1.
Arkansas
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Arkansas is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Its name is of Siouan derivation from the language of the Osage denoting their related kin, the states diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and the Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U. S. Interior Highlands, to the forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River. Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 33rd most populous of the 50 United States, the capital and most populous city is Little Rock, located in the central portion of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, such as the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, the largest city in the eastern part of the state is Jonesboro. The largest city in the part of the state is Pine Bluff. The Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15,1836, in 1861 Arkansas withdrew from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the Civil War. Upon returning to the Union in 1868, the state would continue to suffer due to its reliance on slavery. White rural interests continued to dominate the politics until the Civil Rights Movement. Arkansas began to diversify its economy following World War II and relies on its service industry, aircraft, poultry, steel, tourism, cotton, and rice. The culture of Arkansas is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, wright, and physicist William L. McMillan, who was a pioneer in superconductor research, have all lived in Arkansas. The name Arkansas derives from the root as the name for the state of Kansas. The Kansa tribe of Native Americans are closely associated with the Sioux tribes of the Great Plains, the word Arkansas itself is a French pronunciation of a Quapaw word, akakaze, meaning land of downriver people or the Sioux word akakaze meaning people of the south wind. In 2007, the legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring the possessive form of the states name to be Arkansass which has been followed increasingly by the state government. Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, as well as Tennessee, the United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The state line along the Mississippi River is indeterminate along much of the border with Mississippi due to these changes. Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest half and the lowlands of the southeastern half, the highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta and this dual split can yield to general regions named northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, or central Arkansas
2.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
3.
Arkadelphia, Arkansas
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Arkadelphia is a city in Clark County, Arkansas, United States. As of the 2010 census, the population was 10,714, the city is the county seat of Clark County. It is situated at the foothills of the Ouachita Mountains, two universities, Henderson State University and Ouachita Baptist University, are located there. The site was settled in about 1809 by John Hemphill, operator of a salt works. It was known as Blakelytown until 1839, when the settlement adopted the name Arkadelphia, origin of the name Arkadelphia is uncertain. One possibility is that it was formed by combining Ark- from the states name Arkansas, another explanation of the name is a combination of adelphia for place and arc. Arkadelphia was once known as the City of Rainbows, perhaps because the climate often resulted in rain. Arkadelphia is located in northeastern Clark County at 34°7′19″N 93°3′58″W, on the west bank of the Ouachita River. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 7.3 square miles, of which 7.3 square miles is land and 0.04 square miles. The climate is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters, according to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Arkadelphia has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated Cfa on climate maps. As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 10,714 people residing in the city. The racial makeup of the city was 64. 0% White,30. 0% Black,0. 4% Native American,0. 8% Asian,3. 2% were Hispanic or Latino of any race. As of the census of 2000, there were 10,912 people,3,865 households, the population density was 1,486.2 people per square mile. There were 4,216 housing units at a density of 574.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 68. 98% White,26. 51% Black or African American,0. 53% Native American,1. 29% Asian,0. 05% Pacific Islander,1. 35% from other races, and 1. 28% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2. 59% of the population,31. 7% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 7% had someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.26 and the family size was 2.87. In the city, the population was out with 18. 1% under the age of 18,32. 9% from 18 to 24,20. 4% from 25 to 44,14. 5% from 45 to 64
4.
Arkansas's 4th congressional district
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Arkansass 4th congressional district is a congressional district located in the southwestern portion of the U. S. state of Arkansas. Notable towns in the district include Camden, Hope, Hot Springs, Magnolia, Pine Bluff, the district is represented by Republican Bruce Westerman. George W. Bush received 51% of the vote in district in 2004. John McCain won the district in 2008 with 58. 14% of the vote while Barack Obama received 39. 33%, as of April 2015, there are five former members of the U. S. House of Representatives from Arkansass 4th congressional district that are currently living. The most recent representative to die was Ray Thornton on April 13,2016, the Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts, Congressional Biographical Directory of the United States 1774–present
5.
Indigenous peoples
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Groups are usually described as indigenous when they maintain traditions or other aspects of an early culture that is associated with a given region. Not all indigenous peoples share such characteristics, Indigenous societies are found in every inhabited climate zone and continent of the world. Estimates put the population of indigenous peoples from 220 million to 350 million. The adjective indigenous is derived from the Latin word indigena, which is based on the root gen- to be born with a form of the prefix in in. Any given people, ethnic group or community may be described as indigenous in reference to some particular region or location that they see as their tribal land claim. Other terms used to refer to indigenous populations are aboriginal, native, original, james Anaya, former Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, has defined indigenous peoples as living descendants of pre-invasion inhabitants of lands now dominated by others. They are culturally distinct groups that find themselves engulfed by other settler societies born of forces of empire, throughout history, different states designate the groups within their boundaries that are recognized as indigenous peoples according to international or national legislation by different terms. Their ability to influence and participate in the policies that may exercise jurisdiction over their traditional lands. The presence of external laws, claims and cultural mores either potentially or actually act to constrain the practices and observances of an indigenous society. These constraints can be observed even when the society is regulated largely by its own tradition. They may be imposed, or arise as unintended consequence of trans-cultural interaction. They may have an effect, even where countered by other external influences. This definition has some limitations, because the definition applies mainly to pre-colonial populations, the primary impetus in considering indigenous identity comes from the post-colonial movements and considering the historical impacts on populations by the European imperialism. Greek sources of the Classical period acknowledge the existence of indigenous people. These peoples inhabited lands surrounding the Aegean Sea before the subsequent migrations of the Hellenic ancestors claimed by these authors, the disposition and precise identity of this former group is elusive, and sources such as Homer, Hesiod and Herodotus give varying, partially mythological accounts. However, it is clear that cultures existed whose indigenous characteristics were distinguished by the subsequent Hellenic cultures, greco-Roman society flourished between 250 BC and 480 AD and commanded successive waves of conquests that gripped more than half of the globe. The rapid and extensive spread of the various European powers from the early 15th century onwards had an impact upon many of the indigenous cultures with whom they came into contact. The Canary Islands had an indigenous population called the Guanches whose origin is still the subject of discussion among historians, the United Nations estimates that there are over 370 million indigenous people living in over 70 countries worldwide
6.
Caddoan Mississippian culture
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The Caddoan Mississippian culture was a prehistoric Native American culture considered by archaeologists as a variant of the Mississippian culture. The Caddoan Mississippians covered a territory, including what is now Eastern Oklahoma, Western Arkansas, Northeast Texas. The Caddoan Mississippians are thought to be an extension of Woodland period peoples and they were linked to other peoples across much of the Eastern Woodlands through trade networks. This time period saw the introduction of pottery making from peoples to their east, by 800 CE early Caddoan society began to coalesce into one of the earlier Mississippian cultures. Some villages began to gain prominence as ritual centers, with elite residences, the mounds were arranged around open plazas, which were usually kept swept clean and were often used for ceremonial occasions. As complex religious and social ideas developed, some people and family gained prominence over others. This hierarchical structure is marked in the record by the appearance of large tombs with exotic grave offerings of obvious symbols of authority. By 1000 CE a society defined as Caddoan had emerged, the Caddoans had developed a distinct type of pottery making, later described by the de Soto expedition as some of the finest they had seen, even in their European homeland. By 1200, the villages, hamlets, and farmsteads established throughout the Caddo world had begun extensive maize agriculture. Recent excavations have revealed more cultural diversity within the region than had been expected by scholars, Caddoan Mississippian towns had a more irregular layout of earthen mounds and associated villages than did towns in the Middle Mississippian heartland to the east. They also lacked the wooden palisade fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns, living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a lower level of social stratification. The location of the edge of the Eastern Woodlands may account for these differences. However, around 1400 CE, Caddoan populations had peaked, with many ritual centers beginning to decline in population, a more dispersed settlement system developed, with the bulk of the people living on dispersed homesteads and farms rather than in large villages. By this time the broad cultural unity began to break down. Caddoan Mississippian peoples were connected to the larger Mississippian world to the east, artifacts found in The Great Mortuary at the Spiro site included wood, conch shell, copper, basketry, woven fabric, lace, fur, feathers, and carved stone statues. Some artifacts came from as far away as Cahokia in Illinois, Etowah and Ocmulgee in Georgia, many featured the elaborate symbolism of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, a multiregional and pan-linguistic trade and religious network. Exotic material found at Caddoan Mississippian sites included colored flint from New Mexico, copper from the Great Lakes, conch shells from the Gulf Coast, and mica from the Carolinas
7.
Mississippian culture
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The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American civilization archeologists date from approximately 800 CE to 1600 CE, varying regionally. It was composed of a series of settlements and satellite villages linked together by a loose trading network. The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Mississippi River Valley, cultures in the tributary Tennessee River Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540, with exceptions being Natchez communities that maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century. A number of traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, the construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular, structures were usually constructed atop such mounds. The adoption and use of shells as tempering agents in their shell tempered pottery. Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rockies, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, the development of the chiefdom or complex chiefdom level of social complexity. The development of institutionalized social inequality, a centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one. The beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in one major center has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities. The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex, also called the Southern Cult and this is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from Wisconsin to the Gulf Coast, the SECC was frequently tied in to ritual game-playing, as with chunkey. The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture, the Mississippi stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, the Mississippi period should not be confused with the Mississippian culture. The Mississippi period is the stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society. The Early Mississippi period had just transitioned from the Late Woodland period way of life, different groups abandoned tribal lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture
8.
Louisiana Purchase
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The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition of the Louisiana territory by the United States from France in 1803. The U. S. paid fifty million francs and a cancellation of debts worth eighteen million francs for a total of sixty-eight million francs, the Louisiana territory included land from fifteen present U. S. states and two Canadian provinces. Its non-native population was around 60,000 inhabitants, of whom half were African slaves, the Kingdom of France controlled the Louisiana territory from 1699 until it was ceded to Spain in 1762. Napoleon in 1800, hoping to re-establish an empire in North America, however, Frances failure to put down the revolt in Saint-Domingue, coupled with the prospect of renewed warfare with the United Kingdom, prompted Napoleon to sell Louisiana to the United States. The Americans originally sought to purchase only the city of New Orleans and its adjacent coastal lands. The Louisiana Purchase occurred during the term of the third President of the United States, before the purchase was finalized, the decision faced Federalist Party opposition, they argued that it was unconstitutional to acquire any territory. Constitution did not contain provisions for acquiring territory, but he asserted that his constitutional power to negotiate treaties was sufficient. Throughout the second half of the 18th century, Louisiana was a pawn on the chessboard of European politics and it was controlled by the French, who had a few small settlements along the Mississippi and other main rivers. Following French defeat in the Seven Years War, Spain gained control of the territory west of the Mississippi, the United States controlled the area east of the Mississippi and north of New Orleans. The main issue for the Americans was free transit of the Mississippi to the sea, as the lands were being gradually settled by a few American migrants, many Americans, including Jefferson, assumed that the territory would be acquired piece by piece. The risk of power taking it from a weakened Spain made a profound reconsideration of this policy necessary. New Orleans was already important for shipping goods to and from the areas of the United States west of the Appalachian Mountains. Pinckneys Treaty, signed with Spain on October 27,1795, gave American merchants right of deposit in New Orleans, Americans used this right to transport products such as flour, tobacco, pork, bacon, lard, feathers, cider, butter, and cheese. The treaty also recognized American rights to navigate the entire Mississippi, in 1798 Spain revoked this treaty, prohibiting American use of New Orleans, and greatly upsetting the Americans. In 1801, Spanish Governor Don Juan Manuel de Salcedo took over from the Marquess of Casa Calvo, Napoleon Bonaparte had gained Louisiana for French ownership from Spain in 1800 under the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso, but the treaty was kept secret. Louisiana remained nominally under Spanish control, until a transfer of power to France on November 30,1803, another ceremony was held in St. Louis a few months later, in part because during winter conditions the news of the New Orleans formalities did not reach Upper Louisiana. The March 9–10,1804, event is remembered as Three Flags Day, James Monroe and Robert R. Livingston had traveled to Paris to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans in January 1803. Their instructions were to negotiate or purchase control of New Orleans and its environs, the Louisiana Purchase was by far the largest territorial gain in U. S. history
9.
Quapaw
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The Quapaw people are a tribe of Native Americans that coalesced in the Midwest and Ohio Valley. The Quapaw are among the Siouan-speaking peoples west of the Mississippi, the Quapaw are federally recognized as the Quapaw Tribe of Indians. Since their removal west to Indian Territory in 1834, their base has been in present-day Ottawa County in northeastern Oklahoma. The number of enrolled in the tribe is 3,240. The Quapaw Tribe of Native Americans are headquartered in Quapaw in Ottawa County, Oklahoma, the 13, 000-acre Quapaw tribal jurisdictional area includes the Tar Creek Superfund site, which has been listed by the Environmental Protection Agency for clean-up of environmental hazards. The Quapaw people elect a council and the tribal chairman. The governing body of the tribe is outlined in the resolutions of the tribe. The Chairman is John L. Berrey, of the 3,240 enrolled tribal members,892 live in the state of Oklahoma. Membership in the tribe is based on lineal descent, the tribe operates a Tribal Police Department and a Fire Department, which handles both fire and EMS calls. They issue their own vehicle tags and have their own housing authority. The tribe owns two smoke shop and motor fuel outlets, known as the Quapaw C-Store and Downstream Q-Store and they have two casinos, the Quapaw Casino and the Downstream Casino Resort, both located in Quapaw, these generate most of the revenue for the tribe. In 2012 the Quapaw Tribes annual economic impact was measured at more than $225,000,000 and they also own and operate the Eagle Creek Golf Course and resort, located in Loma Linda, Missouri. The traditional Quapaw language is part of the Dhegiha branch of the Siouan language family, classes in the Quapaw language are taught at the tribal museum. An online audio lexicon of the Quapaw language created by breaking apart old recordings of Elders is available, other efforts at language preservation and revitalization are being undertaken. The Quapaw participated in the first annual Dhegiha Gathering in 2011, the Osage language program hosted and organized the gathering, held at the Quapaw tribes Downstream Casino. Language-learning techniques and other issues were discussed and taught in workshops at the conference among the five cognate tribes, the Annual Dhegiha Gathering was held in 2012 also at Downstream Casino. The Quapaw host cultural events throughout the year, primarily held at the tribal museum and these include Indian dice games, traditional singing, and classes in traditional arts, such as finger weaving, shawl making, and flute making. In addition, Quapaw language classes are held there, the tribes annual dance is during the weekend of the Fourth of July
10.
Ouachita River
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The Ouachita River is a 605-mile-long river that runs south and east through the U. S. states of Arkansas and Louisiana, joining the Tensas River to form the Black River near Jonesville, Louisiana. It is the 25th longest river in the United States, the Ouachita River begins in the Ouachita Mountains near Mena, Arkansas. It flows east into Lake Ouachita, a reservoir created by Blakely Mountain Dam, the North Fork and South Fork of the Ouachita flow into Lake Ouachita to join the main stream. Portions of the river in this region flow through the Ouachita National Forest, from the lake, the Ouachita flows south into Lake Hamilton, a reservoir created by Carpenter Dam, named after Flavius Josephus Carpenter. The city of Hot Springs lies on the side of Lake Hamilton. Another reservoir, Lake Catherine, impounds the Ouachita just below Lake Hamilton, below Lake Catherine, the river flows free through most of the rest of Arkansas. Just below Lake Catherine, the river bends south near Malvern, downstream, the Little Missouri River joins the Ouachita. South of the Saline, the Ouachita flows into Lake Jack Lee, the Felsenthal National Wildlife Refuge encompasses the Ouachita from the Saline River to Lake Jack Lees mouth. Below Lake Jack Lee, the Ouachita continues south into Louisiana, the river flows generally south through the state, collecting the tributary waters of Bayou Bartholomew, Bayou de Loutre, Bayou dArbonne, the Boeuf River, and the Tensas River. The Ouachita has five locks and dams along its length, located at Camden, Calion, and Felsenthal, Arkansas, the river is named for the Ouachita tribe, one of several historic tribes who lived along it. Others included the Caddo, Osage Nation, Tensa, Chickasaw, washita is an Indian word meaning good hunting grounds and sparkling silver water. Before the rise of the tribes, their indigenous ancestors lived along the river for thousands of years. In the Lower Mississippi Valley, they began building monumental earthwork mounds in the Middle Archaic period, the earliest construction was Watson Brake, an 11-mound complex built about 3500 BC by hunter gatherers in present-day Louisiana. The largest such prehistoric mound was destroyed in the 20th century during construction of a bridge at Jonesville, Louisiana. Likely built by the Mississippian culture, which rose about 1000 AD on the Mississippi and its tributaries, on his expedition through this area, he encountered Indians occupying the site. A lightning strike destroyed the temple on the mound that year and they never rebuilt the temple, and were recorded as abandoning the site in 1736. During the late 1700s, when the area was controlled by the Spanish and French, the served as a route for early colonists. The Bastrop lands later passed into the hands of another speculator and he saw potential for big profits in the event of a war with Spain following the Louisiana Purchase
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Clark County, Arkansas
