1.
Film crew
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A film crew is a group of people hired by a production company for the purpose of producing a film or motion picture. The crew is distinguished from the cast as the cast are understood to be the actors who appear in front of the camera or provide voices for characters in the film. The crew is also separate from the producers as the producers are the ones who own a portion of either the company or the films intellectual property rights. A film crew is divided into different departments, each of which specializes in an aspect of the production. Motion picture projects have three stages, development, production and distribution. Television crew positions are derived from those of film crew, the director is considered to be a separate entity, not within the film crews departmental structure. Though directors wield a great deal of power, they are subordinate to the films producer or producers. Some directors, especially more established ones, take on many of the roles of a producer, second unit director The second unit director is responsible for overseeing the photography assigned to the second unit, which can range from minor insert shots to large stunt sequences. The second unit director position is filled by a member of the production. Music director In India-based movie productions, many of which are musicals, the role involves supervising the arrangement, recording and mastering of film music along with conducting and orchestration. Writer Person or persons who write a film script, either an original script or adapted from another written work, in which case the original work and author may also be credited. Production is generally not considered a department as such, but rather as a series of functional groups, producer A film producer creates the conditions for film-making. The producer initiates, coordinates, supervises, and controls matters such as raising, hiring key personnel. The producer is involved throughout all phases of the making process from development to completion of a project. There may be producers on a film who may take a role in a number of areas, such as development. Today, however, the title has become ambiguous, particularly in feature films, since the 1980s, it has become increasingly common for the line producer to be given the title of executive producer, while the initiating producer takes the produced by credit. On other projects, the reverse happens, with the producer taking the produced by credit. So the two credits have become effectively interchangeable, with no precise definition, line producer The line producer is the liaison between the studio or producer and the production manager, responsible for managing the production budget
2.
Film stock
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Film stock is an analog medium that is used for recording motion pictures or animation. It is a strip or sheet of transparent plastic film base coated on one side with an emulsion containing microscopically small light-sensitive silver halide crystals. The sizes and other characteristics of the crystals determine the sensitivity, contrast, the emulsion will gradually darken if left exposed to light, but the process is too slow and incomplete to be of any practical use. Instead, a short exposure to the image formed by a camera lens is used to produce only a very slight chemical change. This creates an invisible latent image in the emulsion, which can be developed into a visible photograph. In addition to light, all films are sensitive to X-rays. Most are at least slightly sensitive to ultraviolet light. Some special-purpose films are sensitive into the region of the spectrum. In black-and-white photographic film there is one layer of silver salts. When the exposed grains are developed, the salts are converted to metallic silver. Color film has at least three sensitive layers, dyes, which adsorb to the surface of the silver salts, make the crystals sensitive to different colors. Typically the blue-sensitive layer is on top, followed by the green, during development, the exposed silver salts are converted to metallic silver, just as with black-and-white film. Because the by-products are created in direct proportion to the amount of exposure and development, following development, the silver is converted back to silver salts in the bleach step. It is removed from the film in the fix step, fixing leaves behind only the formed color dyes, which combine to make up the colored visible image. Later color films, like Kodacolor II, have as many as 12 emulsion layers, early motion picture experiments in the 1880s were performed using a fragile paper roll film, with which it was difficult to view a single, continuously moving image without a complex apparatus. The first transparent and flexible film base material was celluloid, which was discovered and refined for use by John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin. Eastman Kodak made celluloid film commercially available in 1889, Thomas Henry Blair, the stock had a frosted base to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted light. By November 1891 William Dickson, at Edisons laboratory, was using Blairs stock for Kinetoscope experiments, Blairs company supplied film to Edison for five years
3.
Camera magazine
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A camera magazine is a light-tight chamber or pair of chambers designed to hold film and move motion picture film stock before and after it has been exposed in the camera. In most movie cameras, the magazine is a piece of equipment. Many still photo cameras also have removable camera magazines, a film cartridge serves the same function, but is usually not reusable. In 16 mm filmmaking, most magazines are designed to accommodate up to 400 feet of film stock, use of 1000 foot magazines on Steadicam tends to be rare due to the larger amount of shifting weight and the greater total weight of the camera. All magazines are composed of a feed or pay-out side, in which the film is held before exposure, furthermore, in between these two sides there are always two separate slots or throats where the film exits and then re-enters the magazine. These must also be designed to be enough to allow the film to exit the magazine without letting any light into the magazine itself. Various types of magazines handle the film in between the two sides differently, another major categorization is the type of design, is the magazine one chamber or two chambers. If the latter, are the two horizontal or axial to each other, cameras with the single chamber magazine design include all Panavision and Moviecam cameras, most 35 mm Arri cameras, and all older 16 mm Arri cameras. Some old cameras, such as the Mitchell, have two separate chambers horizontal to each other, which looks similar to a one chamber design. More popular today in two design, however, are two chamber axial magazines, where the feed and take-up rolls are stacked one atop the other. Cameras with this design in 16 mm include the Aaton and Arri SR models. Because of the length of motion picture film, the film usually is wound around a core, therefore, the loading of motion picture film must be done in a dark room or light-tight changing bag by the clapper loader. As the loader cannot see what he is doing, the loader must already be familiar with the prior to loading a hot roll. When learning, usually a loader will start by practicing with unusably fogged rolls in light, the advantage of using a two chambered roll becomes most apparent when loading. Since each chamber is light-tight, a loader only needs to load the feed side in darkness - once that chamber is secured, the remainder of the loading can take place in light. The small amount of film which is exposed on the side would not be used for exposure under any design. This can be an advantage when filming requires reloading that takes only seconds. Virtually all magazines are designed for the side to contain film stock wound with the emulsion facing inwards
4.
Clapperboard
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The sharp clap noise that the clapperboard makes can be identified easily on the audio track, and the shutting of the clapstick can be identified easily on the separate visual track. The two tracks can then be precisely synchronised by matching the sound and movement. Other names for the clapperboard include clapper, clapboard, clacker, slate, slate board, slapperboard, sync slate, time slate, sticks, board, smart slate, dumb slate and sound marker. When a movies sound and picture are out of synchronization, this is known as lip flap, the clapperboard is the combination of the chalkboard slate that holds information identifying the next scene and the clapstick which is used to align sound and picture. In the early days of film, one person would hold a slate for the camera with the scene information, the combination of the two into one unit made it possible for one person to perform both tasks. Traditional clapperboards consisted of a slate and a hinged clapstick attached to the top of the slate. Modern clapperboards generally use a pair of wooden sticks atop whiteboard or translucent acrylic glass slates which do not require additional lighting from the side to be legible. Smart slates or digislates are electronic SMPTE time code versions with LED numbers, the clapsticks traditionally have diagonally interleaved lines of black and white to ensure a clear visual of the clap in most lighting conditions. In recent years sticks with calibrated color stripes have become available, in some productions, particularly those created in the digital domain, electronically superimposed versions of a clapperboard have supplanted the real thing. In use, the details of the next take are written on the slate of the clapperboard. g, scene 24, C, take 3, European, slate number, take number, e. g. slate 256, take 3C. This is generally not as great a concern with short films, while these are usually fairly obvious once a system has been agreed upon, the script supervisor is usually considered the final arbiter in the event of an unclear situation. A verbal identification of the numbers, known either as voice slate or announcement, occasionally, instead of preparing an actual slate, a voice slate will be announced and then the actor will clap their hands together, to provide the sync mark. Sometimes a tail slate or end slate is filmed at the end of a take, a clapper board is generally used to identify all takes on a production, even takes that do not require synchronization, such as MOS takes. When a slate is used to mark an MOS take, the slate is held open, with a hand blocking the sticks, or closed. The clapper was invented by F. W. Thring, who was head of Efftee Studios in Melbourne, some mention that Efftee was not founded until 1931, not in the 1920s as sometimes stated. However, the date of Efftees founding does not assume the start of F. W. Thrings involvement in the industry, consider the start of the Australian film industry with 1906s The Story of the Kelly Gang, which was the first feature length narrative film in the world. The director of film, Charles Tait, was associated with J. C. The formers production company, J. & N. Tait, F. W. Thring was managing director of J. C. Williamson Films in 1918
5.
35 mm film
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35 mm film is the film gauge most commonly used for motion pictures and chemical still photography. The name of the gauge refers to the width of the photographic film, the standard negative pulldown for movies is four perforations per frame along both edges, which results in 16 frames per foot of film. For still photography, the frame has eight perforations on each side. This resulted in cameras, projectors, and other equipment having to be calibrated to each gauge, the 35 mm width, originally specified as 1.375 inches, was introduced in 1892 by William Dickson and Thomas Edison, using film stock supplied by George Eastman. The gauge has been versatile in application, Eastman Kodak, Fujifilm and Agfa-Gevaert are some companies which offered 35 mm films. Today Kodak is the last remaining manufacturer of motion picture film and it is difficult to compare the quality of film to digital media but a good estimate would be about 20.8 million total pixels would equal one 35 millimeter high quality color frame of film. In 1880, George Eastman began to manufacture gelatin dry plates in Rochester. Along with W. H. Walker, Eastman invented a holder for a roll of picture-carrying gelatin layer coated paper, hannibal Goodwins invention of nitrocellulose film base in 1887 was the first transparent, flexible film. With the advent of film, Thomas Alva Edison quickly set out on his invention, the Kinetoscope. The Kinetoscope was a loop system intended for one-person viewing. Edison, along with assistant W. K. L. Dickson, followed that up with the Kinetophone, beginning in March 1892, Eastman and then, from April 1893 into 1896, New Yorks Blair Camera Co. supplied Edison with film stock. Edisons aperture defined a single frame of film at 4 perforations high, a court judgment in March 1902 invalidated Edisons claim, allowing any producer or distributor to use the Edison 35 mm film design without license. Filmmakers were already doing so in Britain and Europe, where Edison had failed to file patents, at the time, film stock was usually supplied unperforated and punched by the filmmaker to their standards with perforation equipment. A variation developed by the Lumière Brothers used a circular perforation on each side of the frame towards the middle of the horizontal axis.33 aspect ratio. Spehr describes the importance of these developments, The early acceptance of 35 mm as a standard had momentous impact on the development and spread of cinema. The film format was introduced into still photography as early as 1913 but first became popular with the launch of the Leica camera, created by Oskar Barnack in 1925. The costly image-forming silver compounds in a film stocks emulsion meant from the start that 35 mm filmmaking was to be a hobby with a high barrier to entry for the public at large. Furthermore, the film base of all early film stock was highly flammable
6.
Film perforations
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Film perforations, also known as perfs, are the holes placed in the film stock during manufacturing and used for transporting and steadying the film. Films may have different types of perforations depending on film gauge, film format, perforations are also used as a standard measuring reference within certain camera systems to refer to the size of the frame. Some formats are referred to in terms of the ratio perforations per frame/gauge size to provide a way of denoting size. For instance, 35mm Academy is also known as 4 perf-35mm, VistaVision is 8 perf-35mm, the long-time standard Todd-AO70 mm film is 5 perf-70mm, one of the characteristics of perforations is their pitch. This is the measurement of the distance between the tops of two sequential perforations, for motion picture 35 mm film and 16 mm film, there are two different pitches—short pitch and long pitch. For 35 mm film these are 0.1866 and 0.1870, when cellulose acetate film was developed, which does not shrink, two forms were produced for compatibility with existing equipment. Additionally, for 35 mm film only, there are different shapes for these perforations. BH perforations are used on negative film and have straight tops and bottoms with outward curving sides. The BH perforation is a circle of approximately diameter 0.110, the corners used to be sharp, but were slightly rounded in 1989 by 0.005 to give them greater strength. The BH1866 perforation, or BH perforation with a pitch of 0.1866, is the standard for negative. The BH1870 perforation, or BH perforation with a pitch of 0.1870, was the standard for positive prints intended for direct projection. KS perfs are rectangular with rounded corners, and measure 0.0780 in height by 0.1100 in width, KS perforations were once recommended for negative and intermediate films, too, but only the Eastern Bloc countries adopted KS for these uses. The Western Bloc countries maintained BH perforations for negative and intermediate films and this was one of the very few instances where a Western Bloc recommendation and standard was adopted by the Eastern Bloc, but was wholly rejected by the very bloc which proposed its adoption. To this day, all Western Bloc professional cameras employ BH perforations, the increased height also means that the image registration was considerably less accurate than with BH perfs, which remain the standard for negatives. The KS1870 perforation, or KS perforation with a pitch of 0.1870, is the standard for release prints as well as for 135 still camera film. 65/70 mm, the professional standard, was created many years after KS perforations had been recommended for negative as well as positive applications. Consequently, 65/70 mm uses only KS perforations for all applications, negative, intermediate and positive.1100 and this gave it longer projection life and also improved registration. One of its applications was usage in Technicolors dye imbibition printing
7.
Negative (photography)
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In the case of color negatives, the colors are also reversed into their respective complementary colors. Typical color negatives have a dull orange tint due to an automatic color-masking feature that ultimately results in improved color reproduction. Negatives are normally used to make prints on photographic paper by projecting the negative onto the paper with a photographic enlarger or making a contact print. The paper is also darkened in proportion to its exposure to light, so a second reversal results which restores light, negatives were once commonly made on a thin sheet of glass rather than a plastic film, and some of the earliest negatives were made on paper. It is incorrect to call an image a negative solely because it is on a transparent material, transparent prints can be made by printing a negative onto special positive film, as is done to make traditional motion picture film prints for use in theaters. Some films used in cameras are designed to be developed by reversal processing, positives on film or glass are known as transparencies or diapositives, and if mounted in small frames designed for use in a slide projector or magnifying viewer they are commonly called slides. A positive image is a normal image, a negative image is a total inversion, in which light areas appear dark and vice versa. A negative color image is additionally color-reversed, with red areas appearing cyan, greens appearing magenta and blues appearing yellow, film negatives usually have less contrast, but a wider dynamic range, than the final printed positive images. The contrast typically increases when they are printed onto photographic paper, when negative film images are brought into the digital realm, their contrast may be adjusted at the time of scanning or, more usually, during subsequent post-processing. Film for cameras that use the 35 mm still format is sold as a strip of emulsion-coated and perforated plastic spooled in a light-tight cassette. Before each exposure, a mechanism inside the camera is used to pull an unexposed area of the out of the cassette. When all exposures have been made the strip is rewound into the cassette, after the film is chemically developed, the strip shows a series of small negative images. It is usually cut into sections for easier handling. Each of these images may be referred to as a negative. They are the images, from which all positive prints will derive. However, when an image is created from a negative image a positive image results. This makes most chemical-based photography a two-step process, which uses negative film, special films and development processes have been devised so that positive images can be created directly on the film, these are called positive, or slide, or reversal films and reversal processing. Scanning film negatives at the Wayback Machine NegaTIV -. -
8.
Kodak
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Eastman Kodak Company, commonly referred to as Kodak, is an American technology company that produces imaging products with its historic basis on photography. The company is headquartered in Rochester, New York and is incorporated in New Jersey, Kodak provides packaging, functional printing, graphic communications and professional services for businesses around the world. Its main business segments are Print Systems, Enterprise Inkjet Systems, Micro 3D Printing and Packaging, Software and Solutions and it is best known for photographic film products. Kodak was founded by George Eastman and Henry A, during most of the 20th century, Kodak held a dominant position in photographic film. The companys ubiquity was such that its Kodak moment tagline entered the lexicon to describe a personal event that was demanded to be recorded for posterity. Kodak began to struggle financially in the late 1990s, as a result of the decline in sales of photographic film, as a part of a turnaround strategy, Kodak began to focus on digital photography and digital printing, and attempted to generate revenues through aggressive patent litigation. In January 2012, Kodak filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. In February 2012, Kodak announced that it would stop making digital cameras, pocket video cameras and digital picture frames, in January 2013, the Court approved financing for Kodak to emerge from bankruptcy by mid 2013. Kodak sold many of its patents for approximately $525,000,000 to a group of companies under the names Intellectual Ventures, on September 3,2013, the company emerged from bankruptcy having shed its large legacy liabilities and exited several businesses. Personalized Imaging and Document Imaging are now part of Kodak Alaris, on March 12,2014, it announced that the board of directors elected Jeffrey J. Clarke as chief executive officer and a member of its board of directors. As late as 1976, Kodak commanded 90% of film sales, Japanese competitor Fujifilm entered the U. S. market with lower-priced film and supplies, but Kodak did not believe that American consumers would ever desert its brand. Kodak passed on the opportunity to become the film of the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics, Fuji won these sponsorship rights. Fuji opened a plant in the U. S. and its aggressive marketing. Fuji went from a 10% share in the early 1990s to 17% in 1997, fujis films soon also found a competitive edge in higher-speed negative films, with a tighter grain structure. The complaint was lodged by the United States with the World Trade Organization, on January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the film market in Japan. Although Kodak developed a camera in 1975, the first of its kind. In the 1990s, Kodak planned a journey to move to digital technology. CEO George M. C. Fisher reached out to Microsoft, Apples pioneering QuickTake consumer digital cameras, introduced in 1994, had the Apple label but were produced by Kodak
9.
Fujifilm
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Fujifilm Holdings Corporation, better known as Fujifilm or simply Fuji, stylized as FUJiFILM, is a Japanese multinational photography and imaging company headquartered in Tokyo. Fuji Photo Film Co. Ltd. was established in 1934 with the aim of being the first Japanese producer of photographic films, over the following 10 years, the company produced photographic films, motion-picture films and X-ray films. In the 1940s, Fuji Photo entered the optical glasses, lenses, after the Second World War, Fuji Photo diversified, penetrating the medical, printing, electronic imaging and magnetic materials fields. In 1962, Fuji Photo and U. K. -based Rank Xerox Limited launched Fuji Xerox Co. Ltd. through a joint venture, from the mid-1950s, Fuji Photo accelerated the establishment of overseas sales bases. In the 1980s, Fuji Photo expanded its production and other bases overseas, meanwhile, Fuji Photo developed digital technologies for its photo-related, medical and printing businesses. Like its rival Eastman Kodak which dominated in the US, Fuji Photo enjoyed a longtime near-monopoly on camera film in Japan, the complaint was lodged by the US with the World Trade Organization. On January 30,1998, the WTO announced a sweeping rejection of Kodaks complaints about the market in Japan. The new millennium witnessed the spread of digital technology in cameras. Demand for photographic films plunged in line with the popularity of digital cameras. In response, Fuji Photo implemented management reforms aimed at effecting drastic transformation of its business structures, while both film manufacturers recognized this fundamental change, Fuji Photo adapted to this shift much more successfully than Eastman Kodak. In September 19,2006, Fujifilm announced plans to establish a holding company, Fujifilm and Fuji Xerox would become subsidiaries of the holding company. A representative of the company reconfirmed its commitment to film, which accounts for 3% of sales, Fuji Xerox is a joint venture between Fujifilm and Xerox Corporation of North America. Fujifilm bought Sericol Ltd. a UK-based printing ink company specializing in screen, narrow web, velvia, one of the most saturated and fine-grained slide films, valued by nature and landscape photographers. Fortia, consumer slide film, featuring extremely vivid color rendering suitable for flower photography, Fuji Neopan Professional black & white negative film. As a side note, Neopan 400 and 1600 were designed to use the same developing times, ACROS and SS do not share this feature. This uses the Fuji G-mount lenses, to be released in 2017 The Clear Shot series of 35mm compact cameras Instax series of instant camera, wiki collection of bibliographic works on Fujifilm
