-mile of the City of London, in 1879, it was agreed that the City of London Corporation would be responsible for erecting plaques within the City to recognise its jurisdictional independence. This demarcation has remained ever since, in 1901, the Society of Arts scheme was taken over by the London County Council, which gave much thought to the future design of the plaques. It was eventually decided to keep the shape and design of the Societys plaques, but to make them uniformly blue, with a laurel wreath. Though this design was used consistently from 1903 to 1938, some experimentation occurred in the 1920s, in 1921, the most common plaque design was revised, as it was discovered that glazed ceramic Doulton ware was cheaper than the encaustic formerly used. In 1938, a new design was prepared by an unnamed student at the LCCs Central School of Arts and Crafts and was approved by the committee. It omitted the decorative elements of earlier designs, and allowed for lettering to be better spaced and enlarged
30.
London Library
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The London Library is one of the worlds largest independent lending libraries, and one of the UKs leading literary institutions. It was founded in 1841 on the initiative of Thomas Carlyle and it is located at 14 St. Jamess Square, in the St Jamess area of the City of Westminster, London, which has been its home since 1845. Membership is open to all, on payment of an annual subscription, as of March 2015 the Library had 6,708 members. The London Library is a self-supporting, independent institution and it is a registered charity whose sole aim is the advancement of education, learning, and knowledge. It was originally incorporated by Royal Charter on 13 June 1933, on 6 July 2004, the Queen granted the Library a new Royal Charter, which revoked both the 1933 and 1968 charters. It has its own byelaws and the power to make or amend its rules and it has a royal patron, an elected president and vice presidents, and is administered by an elected board of a maximum of 15 trustees, including the Chairman and the Treasurer. The chief instigator in the Librarys foundation was Thomas Carlyle, carlyles eventual solution, with the support of a number of influential friends, was to call for the establishment of a private subscription library from which books could be borrowed. The Earl of Clarendon was the Librarys first President, Thackeray was its first auditor and Gladstone, the Belgian freedom fighter and former Louvain librarian Sylvain van de Weyer was a vice-president from 1848-1874. A vigorous and long-serving presence in later Victorian times was Richard Monckton-Milnes, later Lord Houghton, dickens was among the founder members. In more recent times, Lord Clark and T. S. Eliot have been among the Librarys presidents, and Sir Harold Nicolson, Sir Rupert Hart-Davis and the Hon Michael Astor have been Chairmen. Charles Hagberg Wright, who served as Secretary and Librarian of the Library from 1893 to 1940, is remembered as the architect of the London Library as it is today. In 1957 the Library suddenly received a demand from the Westminster City Council for rates, at that time, most publishers donated free copies of their books to the library. The final appeal was turned down by the Court of Appeal in 1959, an auction of manuscripts from many authors on 22 June 1960 raised £17,000 and £25,000 respectively, enough to clear debts and legal expenses of £20,000. The Queen and Queen Mother both gave some rare and valuable old books, in the 1990s, the Library was one of a number of academic and specialist libraries targeted by serial book thief William Jacques. The identification of rare books put up for auction as having been stolen from the Library led the police to investigate Jacques. Security measures at the Library have since been improved, the social sciences are more lightly covered. Pure and natural sciences, technology, medicine and law are not within the purview, although it has some books in all of those fields. Periodicals and annuals on a range of subjects are also held in the collections
31.
National Portrait Gallery, London
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The National Portrait Gallery is an art gallery in London housing a collection of portraits of historically important and famous British people. It was the first portrait gallery in the world when it opened in 1856, the gallery moved in 1896 to its current site at St Martins Place, off Trafalgar Square, and adjoining the National Gallery. It has been expanded twice since then, the National Portrait Gallery also has regional outposts at Beningbrough Hall in Yorkshire and Montacute House in Somerset. It is unconnected to the Scottish National Portrait Gallery in Edinburgh, the gallery is a non-departmental public body sponsored by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport. The gallery houses portraits of important and famous British people, selected on the basis of the significance of the sitter. The collection includes photographs and caricatures as well as paintings, drawings, one of its best-known images is the Chandos portrait, the most famous portrait of William Shakespeare although there is some uncertainty about whether the painting actually is of the playwright. Not all of the portraits are exceptional artistically, although there are self-portraits by William Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds, some, such as the group portrait of the participants in the Somerset House Conference of 1604, are important historical documents in their own right. Portraits of living figures were allowed from 1969, the three people largely responsible for the founding of the National Portrait Gallery are commemorated with busts over the main entrance. At centre is Philip Henry Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope, with his supporters on either side, Thomas Babington Macaulay, 1st Baron Macaulay and it was Stanhope who, in 1846 as a Member of Parliament, first proposed the idea of a National Portrait Gallery. It was not until his attempt, in 1856, this time from the House of Lords. With Queen Victorias approval, the House of Commons set aside a sum of £2000 to establish the gallery, as well as Stanhope and Macaulay, the founder Trustees included Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Ellesmere. It was the latter who donated the Chandos portrait to the nation as the gallerys first portrait, Carlyle became a trustee after the death of Ellesmere in 1857. For the first 40 years, the gallery was housed in locations in London. The first 13 years were spent at 29 Great George Street, there, the collection increased in size from 57 to 208 items, and the number of visitors from 5,300 to 34,500. In 1869, the moved to Exhibition Road and buildings managed by the Royal Horticultural Society. Following a fire in buildings, the collection was moved in 1885. This location was unsuitable due to its distance from the West End, condensation. Following calls for a new location to be found, the government accepted an offer of funds from the philanthropist William Henry Alexander, Alexander donated £60,000 followed by another £20,000, and also chose the architect, Ewan Christian
32.
Royal Society of Literature
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The Royal Society of Literature is a learned society. It was founded in 1820 by King George IV to reward literary merit, the societys first president was Thomas Burgess, Bishop of St Davids. Past fellows include Samuel Taylor Coleridge, J. R. R. Tolkien, yeats, Rudyard Kipling, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw, Arthur Koestler, Chinua Achebe, Robert Ardrey, and P. J. Kavanagh. Present Fellows include Margaret Atwood, David Hare, Kazuo Ishiguro, Hilary Mantel, Paul Muldoon, Zadie Smith, Nadeem Aslam, Sarah Waters and J. K. Rowling. A newly created fellow inscribes his or her name on the official roll using either Byrons pen or T. S. Eliots fountain pen. S. Pritchett Memorial Prize for short stories, from time to time it confers the honour and title of Companion of Literature to writers of particular note. Additionally the RSL can bestow its award of the Benson Medal for lifetime service in the field of literature, the RSL runs a membership scheme and offers a varied programme of events to members and the general public. The RSL also runs an outreach programme in collaboration with the literacy charity First Story. The society is a tenant at Londons Somerset House. The RSL administers two annual prizes, two awards, and two honours, through its prize programmes, the RSL supports new and established contemporary writers. The RSL Brookleaze Grants – a total of £5,000 is awarded annually to novelists, playwrights, poets or short story writers who need time away from their lives to write. The RSL Encore Awards - £10,000 for best second novel of the year, the RSL took over the administration of this award in 2016. The RSL Jerwood Awards for Non-Fiction – three annual awards, one of £10,000 and two of £5,000, to authors engaged on their first commissioned works of non-fiction. The RSL Ondaatje Prize – an annual award of £10,000 for a work of fiction, non-fiction or poetry. Pritchett Memorial Prize – an annual prize of £1,000 for the best unpublished short story of the year, the Benson Medal – awarded to those who have done sustained and outstanding service to literature. Companion of Literature – the highest honour that the Society can bestow upon a writer, the Council of the Royal Society of Literature is central to the election of new fellows, and directs the RSLs activities through its monthly meetings. They include most of the best novelists, short-story writers, poets, playwrights, biographers, historians, travel writers, literary critics, new fellows of the Royal Society of Literature are elected by its current fellows. To be nominated for fellowship, a writer must have published two works of merit, and nominations must be seconded by an RSL fellow
33.
English PEN
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English PEN is the founding centre of PEN International, the worldwide writers’ association. Established in 1921, the organisation promotes freedom of expression and literature across frontiers, English PEN is a registered charity in England & Wales, and is governed by a board of trustees that is elected from and by members. The current President of English PEN is Maureen Freely, a cast-iron sculpture entitled Witness, commissioned by English PEN to mark their 90th anniversary and created by Antony Gormley, stands outside the British Library in London. It depicts an empty chair, and is inspired by the used for thirty years by English PEN to represent imprisoned writers around the world. The memorial was unveiled on 13 December 2011
34.
Yom Kippur War
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The fighting mostly took place in the Sinai and the Golan Heights, territories that had been occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War of 1967. Egyptian President Anwar Sadat wanted also to reopen the Suez Canal, neither specifically planned to destroy Israel, although the Israeli leaders could not be sure of that. Egyptian and Syrian forces crossed ceasefire lines to enter the Sinai Peninsula, both the United States and the Soviet Union initiated massive resupply efforts to their respective allies during the war, and this led to a near-confrontation between the two nuclear superpowers. The war began with a massive and successful Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal, after crossing the cease-fire lines, Egyptian forces advanced virtually unopposed into the Sinai Peninsula. After three days, Israel had mobilized most of its forces and halted the Egyptian offensive, resulting in a military stalemate, the Syrians coordinated their attack on the Golan Heights to coincide with the Egyptian offensive and initially made threatening gains into Israeli-held territory. Within three days, however, Israeli forces had pushed the Syrians back to the ceasefire lines. The Israel Defense Forces then launched a four-day counter-offensive deep into Syria, within a week, Israeli artillery began to shell the outskirts of Damascus. He therefore ordered the Egyptians to go back on the offensive, on October 22 a United Nations–brokered ceasefire quickly unraveled, with each side blaming the other for the breach. By October 24, the Israelis had improved their positions considerably and completed their encirclement of Egypts Third Army and this development led to tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. As a result, a ceasefire was imposed cooperatively on October 25 to end the war. These changes paved the way for the subsequent peace process, the 1978 Camp David Accords that followed led to the return of the Sinai to Egypt and normalized relations—the first peaceful recognition of Israel by an Arab country. Egypt continued its drift away from the Soviet Union and left the Soviet sphere of influence entirely, the war was part of the Arab–Israeli conflict, an ongoing dispute that included many battles and wars since 1948, when the state of Israel was formed. During the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel had captured Egypts Sinai Peninsula, roughly half of Syrias Golan Heights, and the territories of the West Bank which had been held by Jordan since 1948. On June 19,1967, shortly after the Six-Day War, the Israeli government voted to return the Sinai to Egypt, the Arab position, as it emerged in September 1967 at the Khartoum Arab Summit, was to reject any peaceful settlement with the state of Israel. Prior to that, King Hussein of Jordan had stated that he could not rule out a possibility of a real, permanent peace between Israel and the Arab states. Armed hostilities continued on a limited scale after the Six-Day War and escalated into the War of Attrition, a ceasefire was signed in August 1970. President Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt died in September 1970 and he was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. A peace initiative led by both Sadat and UN intermediary Gunnar Jarring was tabled in 1971 and it resembled a proposal independently made by Moshe Dayan
35.
New Statesman
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The New Statesman is a British political and cultural magazine published in London. Founded as a review of politics and literature on 12 April 1913, it was connected then with Sidney and Beatrice Webb. The magazine, which today is a hybrid, has, according to its present self-description. The longest-serving editor was Kingsley Martin, the current editor is Jason Cowley, who assumed the post at the end of September 2008. The magazine has recognized and published new writers and critics. Its contributors have included John Maynard Keynes, Bertrand Russell, Virginia Woolf, Christopher Hitchens, historically, the magazine was sometimes affectionately referred to as The Staggers because of crises in funding, ownership and circulation. The nickname is now used as the title of its politics blog, Circulation peaked in the mid-1960s but has surged in recent years. The magazine had an average circulation of 34,025 in 2016. Traffic to the website reached a new record high in June 2016, with 27 million page views. In September 2014, as part of its expansion, the magazine launched two new websites, the urbanism-focused CityMetric and May2015. com, a data and polling site. The New Statesman was founded in 1913 by Sidney and Beatrice Webb with the support of George Bernard Shaw and its first editor was Clifford Sharp, who remained editor until 1928. Desmond MacCarthy joined the paper in 1913 and became literary editor, J C Squire edited the magazine when Sharp was on wartime duties during the First World War. It sold a phenomenal 75,000 copies by the end of the year, the New York Times reprinted it as America began its lengthy debate on entering what was then called the European War. During Sharps last two years in the post, from around 1926, he was debilitated by chronic alcoholism, Lloyd stood in after Sharps departure until the appointment of Kingsley Martin as editor in 1930 – a position Martin was to hold for 30 years. Although the Webbs and most Fabians were closely associated with the Labour Party, in 1931 the New Statesman merged with the Liberal weekly The Nation and Athenaeum and changed its name to the New Statesman and Nation, which it kept until 1964. It also absorbed The Week-end Review in 1934, the Competition feature, in which readers submitted jokes and often parodies and pastiches of the work of famous authors, became one of the most famous parts of the magazine. Most famously, Graham Greene won second prize in a challenge to parody his own work, during the 1930s, Martins New Statesman moved markedly to the left politically. It became strongly anti-fascist and pacifist, opposing British rearmament, after the 1938 Anschluss, Martin wrote, Today if Mr
36.
The Sunday Times
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The Sunday Times is the largest-selling British national newspaper in the quality press market category. It is published by Times Newspapers Ltd, a subsidiary of News UK, Times Newspapers also publishes The Times. The two papers were founded independently and have been under common ownership only since 1966 and they were bought by News International in 1981. The Sunday Times occupies a dominant position in the quality Sunday market, its circulation of just under one million equals that of its rivals, The Sunday Telegraph and The Observer. While some other national newspapers moved to a format in the early 2000s. It sells more than twice as many copies as its sister paper, The Times, the Sunday Times has acquired a reputation for the strength of its investigative reporting – much of it by its award-winning Insight team – and also for its wide-ranging foreign coverage. It has a number of writers, columnists and commentators including Jeremy Clarkson. It was Britains first multi-section newspaper and remains substantially larger than its rivals, a typical edition contains the equivalent of 450 to 500 tabloid pages. Besides the main section, it has standalone News Review, Business, Sport, Money. There are three magazines and two tabloid supplements and it publishes The Sunday Times Bestseller List of books in Britain, and a list of the 100 Best Companies to Work For, focusing on UK companies. It also organises The Sunday Times Oxford Literary Festival, held annually, and The Sunday Times Festival of Education, the paper began publication on 18 February 1821 as The New Observer, but from 21 April its title was changed to the Independent Observer. On 20 October 1822 it was reborn as The Sunday Times, in January 1823, White sold the paper to Daniel Whittle Harvey, a radical politician. The paper was bought in 1887 by Alice Cornwell, whose father George Cornwell made a fortune in mining in Australia and she then sold it in 1893 to Frederick Beer, who already owned Observer. Beer appointed his wife, Rachel Sassoon Beer, as editor and she was already editor of Observer – the first woman to run a national newspaper – and continued to edit both titles until 1901. There was a change of ownership in 1903, and then in 1915 the paper was bought by William Berry and his brother, Gomer Berry, later ennobled as Lord Camrose. In 1943, the Kemsley Newspapers Group was established, with The Sunday Times becoming its flagship paper, at this time, Kemsley was the largest newspaper group in Britain. On 12 November 1945, Ian Fleming, who later created James Bond, joined the paper as foreign manager, the following month, circulation reached 500,000. On 28 September 1958 the paper launched a separate Review section, in 1959 the Kemsley group was bought by Lord Thomson, and in October 1960 circulation reached one million for the first time
37.
Samuel Pepys Club
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The Samuel Pepys Club is a London club founded in 1903 to do honour to the memory of Samuel Pepys, the English naval administrator and Member of Parliament now best known as a diarist. Wheatley, indexer and editor of the edition of the Diary published between 1894 and 1899. The response of admirers of Pepys was enthusiastic, and the first dinner was held on 1 December 1903 at Clothworkers Hall and they listened to music arranged by Sir Frederick Bridge, consisting of songs and of instrumental music on the flageolet, recorder, and trumpet marine. One of the quotations read from the Diary was thoroughly appropriate to this meeting of the Club. Our entertainment very good, a hall, good company. The first president was Henry B, Wheatley, assisted by his brother Benjamin R. Wheatley acting as secretary, and by Sir DArcy Power as treasurer. In 1953, fifty years after its foundation, the Club established a committee charged with the general conduct of the affairs. It includes four officers, eight elected members, and four ex-officio members, since 1985, the president of the Club has been John Montagu, 11th Earl of Sandwich. The Club has no fixed club house nor building and its meetings and dinners are held in diverse venues in and around London. An invited speaker gives an address on some aspect of Pepyss life, recent subjects have included, Pepyss Musical World, Pepys and Trinity House, and Pepys and St Pauls School. Several outings to Pepysian places of interest are also organized round the year, the Club initially aimed at bringing together those who had made significant academic contributions to Pepysian studies, and the initial membership was restricted to 50. Due to demand, this number was increased to 70. The first female member was elected in 1952, membership was extended in 2003 to 140 UK members, plus 14 overseas members. Anyone with a personal interest in Pepys and his times qualifies for election on proposal by an existing member. Membership is eclectic, ranging from bishops, historians, navy officers, and writers, to lawyers, surgeons and it was first presented in 2003 to mark the centenary of the Club and the tercentenary of Pepyss death. The first recipient was Claire Tomalin for her book Samuel Pepys, The Unequalled Self
38.
Baillie Gifford Prize
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The Baillie Gifford Prize for Non-Fiction is an annual British prize for the best non-fiction writing in the English language. It was founded in 1999 following the demise of the NCR Book Award, with its motto All the best stories are true, the prize covers current affairs, history, politics, science, sport, travel, biography, autobiography and the arts. The competition is open to authors of any nationality whose work is published in the UK in English, the prize was originally named after the English 18th-century author and lexicographer Samuel Johnson. From its inception until 2008 it was named in full the BBC FOUR Samuel Johnson Prize, in 2009 it was renamed as BBC Samuel Johnson Prize for Non-Fiction and managed by BBC Two. The new name reflected the BBCs commitment to broadcasting coverage of the Prize on BBC2, in 2016 the name was changed once more to the Baillie Gifford Prize for Non-Fiction, after its new primary sponsor, the Edinburgh-based investment management company Baillie Gifford. It continues to be administered by the Board of the not-for-profit company, prior to the 2009 name change, the monetary prize amount was £30,000 for the winner, and each finalist received £2500. After 2009 the monetary prize was £20,000 for the winner, in February 2012, the steering committee for the prize announced that a new sponsor had been found for the prize, an anonymous philanthropist, and that the prize was to be raised to £25,000. In 2015, funding for the prize was arranged by the Blavatnik Family foundation, in 2016, under new sponsors Baillie Gifford, the prize money was restored to £30,000 for the winner. The prize considers itself to be among the most prestigious, in the category in the UK. The winner, announced on 15 November 2016, was Philippe Sands East West Street, the longlist was announced on 21 September and the shortlist was announced 17 October. The winner was announced on 2 November as Steve Silbermans Neurotribes, The Legacy of Autism, the longlist for the 2015 prize was announced on 22 September and the shortlist was announced 11 October. The winner was announced on 4 November 2014 as Helen Macdonalds H is for Hawk, the longlist was announced on 1 September 2014. The shortlist was announced on 8 October 2014, the winner was Lucy Hughes-Halletts The Pike, a biography of Italian poet Gabriele DAnnunzio. The longlist, which was announced on 6 September 2013, featured 18 books, the Guardian reported that this year, judges showed a preference for history and biography, at the expense of works in science. On 30 September, judges announced the shortlist, the winner was Wade Davis for Into the Silence, The Great War, Mallory and the Conquest of Everest The longlist was announced 17 September 2012, the shortlist was announced 5 October. The winner was announced 12 November, the monetary prize for 2012 was £20,000 for the winner. The shortlist was announced 14 June 2011, the shortlist was announced 26 May. The shortlist was announced in late May, the judges announced the winner of the prize at an awards event at Kings Place, London on 30 June
39.
Magdalene College, Cambridge
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Magdalene College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college was founded in 1428 as a Benedictine hostel, in coming to be known as Buckingham College. Magdalene College has some of the grandest benefactors including Britains premier noble the Duke of Norfolk, however the refoundation was largely the work of Thomas Audley, Lord Chancellor under Henry VIII. Audley also gave the college its motto—garde ta foy, audleys successors in the Mastership and as benefactors of the College were, however, prone to dire ends, several benefactors were arraigned at various stages on charges of high treason and executed. The colleges most famous alumnus is Samuel Pepys, whose papers and books were donated to the college upon his death, the college boasts a portrait of the famous diarist by Peter Lely, which hangs in the Hall. Magdalene is noted for its style, it boasts a well-regarded candlelit formal hall and was the last all-male college in Oxford or Cambridge to admit women in 1988. This change resulted in protests by some undergraduates, including the wearing of black armbands. Magdalenes old buildings are representative of the colleges ramshackle growth from a monks foundation into a centre of education and it is also distinctive in that most of the old buildings are in brick rather than stone. Magdalene Street divides the most ancient courts from more recent developments, one of the accommodation blocks in the newer part of the college was built by Edwin Lutyens in the early 1930s. Opened in 2005, Cripps Court, on Chesterton Road, features new undergraduate rooms, Magdalene remains, despite this 20th-century expansion, one of the smaller colleges within the University, numbering some 300 undergraduates and an expanding postgraduate community. Magdalene College was first founded in 1428 as Monks Hostel, which hosted Benedictine student monks, the secluded location of the hostel was chosen because it was separated from the town centre by the River Cam and protected by the Cambridge Castle. The main buildings of the college were first constructed in the 1470s under the leadership of John de Wisbech, under the patronage of Henry Stafford, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, the institution was renamed Buckingham College. In the 16th century, the Church of England broke away from the Papacy, with the subsequent Dissolution of the Monasteries, the parent abbey of Buckingham College, Crowland Abbey, was dissolved. However, the college remained in operation, walden Abbey, one of the Benedictine abbeys associated with Buckingham College, came into the possession of Thomas Audley after the Dissolution of the Monasteries. In 1542, Audley refounded Buckingham College as the College of Saint Mary Magdalene, derived from Audley were the arms of Magdalene, including the motto Garde Ta Foy, and the wyvern as the crest. Thomas Audley died in 1544 aged 56, only two years after he re-founded the college and he donated to the college seven acres of property at Aldgate in London, which was his reward from Henry VIII for disposing of Anne Boleyn. This property would have brought enormous income had it been retained by the college, however, under the conspiracy of the Elizabethan banker Benedict Spinola, the property was permanently alienated to the Crown in 1574. The transaction involved Spinola luring the master and fellows of the time to accept an increase in the rental from £9 to £15 a year in exchange for the property
40.
Lucy Cavendish College, Cambridge
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Lucy Cavendish College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge which admits only postgraduates and undergraduates aged 21 or over. It only accepts students and fellows, making the college one of only three women-only university colleges in England. The college is named in honour of Lucy Cavendish, who campaigned for the reform of womens education, at the time there were only two womens colleges in Cambridge, Girton and Newnham, insufficient for the large and growing numbers of female academic staff in the university. The college was named in honour of Lucy Caroline Cavendish, a pioneer of womens education and she was succeeded by Kate Bertram until 1979, Phyllis Hetzel, Dame Anne Warburton, Baroness Perry of Southwark, and Dame Veronica Sutherland. The current and 8th President of Lucy Cavendish is Jackie Ashley, for the first few years of the colleges existence it occupied rooms first in Silver Street and then in Northampton Street. In 1970 it moved to its current site on the corner of Madingley Road and Lady Margaret Road, near Westminster College and St Johns College, which had provided some of the land. The building was renamed Marshall House in his honour and used for student accommodation until 2001 when it was converted back to its original layout, meanwhile, the majority of the colleges buildings, including Warburton Hall and the library, were completed in the 1990s. Lucy Cavendish has over 350 students, approximately 40% of whom are undergraduates, the majority of its undergraduates have applied directly, but in comparison to the university-wide averages the college makes proportionately more offers to the universitys pool applicants. The college web site states that Students from every corner of the UK mix with students from around the world, Students with ‘Access’ qualifications interact with students who have studied for A-levels and the International Baccalaureate. Former bankers, singers, journalists and police officers mix with recent graduates of universities from around the world, women come at any age to study any subject offered by the University. D
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Doctor of Letters
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Doctor of Letters is an academic degree, a higher doctorate which, in some countries, may be considered to be beyond the Ph. D. and equal to the Doctor of Science. It is awarded in many countries by universities and learned bodies in recognition of achievement in the humanities, original contribution to the arts or scholarship. When awarded without an application by the conferee, it is awarded as an honorary degree, the Litt. D. degree is awarded to candidates whose record of published work and research shows conspicuous ability and originality and constitutes a distinguished and sustained achievement. University committee and board approval is required, and candidates must provide documented mastery of an area or field. The degree may also be awarded honoris causa to such individuals as the university or the body in question deems worthy of this highest academic award. At the University of Oxford, the degree was established in 1900 as part of the development of research degrees that began with the introduction of the B. Litt. and B. Sc. degrees in 1895. Up until that point, Oxford had focused on teaching, with the doctorates, such as those in divinity. Degree, Oxford eventually created its doctor of philosophy degree in 1915, deliberately using a distinctive English, rather than a Latin, title, the D. Phil. became an accelerated, supervised, lower-status degree to the D. Litt. When it was established in 1900, the Oxford doctor of letters, the length of the required number of terms changed over the years, depending on the prior Oxford degree that a candidate held, and the requirements became more specific. By 2015, The Oxford University Examination Regulations called for a faculty board at Oxford to appoint judges to consider the evidence submitted by any candidate, between 1923 and 2016, Oxford awarded 219 D. Litt. Degrees, of which 196 were awarded to men and 23 to women, among the six higher doctoral degrees at Oxford, the D. Litt. Comprised 27. 5% of the doctorates awarded during this 93-year period. As of June 2016, the Oxford D. Litt. has been suspended, in the United States, the degree is often an honorary degree conferred on those who have contributed to the humanities or society. There is, however, at least one earned D. Litt, programme at Drew University, where the degree requires 36 graduate credit hours post-Masters and a successfully prepared and defended nine-credit doctoral dissertation. In France the doctorat is awarded with a speciality, but there is no official list of these, candidates for a doctorat in literature are awarded a Doctorat ès lettres, abbreviated Dr ès l. There is a degree, the Habilitation à diriger des recherches. In literature, the candidates must also present a new and unpublished work, the habilitation allows to apply for a position of professor in French universities. Before the 1950s, the now-abolished Doctorat dÉtat degree was called Doctorat ès lettres
