1.
Cavalry
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Cavalry or horsemen were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback. Cavalry were historically the most mobile of the combat arms, an individual soldier in the cavalry is known by a number of designations such as cavalryman, horseman, dragoon or trooper. The designation of cavalry was not usually given to any military forces that used animals, such as camels. Cavalry had the advantage of improved mobility, and a man fighting from horseback also had the advantages of greater height, speed, another element of horse mounted warfare is the psychological impact a mounted soldier can inflict on an opponent. In Europe cavalry became increasingly armoured, and eventually became known for the mounted knights, in the period between the World Wars, many cavalry units were converted into motorized infantry and mechanized infantry units, or reformed as tank troops. Most cavalry units that are horse-mounted in modern armies serve in purely ceremonial roles, modern usage of the term generally refers to specialist units equipped with tanks or aircraft. The shock role, traditionally filled by heavy cavalry, is filled by units with the armored designation. Before the Iron Age, the role of cavalry on the battlefield was largely performed by light chariots, the chariot originated with the Sintashta-Petrovka culture in Central Asia and spread by nomadic or semi-nomadic Indo-Iranians. The power of mobility given by mounted units was recognized early on, Cavalry techniques were an innovation of equestrian nomads of the Central Asian and Iranian steppe and pastoralist tribes such as the Persian Parthians and Sarmatians. The photograph above left shows Assyrian cavalry from reliefs of 865–860 BC, at this time, the men had no spurs, saddles, saddle cloths, or stirrups. Fighting from the back of a horse was more difficult than mere riding. The cavalry acted in pairs, the reins of the archer were controlled by his neighbours hand. Even at this time, cavalry used swords, shields. The sculpture implies two types of cavalry, but this might be a simplification by the artist, Later images of Assyrian cavalry show saddle cloths as primitive saddles, allowing each archer to control his own horse. As early as 490 BC a breed of horses was bred in the Nisaean plain in Media to carry men with increasing amounts of armour. However, chariots remained in use for purposes such as carrying the victorious general in a Roman triumph. The southern Britons met Julius Caesar with chariots in 55 and 54 BC, the last mention of chariot use in battle was by the Caledonians at the Mons Graupius, in 84 AD. During the classical Greek period cavalry were usually limited to citizens who could afford expensive war-horses
2.
Dressage
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Dressage is a highly skilled form of riding performed in exhibition and competition, as well as an art sometimes pursued solely for the sake of mastery. Competitions are held at all levels from amateur to the Olympic Games, at the peak of a dressage horses gymnastic development, the horse responds smoothly to a skilled riders minimal aids. The rider is relaxed and appears effort-free while the horse performs the requested movement. The discipline has a history with ancient roots in the writings of Xenophon. Much about training systems used today reflects practices of classical dressage, in modern dressage competition, successful training at the various levels is demonstrated through the performance of tests, prescribed series of movements ridden within a standard arena. A score of 9 is very good and is a high mark, all riding horses can benefit from use of dressage principles and training techniques. The most popular horse breeds seen at the Olympics and other international FEI competitions are warmblood horses bred for dressage, in classical dressage training and performances that involve the airs above the ground, the baroque breeds of horses are popular and purposely bred for these specialties. There are two sizes of arenas, small and standard, each has letters assigned to positions around the arena for dressage tests to specify where movements are to be performed. Cones with letters on them are positioned on the sidelines of the arena for reference as to where a movement is to be performed. The small arena is 20 by 40 m and is used for the levels of eventing in the dressage phase. Its letters around the edge, starting from the point of entry. Letters also mark locations along the line in the middle of the arena. Moving down the line from A, they are D-X-G. The standard arena is 20 by 60 m, and is used for tests in both dressage and eventing. The standard dressage arena letters are A-K-V-E-S-H-C-M-R-B-P-F, the letters on the long sides of the arena, nearest the corners, are 6 m in from the corners, and are 12 m apart from each other. The letters along the line are D-L-X-I-G, with X again being halfway down the arena. There is speculation as to why these letters were chosen, most commonly it is believed because the German cavalry had a 20 × 60-meter area in-between the barracks which had the letters posted above the doors. At the start of the test, the horse enters the arena at an opening at A, ideally this opening is then closed for the duration of the test, however, this is not always logistically possible, particularly at smaller competitions with few volunteers
3.
Spanish Riding School
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The Spanish Riding School of Vienna, Austria, is a traditional riding school for Lipizzan horses, which perform in the Winter Riding School in the Hofburg. Not only is it a centre for classical dressage, the headquarters is a tourist attraction in Vienna that offers public performances as well as permitting public viewing of some training sessions, the presentation builds on four centuries of experience and tradition in classical dressage. The leading horses and riders of the school also periodically tour, the Spanish Riding School is located between Michaelerplatz and Josefsplatz inside the Hofburg in central Vienna. Performances take place in the Winter Riding School, built between 1729–1735, the Spanish Riding School also has summer stables in Heldenberg-Wetzdorf-Lower Austria. The 68 resident stallions are taken there in July and August for seven weeks, the horses are not schooled during this period, but instead are hacked in the nearby forest. The riding school was first named during the Habsburg Monarchy in 1572, long before the French manege of Antoine de Pluvinel, prior to that time, the School operated from a wooden arena at the Josefsplatz. For a time, the hall was used for various ceremonies, but it is now open to the public. The Spanish Riding School was named for the Spanish horses that formed one of the bases of the Lipizzan breed, today the horses delivered to the Spanish Riding School are bred at the Piber Federal Stud located near the village of Piber in western Styria, Austria. One of the studs used to develop the breed was Lipizza, now called Lipica, near Trieste in modern Slovenia. Traditionally, Lipizzaners at the school have been trained and ridden wholly by men, the methods used by the Riding School are based on François Robichon de la Gueriniere. It is a myth that the movements were developed to aid in battle, in fact, they were used to strengthen the war horses body and mind and make him a supreme athlete. All movements are based on those performed by the horse when at liberty. The stallions are taught in three stages, Remontenschule, This stage begins when the horse is first brought to the Spanish Riding School as a 4-year-old. The stallion is taught to be saddled and bridled, and is started on the longe to teach him the aids, to improve his obedience, and to strengthen his muscles in preparation for a rider. Work on the longe includes transitions between the walk, trot, and canter, and changes of tempo within the gait, after longeing, the horse is ridden in an arena on straight lines, to teach him to respond correctly to the riders aids while mounted. The main goals during this time are to develop free movement in the ordinary gaits, with correct contact and on a long rein. Additionally, the training should have improved the strength and stamina to prepare him for the next stage. Campagneschule, The horse is ready for the second stage after a year of riding in the first stage
4.
Collection (horse)
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Collection occurs when a horse carries more weight on the hind legs than the front legs. The horse draws its body together so that it becomes like a giant spring whose stored energy can be reclaimed for fighting or running from a predator, collection of the horses body is an important mechanism for survival. It raises its head, arches its back, and in so doing brings its legs more under its body where they can maintain the bending of the spine by their contact with the earth, with each step forward this spring is released slightly and then immediately re-compressed. Collection is also an important ingredient in riding, if the rider wishes to perform more advanced movements or jumping and it not only allows the horse to move more easily and athletically, but also helps prevent wear-and-tear on the front legs. Through training, the horse learns to collect itself when requested to do so by the rider, the observer receives the impression of great strength held under perfect control. The most readily apparent form of collection can be observed when comparing different degrees of collection within a single gait. A more collected gait will have two main symptoms, the horse will lower his hindquarters and raise his forehand, and the horse will have more bend in the joints of his legs, additionally, the stride length will be shortened. Collection may be performed at any gait, however, this does not mean that any shortened gait is collected. The shoulders will not be raised, and the horse will find it difficult to perform a task than he would otherwise. The hind legs will usually be strung out behind, rather than coming up under the body with each stride to support it, collected gaits are asked for in dressage tests from the mid-levels upward, at the walk, trot, and canter. Additionally, a degree of collection is required of the rider in more advanced dressage moves, such as the pirouette, piaffe. The ultimate level of collection is the levade, in which the horse carries 100% of his weight on his hindquarters. Unlike a rearing horse, the rear legs are well under it. Collection is also essential in jumping, most horses will physically be unable to jump extremely high fences without collection, as they will not have enough power to make it over the obstacle. Speed is not a substitute, and a horse that is simply galloped at a fence will find it difficult to raise his forehand upward on takeoff. Instead, he will jump flat, without bascule, and will be more likely to pull a rail. Secondly, horses must be adjustable within jumping courses, having the ability to shorten or lengthen their stride between obstacles, especially if placed in a combination. Collection also makes it easier for a horse to make changes of direction
5.
Horse gait
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Horse gaits are the various ways in which a horse can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training by humans. Special training is required before a horse will perform an ambling gait in respond to a riders command. Another system of classification that applies to quadrupeds uses three categories, walking and ambling gaits, running or trotting gaits, and leaping gaits. The British Horse Society Dressage Rules require competitors to perform four variations of the walk, six forms of the trot, five leaping gaits, halt, and rein back, the British Horse Society Equitation examinations also require proficiency in the gallop as distinct from the canter. The so-called natural gaits, in increasing order of speed, are the walk, trot, canter, and gallop. Some consider these as three gaits, with the canter a variation of the gallop, even though the canter is distinguished by having three beats, whereas the gallop has four beats, all four gaits are seen in wild horse populations. While other intermediate speed gaits may occur naturally to some horses, in some animals the trot is replaced by the pace or an ambling gait. Horses who possess an ambling gait are usually able to trot. The walk is a gait that averages about 4 miles per hour. When walking, a horses legs follow this sequence, left leg, left front leg, right hind leg, right front leg. At the walk, the horse will alternate between having three or two feet on the ground, a horse moves its head and neck in a slight up and down motion that helps maintain balance. In detail, suppose the horse starts by lifting its left front leg and it then lifts its right hind leg. Next, the front foot touches the ground, then the horse lifts its right front leg. Then it lifts its rear leg, puts down the front right, lifts the left front, puts down the rear left. Ideally, the rear hoof oversteps the spot where the previously advancing front hoof touched the ground. The more the rear hoof oversteps, the smoother and more comfortable the walk becomes, individual horses and different breeds vary in the smoothness of their walk. However, a rider will almost always some degree of gentle side-to-side motion in the horses hips as each hind leg reaches forward. The fastest walks with a footfall pattern are actually the lateral forms of ambling gaits such as the running walk, singlefoot
6.
Rear (horse)
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Rearing occurs when a horse or other equine stands up on its hind legs with the forelegs off the ground. Rearing may be linked to fright, aggression, excitement, disobedience and it is not uncommon to see stallions rearing in the wild when they fight, while striking at their opponent with their front legs. Mares are generally likely to kick when acting in aggression. A horse that has a habit of rearing generally requires extensive retraining by a horse trainer. A rearing horse can also break away and escape from a human handler, however, rearing also has survival value in the wild. For these reasons, horses, particularly young ones, are sometimes seen rearing when loose in a pasture, there are also a few times when rearing is considered acceptable by humans. Rearing may be taught as a trick for circus horses and the like, however, horses properly trained to do any of these movements are taught to respond to very specific commands and only raise their forequarters when given the command. A horse generally must stop before it can rear, generally a rider can feel if a horse is about to rear, as the horse shifts its weight strongly to its hindquarters and begins to feel light in the front end. If the horse is allowed to stop or back up while behaving in a disobedient manner, once on the ground, the rider can prevent further rearing by asking the horse to move, either forward or in circles. Rearing can be caused by fear, a horse that sees something alarming in front of it may stop and, if asked to continue forward, another fear response may come from poor riding. A rider that is hard on a horses mouth with the reins. A horse may rear out of confusion because it does not understand what the riders commands, or riding aids mean, or because the rider is giving harsh or conflicting commands. If a rider both holds onto the mouth at the same time they push the horse strongly with their legs, essentially using the gas. If rearing with a rider is not clearly linked to fear, disobedience or aggression, an equine veterinarian can examine the horses mouth and teeth, back, and feet for possible causes. Pain may also be linked to poorly fitted or improperly used tack, a rider or saddle-fitting specialist can determine if pain is linked to a poorly fitted saddle, or a broken saddle tree. The fit and severity of the bit can also lead to rearing, riders should also consider the management of the horse, especially if the animal does not have turn-out time and has too rich of a diet. A horse may rear due to excitement and excess energy, leading horses with a stud chain on the halter or with a bridle offers more control if an animal rears, however, misuse of this equipment by jerking on the horses head may also provoke rearing. Media related to Rearing horses at Wikimedia Commons
7.
Bucking
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Bucking is a movement performed by a horse or bull in which the animal lowers its head and raises its hindquarters into the air, usually while kicking out with the hind legs. If powerful, it may unseat the rider enough to fall off, Bucking, though a potentially dangerous disobedience when under saddle, is a natural aspect of horse behavior. It developed in the wild for the purpose of protection from predators such as mountain lions. The process of kicking out with both legs, another defense mechanism for the horse, also results in a mild bucking movement. Thus, for a human to ride a horse, the horse has to be desensitized to the presence of something on its back. Nonetheless, because the instinct is there, bucking can still occur for a number of reasons, Happiness, such as when a horse bucks during a gallop because of enjoyment. General excitement, such as horses that buck in a schooling ring or at the beginning of a ride in a crowd of horses. The riders aids are causing confusion or fear in the horse, the horse is fresh, having been kept up in a stall for a long period of time, and is releasing pent-up energy. Pain, which may be due to a saddle or another piece of equipment, tooth problems. Provocation, usually due to a bite which the horse is trying to rid himself of. Untrained horses may instinctually buck the first few times they have a saddle on the back if not given proper ground training and this is an instinctive defense mechanism. Having found that bucking the rider off results in not having to work, disobedience to the riding aids, when a horse does not wish to do what is asked by the rider. Sometimes this is due to riding on the part of the person. Rodeo broncs are used specifically as bucking horses, usually bred to be prone to bucking, fear of loud and noisy machines, like cars, trucks, trains, and planes. Ordinary riders need to learn to ride out and correct a simple buck or two, because it is a common form of disobedience. The classical dressage movement known as the Capriole is also similar to the low buck done by a horse when it kicks out with both hind legs. Bucking, especially if triggered by fear, pain or excitement, is generally a minor disobedience, unless it is enough to unseat the rider. If bucking is an act of the horse and becomes an undesired habit
8.
List of horse breeds
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This page is a list of horse and pony breeds, and also includes terms for types of horse that are not breeds but are commonly mistaken for breeds. In most cases, bloodlines of horse breeds are recorded with a breed registry, however, in horses, the concept is somewhat flexible, as open stud books are created for developing horse breeds that are not yet fully true-breeding. Registries also are considered the authority as to whether a given breed is listed as a horse or a pony. Other recording entities or specialty organizations may recognize horses from multiple breeds, thus, for the purposes of this article, the breeds and types listed here are those that already have a Wikipedia article. For a more extensive list, see the List of all breeds in DAD-IS. For additional information, see horse breed, horse breeding, additional articles may be listed under Category, Horse breeds and Category, Types of horse. Pony breeds are listed in the section, below. Ponies are typically classified as members of Equus caballus that mature at less than 14.2 hands, however, some pony breeds may occasionally have individuals who mature over 14.2 but retain all other breed characteristics. Also, some use a different measurement cutoff to distinguish horses and ponies. There are some breeds once classified as ponies that now frequently mature over 14.2 hands due to nutrition and management. For the purposes of this list, if a breed registry classifies the breed as a pony, it is listed here as such, otherwise, where there is a dispute as to horse or pony status of a breed, horse is the default. There are some registries that accept horses of almost any breed or type for registration, color is either the only criterion for registration or the primary criterion. These are called color breeds, because unlike true horse breeds, there are few other physical requirements, as a general rule, the color also does not always breed on, and offspring without the stated color are usually not eligible for recording with the color breed registry. There are breeds that have color that usually breeds true as well as physical characteristics. These horses are true breeds that have a color, not color breeds, and include the Friesian horse, the Cleveland Bay, the Appaloosa. A type of horse is not a breed but is used here to categorize groups of horses or horse breeds that are similar in appearance or use, a type usually has no breed registry, and often encompasses several breeds. However, in nations, particularly in Europe, there is a recording method or means of studbook selection for certain types to allow them to be licensed for breeding. Prior to approximately the 13th century, few pedigrees were written down, thus, many terms for Horses in the Middle Ages did not refer to breeds as we know them today, but rather described appearance or purpose
9.
On Horsemanship (Xenophon)
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On Horsemanship is the English title usually given to Περὶ ἱππικῆς, peri hippikēs, one of the two treatises on horsemanship by the Athenian historian and soldier Xenophon. Other common titles for this work are De equis alendis and The Art of Horsemanship, the other work by Xenophon on horsemanship is Ἱππαρχικὸς, hipparchikos, usually known as Hipparchicus, or The cavalry commander. The title De re equestri may refer to either of the two, on horsemanship deals with the selection, care and training of horses in general. Military training and the duties of the commander are dealt with in the Hipparchicus. A treatise on horsemanship by Pliny the Elder is believed lost, as was that by Simon of Athens, some fragments of Simons treatise survive, however, they were published by Ruehl in 1912. The first printed edition of On horsemanship is that in the edition of Xenophon of 1516 from the Giunti press. Ταδε ̓ενεστιν ̓εν τͅηδε τͅη βιβλͅω· Ξενοφωντος Κυρου Παιδειας βιβλια ηʹ, venatoria. de re equestri. de equis alendis, lacedæmonum resp. atheniensium resp. Florentiæ, In ædibus P. Juntæ,1516 The earliest printing in Greek in England may be, the Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon Boston, Little, Brown 1893 pp. He is especially careful to stress the importance of soundness and his recommendations include, A hoof of thick horn, and a frog that is held off the ground. Xenophon believed this would allow the horse to see what was in front of him. It is interesting to note that many of Xenophons suggestions are still applied today when selecting a sport horse, Xenophon first makes a point to say that the reader should not waste his time nor endanger his health by personally breaking colts. Before the horse is delivered to the trainer, the owner should know that he has a good temperament, the horse should trust people, knowing that they are the providers of food and water. If this is correctly, the young colt should grow to love people. The groom should stroke or scratch the colt, so that he enjoys human company, if the colt is frightened, the groom should reassure him, rather than punish him, and teach the animal that there is nothing to fear. Xenophon writes that these passages are to help the reader from being cheated, the age of the horse should first be determined. To do so, Xenophon directs the reader to look at the horses teeth, if the horse has lost all of his milk teeth, the author suggests the reader not buy the horse. The horse should then be bridled, to make sure he accepts the bit and he should then be ridden away from the stable, to see if he is willing to leave other horses. The softness of the mouth may be determined by performing a volte in both directions
10.
Renaissance
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The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
11.
Victorian age
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The Victorian era was the period of Queen Victorias reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. It was a period of peace, prosperity, refined sensibilities. Some scholars date the beginning of the period in terms of sensibilities, the era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwardian period. The later half of the Victorian age roughly coincided with the first part of the Belle Époque era of continental Europe, culturally there was a transition away from the rationalism of the Georgian period and toward romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts. The end of the saw the Boer War. Domestically, the agenda was increasingly liberal with a number of shifts in the direction of political reform, industrial reform. Two especially important figures in period of British history are the prime ministers Benjamin Disraeli and William Gladstone. Disraeli, favoured by the queen, was a gregarious Conservative and his rival Gladstone, a Liberal distrusted by the Queen, served more terms and oversaw much of the overall legislative development of the era. The population of England and Wales almost doubled from 16.8 million in 1851 to 30.5 million in 1901, Scotlands population also rose rapidly, from 2.8 million in 1851 to 4.4 million in 1901. However, Irelands population decreased sharply, from 8.2 million in 1841 to less than 4.5 million in 1901, mostly due to the Great Famine. Between 1837 and 1901 about 15 million emigrants departed the UK permanently, in search of a life in the United States, Canada, South Africa, New Zealand, Australia. During the early part of the era, politics in the House of Commons involved battles between the two parties, the Whigs/Liberals and the Conservatives. These parties were led by such prominent statesmen as Lord Melbourne, Sir Robert Peel, Lord Derby, Lord Palmerston, Gladstone, Disraeli, Victoria became queen in 1837 at age 18. Her long reign until 1901 was mainly a time of peace, Britain reached the zenith of its economic, political, diplomatic and cultural power. The era saw the expansion of the second British Empire, Historians have characterised the mid-Victorian era as Britains Golden Years. There was prosperity, as the income per person grew by half. There was peace abroad, and social peace at home, opposition to the new order melted away, says Porter. The Chartist movement peaked as a movement among the working class in 1848, its leaders moved to other pursuits, such as trade unions
12.
Horse
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H. O. R. S. E. is a form of poker commonly played at the high-stakes tables of casinos. It consists of rounds of cycling among, Texas Hold em, Omaha hi-low split-eight or better, Razz, Seven card Stud. H. O. R. S. E. is a limit game, however, in some tournament situations, the final table is no-limit hold em. C. H. O. R. S. E adds Chowaha or Crazy Pineapple to the mix and this is convenient at such team events as BARGE, when it helps to have as many flop games as stud games. T. H. O. R. S. E. H. A. is another 8-Game Mix which includes more games than most other mixed poker games, pokerStars started offering this game in 2008. It consists of limit 2-7 Triple Draw, limit Texas hold em, limit Omaha Hi-Lo, limit Razz, limit Seven-card Stud, limit Seven card Stud Hi-Lo, no limit Texas hold em and pot limit Omaha. 10-Game, the latest variation on the poker games, overtook T. H. O. R. S. E. H. A. in the extent of its game inclusion. Full Tilt Poker also offers the 9-Game, which includes all poker variants from the 10-Game with the exception of Badugi, a 12 Game Mix has also been proposed as a variation and as an extension to the 10-Game mix. A13 Game Mix can also be constructed by adding No Limit Holdem to the games of the 12 Game Mix, made its debut at the World Series of Poker in 2002 with a $2,000 buy-in. John Hennigan won the event, earning $117,320, tournament made its debut at the 2006 World Series of Poker. Chip Reese won the event, earning $1,716,000 for first place, after Reese died at the end of 2007, the Chip Reese Memorial Trophy was created in his honor. The trophy is awarded to the winner of the $50,000 championship event since the 2008 World Series of Poker. The $50,000 buy-in tournament returned for the 2007 WSOP, the $50,000 event, which awarded $2,276,832 to first place, was won by professional player Freddy Deeb. Events with $2,500 and $5,000 buy-ins were also on the 2007 WSOP program, the 2008 $50,000 H. O. R. S. E event was won by Scotty Nguyen, who received $1,989,120 for his victory. This was also the first time that the Chip Reese Memorial Trophy had been awarded to the winner of the competition, event was won by David Bach, for $1,276,802. World Championship event was replaced by The Poker Players Championship, with an identical buy-in, event, the final table was no-limit hold em. Michael Mizrachi won the first Players Championship and with it the Chip Reese Memorial Trophy, the 2010 WSOP also featured a new $10,000 H. O. R. S. E. Championship, joining already-existing events with $1,500 and $3,000 buy-ins
13.
Levade
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The airs above the ground or school jumps are a series of higher-level, Haute ecole, classical dressage movements in which the horse leaves the ground. They include the capriole, the courbette, the mezair, the croupade, none are typically seen in modern competitive dressage. They are performed by horses of various riding academies such as the Spanish Riding School in Vienna and the Cadre Noir in Saumur, the levade and courbette are a particular feature of the Doma Menorquina, the riding tradition of the island of Menorca. There were originally seven airs, many of which were used to build into the movements performed today, there is a popular conception that these movements were originally taught to horses for military purposes, and indeed both the Spanish Riding School and the Cadre Noir are military foundations. However, while agility was necessary on the battlefield, most of the airs as performed today would have exposed the vulnerable underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers. It is therefore likely that the airs were exercises to develop the military horse. Horses are usually taught each air on the long rein without a rider, however, each movement is meant to eventually be performed under a rider. The pesade and levade are the first airs taught to the High School horse, in the pesade, the horse raises its forehand off the ground and tucks the forelegs evenly, carrying all weight on the hindquarters, to form a 45 degree angle with the ground. The levade was first taught at the beginning of the 20th century, unlike the pesade, which is more of a test of balance, the decreased angle makes the levade an extremely strenuous position to hold, and requires a greater effort from the horse. Therefore, many horses are not capable of a good-quality levade, the levade is also a transition movement between work on the ground and the airs above the ground. This gives the viewer the impression that the horse appears to sink down in back, the position is held for a number of seconds, and then the horse quietly puts the forelegs back on the ground and proceeds at the walk, or stands at the halt. The levade is considered to be pinnacle of collection, as the horse carries all weight on the back legs, and has an extreme tucking of the hindquarters and coiling of the loins. In the capriole, the jumps from a raised position of the forehand straight up into the air, kicks out with the hind legs. It requires a powerful horse to perform correctly, and is considered the most difficult of all the airs above the ground. It is first introduced with the croupade, in which the horse does not kick out at the height of elevation, but keeps the hind legs tucked tightly under, the horse is then taught the ballotade. In this movement, the hind hooves are positioned so one can see its shoes if watching from behind. When the horse demonstrates proficiency in the ballotade, the capriole is introduced, in the courbette, the horse raises its forehand off the ground, tucks up forelegs evenly, and then jumps forward, never allowing the forelegs to touch down, in a series of hops. Extremely strong and talented horses can perform five or more leaps forward before having to touch down with the forelegs, the courbette, like the capriole, is first introduced through the easier croupade
14.
Capriole
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The airs above the ground or school jumps are a series of higher-level, Haute ecole, classical dressage movements in which the horse leaves the ground. They include the capriole, the courbette, the mezair, the croupade, none are typically seen in modern competitive dressage. They are performed by horses of various riding academies such as the Spanish Riding School in Vienna and the Cadre Noir in Saumur, the levade and courbette are a particular feature of the Doma Menorquina, the riding tradition of the island of Menorca. There were originally seven airs, many of which were used to build into the movements performed today, there is a popular conception that these movements were originally taught to horses for military purposes, and indeed both the Spanish Riding School and the Cadre Noir are military foundations. However, while agility was necessary on the battlefield, most of the airs as performed today would have exposed the vulnerable underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers. It is therefore likely that the airs were exercises to develop the military horse. Horses are usually taught each air on the long rein without a rider, however, each movement is meant to eventually be performed under a rider. The pesade and levade are the first airs taught to the High School horse, in the pesade, the horse raises its forehand off the ground and tucks the forelegs evenly, carrying all weight on the hindquarters, to form a 45 degree angle with the ground. The levade was first taught at the beginning of the 20th century, unlike the pesade, which is more of a test of balance, the decreased angle makes the levade an extremely strenuous position to hold, and requires a greater effort from the horse. Therefore, many horses are not capable of a good-quality levade, the levade is also a transition movement between work on the ground and the airs above the ground. This gives the viewer the impression that the horse appears to sink down in back, the position is held for a number of seconds, and then the horse quietly puts the forelegs back on the ground and proceeds at the walk, or stands at the halt. The levade is considered to be pinnacle of collection, as the horse carries all weight on the back legs, and has an extreme tucking of the hindquarters and coiling of the loins. In the capriole, the jumps from a raised position of the forehand straight up into the air, kicks out with the hind legs. It requires a powerful horse to perform correctly, and is considered the most difficult of all the airs above the ground. It is first introduced with the croupade, in which the horse does not kick out at the height of elevation, but keeps the hind legs tucked tightly under, the horse is then taught the ballotade. In this movement, the hind hooves are positioned so one can see its shoes if watching from behind. When the horse demonstrates proficiency in the ballotade, the capriole is introduced, in the courbette, the horse raises its forehand off the ground, tucks up forelegs evenly, and then jumps forward, never allowing the forelegs to touch down, in a series of hops. Extremely strong and talented horses can perform five or more leaps forward before having to touch down with the forelegs, the courbette, like the capriole, is first introduced through the easier croupade
15.
Airs above the ground
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The airs above the ground or school jumps are a series of higher-level, Haute ecole, classical dressage movements in which the horse leaves the ground. They include the capriole, the courbette, the mezair, the croupade, none are typically seen in modern competitive dressage. They are performed by horses of various riding academies such as the Spanish Riding School in Vienna and the Cadre Noir in Saumur, the levade and courbette are a particular feature of the Doma Menorquina, the riding tradition of the island of Menorca. There were originally seven airs, many of which were used to build into the movements performed today, there is a popular conception that these movements were originally taught to horses for military purposes, and indeed both the Spanish Riding School and the Cadre Noir are military foundations. However, while agility was necessary on the battlefield, most of the airs as performed today would have exposed the vulnerable underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers. It is therefore likely that the airs were exercises to develop the military horse. Horses are usually taught each air on the long rein without a rider, however, each movement is meant to eventually be performed under a rider. The pesade and levade are the first airs taught to the High School horse, in the pesade, the horse raises its forehand off the ground and tucks the forelegs evenly, carrying all weight on the hindquarters, to form a 45 degree angle with the ground. The levade was first taught at the beginning of the 20th century, unlike the pesade, which is more of a test of balance, the decreased angle makes the levade an extremely strenuous position to hold, and requires a greater effort from the horse. Therefore, many horses are not capable of a good-quality levade, the levade is also a transition movement between work on the ground and the airs above the ground. This gives the viewer the impression that the horse appears to sink down in back, the position is held for a number of seconds, and then the horse quietly puts the forelegs back on the ground and proceeds at the walk, or stands at the halt. The levade is considered to be pinnacle of collection, as the horse carries all weight on the back legs, and has an extreme tucking of the hindquarters and coiling of the loins. In the capriole, the jumps from a raised position of the forehand straight up into the air, kicks out with the hind legs. It requires a powerful horse to perform correctly, and is considered the most difficult of all the airs above the ground. It is first introduced with the croupade, in which the horse does not kick out at the height of elevation, but keeps the hind legs tucked tightly under, the horse is then taught the ballotade. In this movement, the hind hooves are positioned so one can see its shoes if watching from behind. When the horse demonstrates proficiency in the ballotade, the capriole is introduced, in the courbette, the horse raises its forehand off the ground, tucks up forelegs evenly, and then jumps forward, never allowing the forelegs to touch down, in a series of hops. Extremely strong and talented horses can perform five or more leaps forward before having to touch down with the forelegs, the courbette, like the capriole, is first introduced through the easier croupade
16.
Ballotade
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The airs above the ground or school jumps are a series of higher-level, Haute ecole, classical dressage movements in which the horse leaves the ground. They include the capriole, the courbette, the mezair, the croupade, none are typically seen in modern competitive dressage. They are performed by horses of various riding academies such as the Spanish Riding School in Vienna and the Cadre Noir in Saumur, the levade and courbette are a particular feature of the Doma Menorquina, the riding tradition of the island of Menorca. There were originally seven airs, many of which were used to build into the movements performed today, there is a popular conception that these movements were originally taught to horses for military purposes, and indeed both the Spanish Riding School and the Cadre Noir are military foundations. However, while agility was necessary on the battlefield, most of the airs as performed today would have exposed the vulnerable underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers. It is therefore likely that the airs were exercises to develop the military horse. Horses are usually taught each air on the long rein without a rider, however, each movement is meant to eventually be performed under a rider. The pesade and levade are the first airs taught to the High School horse, in the pesade, the horse raises its forehand off the ground and tucks the forelegs evenly, carrying all weight on the hindquarters, to form a 45 degree angle with the ground. The levade was first taught at the beginning of the 20th century, unlike the pesade, which is more of a test of balance, the decreased angle makes the levade an extremely strenuous position to hold, and requires a greater effort from the horse. Therefore, many horses are not capable of a good-quality levade, the levade is also a transition movement between work on the ground and the airs above the ground. This gives the viewer the impression that the horse appears to sink down in back, the position is held for a number of seconds, and then the horse quietly puts the forelegs back on the ground and proceeds at the walk, or stands at the halt. The levade is considered to be pinnacle of collection, as the horse carries all weight on the back legs, and has an extreme tucking of the hindquarters and coiling of the loins. In the capriole, the jumps from a raised position of the forehand straight up into the air, kicks out with the hind legs. It requires a powerful horse to perform correctly, and is considered the most difficult of all the airs above the ground. It is first introduced with the croupade, in which the horse does not kick out at the height of elevation, but keeps the hind legs tucked tightly under, the horse is then taught the ballotade. In this movement, the hind hooves are positioned so one can see its shoes if watching from behind. When the horse demonstrates proficiency in the ballotade, the capriole is introduced, in the courbette, the horse raises its forehand off the ground, tucks up forelegs evenly, and then jumps forward, never allowing the forelegs to touch down, in a series of hops. Extremely strong and talented horses can perform five or more leaps forward before having to touch down with the forelegs, the courbette, like the capriole, is first introduced through the easier croupade
17.
Piaffe
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The piaffe is a dressage movement where the horse is in a highly collected and cadenced trot, in place or nearly in place. The center of gravity of the horse should be more towards the end, with the hindquarters slightly lowered. The front end of the horse is highly mobile, free, and light, with great flexion in the joints of the front legs, and the horse remains light in the hand. The horse should retain a clear and even rhythm, show great impulsion, as in all dressage, the horse should perform in a calm manner and remain on the bit with a round back. The piaffe was originally used in battle to keep the focused, warm. In modern times, the piaffe is mostly taught as an upper level movement in Classical dressage, additionally, it is needed to develop the levade and from that, the airs above the ground. The following are elements of the piaffe, The piaffe is straight. The legs do not move out to the side or cross, the horse lowers his hindquarters, collects, and raises the shoulders by taking weight onto the hindquarters, rather than hollowing the back and piaffing with the hindquarters trailing out behind. Bending of the joints is not always an indication of true collection. It is possible to perform a movement with good bend in the legs while the horse remains hollow. This can especially be seen in horses trained to trot in place by holding them back while asking the hindlegs to bend by applying the whip on the hocks, the horse will bend the hocks, but will not lower the hindquarters. The horse is not to raise the hind legs higher than the front, the horse remains relaxed and supple. An incorrect piaffe has short, jerky steps, the horse does not move his fore legs backwards toward his hind legs, so that they are more under his body, but rather keep them perpendicular to the ground. The horse remains at or in front of the vertical, with his poll as the highest point, the horse maintains the rhythm and tempo of the trot
18.
Passage (dressage)
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The passage is a movement seen in upper-level dressage, in which the horse performs a highly elevated and extremely powerful trot. The horse is very collected and moves with great impulsion, the hindquarters are very engaged, and the knees and hocks are flexed more than the other trot types. The horse appears to trot in slow motion, making it look as if it is dancing, the passage is first introduced in the dressage intermediaire test II. A horse must be well-confirmed in its training to perform the passage, and must be proficient in collecting while remaining energetic, calm, the horse must also have built up the correct muscles to do the strenuous movement. Olympic Ferro performing the passage Analysis of the ideal Passage
19.
Half-pass
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The half-pass is a lateral movement seen in dressage, in which the horse moves forward and sideways at the same time. Unlike the easier leg-yield, the horse is bent in the direction of travel, the outside hind and forelegs should cross over the inside legs, with the horses body parallel to the arena wall and his forehand leading. The horse should remain forward, balanced, and bent, moving with cadence, the inside hind leg remains engaged throughout the half-pass, and the horse should not lose its rhythm. The half-pass is a variation of haunches-in, executed on a line instead of along the wall. At higher levels it is used to perform a counter-change of hand, the half-pass requires more balance, engagement, and collection from a horse than the leg-yield. This is because the horse is bent in the direction of movement in the half-pass. In the leg-yield, the horse is straight or looking slightly away from the direction of travel. The half-pass is a movement that requires the horse to engage the hindquarters and increase its impulsion. The half-pass is commonly seen in dressage tests beginning at the United States Dressage Federation third level, the half-pass is usually taught after the haunches-in is well confirmed. It may first be introduced by riding a circle from the long side to the centerline, or a half-volte. The circle naturally places the body in the correct bend. The outside hind leg must step well under the body to push the animal forward. A rider uses an active outside leg slightly behind the position to ask the horse to step forward. The outside rein maintains the correct bend and contains the energy of the horse, the inside leg keeps the horse moving forward, the rider also uses his or her inside seat bone to help maintain bend. If the rider is off-center or twisted, the horse will also be crooked or off-balance, if the horse loses quality in the movement, such as lack of correct bend, loss of rhythm, or stiffness, the rider straightens the horse and rides forward. The beginning and the end of the movement needs special attention concerning control, richard Davison, Dressage Priority Points, Howell Book House, New York 1995 Jennie Loriston-Clarke, The Complete Guide to Dressage. How to Achieve Perfect Harmony between You and Your Horse, principal Movements in Step-by-step Sequences Demonstrated by a World Medallist, Quarto Publishing plc, London 1987, reprinted 1993 Video of the Half-Pass
20.
Equestrian at the Summer Olympics
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Equestrianism made its Summer Olympics debut at the 1900 Summer Olympics in Paris, France. It disappeared until 1912, but has appeared at every Summer Olympic Games since, the current Olympic equestrian disciplines are Dressage, Eventing, and Jumping. In each discipline, both individual and team medals are awarded, women and men compete together on equal terms. Equestrian disciplines and the component of Modern Pentathlon are also the only Olympic events that involve animals. The horse is considered as much an athlete as the rider, the International Governing Body for equestrian sports is the Fédération Équestre Internationale. The 1924 Olympics were the first at which equestrian competitions were held under the authority of the FEI, equestrian events were first held at the 1900 Paris Olympic Games, although it did not include any of the disciplines seen today. There were 4 different equestrian events, the polo competition consisted of 4 teams made up of players from Britain, France, Mexico, Spain, and the United States. Grand Prix Jumping, which was similar to show jumping event, for which 45 competitors entered. The first and second place was taken by riders from Belgium, while a French rider, Louis de Champsavin, on his mount Terpsichore, got the third place. However, Constant van Langendonck and Extra Dry were able to clinch the gold in the Long Jump competition, clearing a distance of 6.10 meters. Trissino and Oreste won the silver, clearing 5.70 meters, equestrian competition was dropped from the 1904 Olympic Games, and owed its return to Count Clarence von Rosen, Master of the Horse to the King of Sweden, for bringing it back. The 1906 IOC Congress agreed to his proposal to add dressage, eventing, however, due to problems with the newly formed International Horse Show Committee, they were not introduced until the 1912 Games in Stockholm and only a polo event was held in 1908. These three disciplines would be held at every Summer Olympic Games through to the present day, in 1952, however, all men were permitted to compete in all equestrian disciplines, and women were permitted to compete in Dressage. Women were later permitted to compete in Jumping in 1956 and in Eventing in 1964, since then, equestrianism has been one of the very few Olympic sports in which men and women compete with and directly against one another. Following the 1900 Olympic Games, polo would be held an additional 4 times, at the 1908 London Games, the 1920 Antwerp Games, the 1924 Paris Games, the 1908 Olympics had just 3 polo teams, all representing Great Britain. The 1920 Games included a team from Belgium, Great Britain, Spain, and it was not until 1924, after Argentina sent a team to Paris, that the gold changed hands. Argentina also won gold at the 1936 Olympic Games, vaulting was only held once, at the 1920 Antwerp Games. Vaulting included both a team and a competition, with the entrants having to perform movements at the canter and at the halt
21.
Trot (horse gait)
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The trot is a two-beat diagonal gait of the horse where the diagonal pairs of legs move forward at the same time with a moment of suspension between each beat. It has a variation in possible speeds, but averages about 8 miles per hour. A very slow trot is sometimes referred to as a jog, an extremely fast trot has no special name, but in harness racing, the trot of a Standardbred is faster than the gallop of the average non-racehorse, and has been clocked at over 30 miles per hour. June 29,2014 at Pocono Downs in Pennsylvania the Swedish standardbred Sebastian K ran a mile in 1 minute,49 seconds and this is equivalent to a 1000-pace in 1.07,7 or 53,14 kilometers per hour or 33 miles per hour. From the standpoint of the balance of the horse, the trot is a very stable gait and does not require the horse to make major balancing motions with its head and neck. Due to its many variations, the trot is a gait that the horse is worked in for dressage. Eadweard Muybridge was the first to prove, by photography, in 1872 that there is a moment of suspension or unsupported transit during the trot gait. Depending on the amount of engagement and collection of the horse and it is easy to ride because there is less bounce. The head of the horse is carried low while the hindquarters are engaged and underneath the horse, collected trot, A very engaged trot where most of the horses weight is carried toward the hindquarters. The frame is compressed and the length is shorter than any of the other trots with the horse taking higher steps. The horse is lighter and more mobile in the collected trot, slow trot or Road gait, Is slower than a working trot, but faster than a jog trot. This gait is one of the used in harness classes at horse shows. Working trot or Trot, The stride length is normal for the horse and is the trot of the horse when under saddle. It is a gait between the collected trot and medium trot, medium trot, A trot that is more engaged and rounder than the working trot with moderately extended strides and good, solid impulsion. The medium trot lies between the working and the extended trot, park trot, Sometimes simply called a Trot in a given class and seen in saddle seat and fine harness classes for Saddlebreds, Arabians and Morgans. It is a showy, flashy trot with extreme elevation of the knees, the head is held high and at times a horse may hollow its back and lose cadence in an attempt to achieve high action in front. The hindquarters must be engaged for it to be properly performed, lengthened trot, A trot with lengthened strides. It differs from the more advanced extended trot in that it not require the horse to bring its weight as far back on its hindquarters
22.
Pirouette (dressage)
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A Pirouette is a French word for the Ballet reference, to whirl about. A pirouette is a lateral movement asked of a horse in dressage. Specifically, the front legs and outside hind leg should travel around the hind leg. From the part of the rider it needs much practice in collecting and balancing the horse, the horse may perform the movement at the walk or canter, although the pirouette at the walk is more commonly called the turn on the haunches. It can also be executed at piaffe, as in all dressage, the horse should remain relaxed, engaged, and responsive, with the poll as the highest point. Ideally, the pirouette will be almost in-place, although many horses perform a slightly larger pirouette, a pirouette may be performed either as a 360-degree turn,270 degrees, or 180-degrees. Some dressage tests call for two full pirouettes in a row, the walk stride has to consist of four beats. Pivoting around one hindleg without lifting it is not considered a movement, The inside hind foot is raised. When performed at the canter, the gait actually is meant to remain a three-beat action with a moment of suspension, however, the high level of collection, strength and discipline required means that it often degenerates into an incorrect four-beat motion. The correct half-pirouette in canter should take three steps or strides, the whole pirouette should take six to eight strides, the canter pirouette is a very difficult exercise when performed correctly. The horse should not throw his body around, fall inward, or let his hindquarters fall to the outside, but should remain balanced. The horse should not plant one of his legs and move around it—as seen in the western spin—but should lift them up and place them down with each stride. The horse should not lose the rhythm of the canter, or fall onto his forehand, the horse should not make an oval-shaped movement with his hindquarters, but should inscribe a perfect circle. The horse should never step back and it must not degenerate into a four-beat motion or lose its moment of suspension. To see a canter pirouette, see and, to see a walk pirouette, see. FEI Rules for Dressage Events 2011 Purity of Gaits in the Canter Pirouette Comparison of the kinematics of the canter pirouette
23.
Flying change
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Lead refers to which set of legs, left or right, leads or advances forward to a greater extent when a quadruped animal is cantering, galloping, or leaping. The feet on the leading side touch the ground forward of its partner, on the left lead, the animals left legs lead. The choice of lead is of special interest in horse riding, a lead change refers to an animal, usually a horse, moving in a canter or gallop, changing from one lead to the other. There are two forms of lead change, simple and flying. It is very easy to define the correct lead from the incorrect lead, when a horse is executing the correct lead, the inside front and hind legs reach farther forwards than the outside legs. In a transverse or lateral or united canter and gallop, the leg on the same side as the leading foreleg advances more. In horses this is the norm, in a rotatory or diagonal or disunited canter and gallop, the hind leg on the opposite side advances more. In horses, it is more often not an undesirable gait form, also known as rotary and round galloping, and as moving disunited, cross-firing. In animals such as dogs, deer, and elk, however, some authorities define the leading leg in the singular form as the last to leave the ground before the one or two periods of suspension within each stride. In these cases, because the canter has only one moment of suspension, because in some animals the gallop has two moments of suspension, some authorities recognize a lead in each pair of legs, fore and hind. So when an animal is in a rotatory gait, it is called disunited, due to different leading legs in the front and hind. A horse is balanced when on the correct lead of the canter, that is to say. If a horse is on the lead, it may be unbalanced. The standard canter is movement where the horse travels in a transverse canter bent slightly in the direction of the leading inside front and rear legs. In standard horse show competition, travel on the lead is almost always considered correct. The only exceptions are when a counter-canter is specifically requested, or in some timed events where leads are not evaluated, in equestrian competition, a show ring hand gallop, or gallop in hand is a true lengthening of stride. However, the remains in control and excess speed is penalized. Usually the constraints of an arena and the presence of other animals prevent the gait from extending into the four-beat form of the racing gallop
24.
Rollkur
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The FEI recognises a distinction between rollkur and the riding of the horse in a deep outline not achieved by force. The technique has been controversial for some time in equestrian circles, including the set up of specific petitions, despite the controversy, the technique has been used by dressage and show jumping riders. In rollkur, the horse is asked to lower his head, in the extreme, the horses mouth touches the middle of his chest. Rollkur is not a quick movement lasting a few seconds, but is held for a length of time, through work at the walk, trot, Rollkur is not just longitudinal flexion, but accompanied with repeated bending to the riders leg. Some riders who use rollkur accomplish the head position by lowering and fixing the hands until the horse yields its jaw backwards in response to the pressure on the bit and this technique goes against all classical riding. In classical dressage, the horse accepts the bit and the horse decides to come down with its head because it trusts the hands of the rider. In good companionship, it is possible to ask the horse to go a little deeper than the animal would do itself, in western pleasure and related events, the same practice has been used for decades, though not called rollkur. Usually draw reins are used to achieve hyperflexion and a very low headset that is desired in competition. Riders who practice rollkur advocate it as a training method to improve the suppleness of the horse. Proponents point to leading riders who apply this technique and have consistent winning scores in the arena as proof that the technique works and they further suggest that the process of working deep is meant to stretch and supple the back. Those who disagree with rollkur say it goes against the principles of classical dressage and this includes the fact that the horse is physically behind the vertical. This makes it difficult to check if the horse is correctly accepting the bit, during hyperflexion of the neck the cervical vertebrae are compressed, where classical dressage promotes lengthening and relaxation of the neck. With rollkur, impulsion and throughness may be lost due to a stiff, improperly stretched back. This can easily occur when the hand of the rider is not gently asking the horse to come low - and/ or the horse is not accepting the hand, a pure disadvantage is that the horse is encouraged to bring its point of gravity towards the forehand. There is also a debate as to whether rollkur constitutes animal abuse. The Rollkur Controversy Researchers explore neck hyperflexion in horses - Horsetalk. co. nz 28.1.09 Rollkur Explanation of Rollkurs Disadvantages Dutch Warmbloods study
25.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
26.
Lipizzaner
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The horses at the Spanish Riding School are trained using traditional methods that date back hundreds of years, based on the principles of classical dressage. The Lipizzan breed dates back to the 16th century, when it was developed with the support of the Habsburg nobility, the breed takes its name from one of the earliest stud farms established, located near the Karst Plateau village of Lipica, in modern-day Slovenia. The breed has been endangered numerous times by warfare sweeping Europe, including during the War of the First Coalition, World War I, the rescue of the Lipizzans during World War II by American troops was made famous by the Disney movie Miracle of the White Stallions. Along with the Disney movie, Lipizzans have also starred or played supporting roles in movies, TV shows, books. Today, eight stallions are recognized as the foundation bloodstock of the breed, all foaled the late 18th, all modern Lipizzans trace their bloodlines to these eight stallions, and all breeding stallions have included in their name the name of the foundation sire of their bloodline. There are also classic mare lines, with up to 35 recognized by breed registries. The majority of horses are registered through the organizations of the Lipizzan International Federation. The majority of Lipizzans reside in Europe, with numbers in the Americas, Africa. Generally gray in color, the Lipizzan is a breed that matures slowly and is long-lived. Most Lipizzans measure between 14.2 and 15.2 hands, however, horses bred that are closer to the original carriage-horse type are taller, approaching 16.1 hands. Lipizzans have a head, with a straight or slightly convex profile. The jaw is deep, the small, the eyes large and expressive. They have a neck that is sturdy, yet arched and withers that are low, muscular and they are a Baroque-type horse, with a wide, deep chest, broad croup and muscular shoulder. The tail is carried high and well set, the legs are well-muscled and strong, with broad joints and well-defined tendons. The feet tend to be small, but are tough, Lipizzan horses tend to mature slowly. However, they live and are longer than many other breeds, with horses performing the difficult exercises of the Spanish Riding School well into their 20s. Aside from the rare solid-colored horse, most Lipizzans are gray, like all gray horses, they have black skin, dark eyes, and as adult horses, a white hair coat. Gray horses, including Lipizzans, are born bay or black—and become lighter each year as the graying process takes place
27.
Andalusian horse
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The Andalusian, also known as the Pure Spanish Horse or PRE, is a horse breed from the Iberian Peninsula, where its ancestors have lived for thousands of years. The Andalusian has been recognized as a breed since the 15th century. Throughout its history, it has known for its prowess as a war horse. The breed was used as a tool of diplomacy by the Spanish government, during the 19th century, warfare, disease and crossbreeding reduced herd numbers dramatically, and despite some recovery in the late 19th century, the trend continued into the early 20th century. Exports of Andalusians from Spain were restricted until the 1960s, but the breed has spread throughout the world. In 2010, there were more than 185,000 registered Andalusians worldwide, strongly built, and compact yet elegant, Andalusians have long, thick manes and tails. Their most common color is gray, although they can be found in many other colors. They are known for their intelligence, sensitivity and docility, a sub-strain within the breed known as the Carthusian, is considered by breeders to be the purest strain of Andalusian, though there is no genetic evidence for this claim. The strain is considered separate from the main breed however. At least one lawsuit is in progress as of 2011, to determine the ownership of the Spanish PRE stud book, the Andalusian is closely related to the Lusitano of Portugal, and has been used to develop many other breeds, especially in Europe and the Americas. Breeds with Andalusian ancestry include many of the warmbloods in Europe as well as western hemisphere breeds such as the Azteca, over its centuries of development, the Andalusian breed has been selected for athleticism and stamina. The horses were used for classical dressage, driving, bullfighting. Modern Andalusians are used for equestrian activities, including dressage. The breed is used extensively in movies, especially historical pictures. Andalusians stallions and geldings average 15.1 1⁄2 hands at the withers and 512 kilograms in weight, mares average 15 1⁄2 hands and 412 kilograms. The Spanish legislation also requires that in order for animals to be approved as either qualified or élite breeding stock, stallions must stand at least 15.1 hands, Andalusian horses are elegant and strongly built. Members of the breed have heads of medium length, with a straight or slightly convex profile, ultra convex and concave profiles are discouraged in the breed, and are penalized in breed shows. Necks are long and broad, running to well-defined withers and a massive chest and they have a short back and broad, strong hindquarters with a well-rounded croup
28.
Friesian horse
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The Friesian is a horse breed originating in Friesland, in the Netherlands. Although the conformation of the breed resembles that of a draught horse, Friesians are graceful. It is believed that during the Middle Ages, ancestors of Friesian horses were in demand as war horses throughout continental Europe. Through the Early Middle Ages and High Middle Ages, their size enabled them to carry a knight in armour, in the Late Middle Ages, heavier, draught type animals were needed. Though the breed became extinct on more than one occasion. Most recently, the breed is being introduced to the field of dressage, in English, the word indicating origin from the Friesland region is typically spelled Frizian. However, the spelling with an s is used for Holstein Friesian cattle. In the 1930s, chestnuts and bays were seen, Friesians rarely have white markings of any kind, most registries allow only a small star on the forehead for purebred registration. To be accepted as breeding stock by the FPS studbook, a stallion must pass a rigorous approval process, horses are judged at an inspection, or keuring, by Dutch judges, who decide whether the horse is worthy of star designation. The breed has powerful overall conformation and good bone structure, with what is called a Baroque body type. Friesians have long, arched necks and well-chiseled, short-eared, Spanish-type heads and they have powerful, sloping shoulders, compact, muscular bodies with strong, sloping hindquarters and low-set tails. Their limbs are short and strong. A Friesian horse also has a long, thick mane and tail, often wavy, the breed is known for a brisk, high-stepping trot. The Friesian is considered willing, active, and energetic, a Friesian tends to have great presence and to carry itself with elegance. Today, there are two distinct conformation types—the baroque type, which has the more robust build of the classical Friesian, and the modern, sport horse type, which is finer-boned. Both types are common, though the type is currently more popular in the show ring than is the baroque Friesian. However, conformation type is considered less important than correct movement, the chestnut colour is generally not accepted for registration for stallions, though it is sometimes allowed for mares and geldings. A chestnut-coloured Friesian that competes is penalised, however, discoloration from old injuries or a black coat with fading from the sun is not penalised
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Lusitano
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The Lusitano, also known as the Pure Blood Lusitano or PSL, is a Portuguese horse breed, closely related to the Spanish Andalusian horse. Both are sometimes called Iberian horses, as the breeds both developed on the Iberian peninsula, and until the 1960s they were considered one breed, under the Andalusian name. Horses were known to be present on the Iberian Peninsula as far back as 20,000 BC, and by 800 BC the region was renowned for its war horses. When the Muslims invaded Iberia in 711 AD, they brought Barb horses with them that were crossed with the horses, developing a horse that became useful for war, dressage. In 1966, the Portuguese and Spanish stud books split, and the Portuguese strain of the Iberian horse was named the Lusitano, after the word Lusitania, there are three main breed lineages within the breed today, and characteristics differ slightly between each line. There is also the Alter Real strain of Lusitano, bred only at the Alter Real State Stud, Lusitanos can be any solid color, although they are generally gray, bay or chestnut. Horses of the Alter Real strain are always bay, members of the breed are of Baroque type, with convex facial profiles, heavy muscling, intelligent and willing natures, with agile and elevated movement. Originally bred for war, dressage and bullfighting, Lusitanos are still used today in the latter two and they have competed in several Olympics and World Equestrian Games as part of the Portuguese and Spanish dressage teams. They have also made a showing in driving competitions, with a Belgian team of Lusitanos winning multiple international titles, members of the breed are still used in bloodless bullfighting today, where it is expected that neither horse or bull will be injured. Horses were known to humans on what is now the Iberian Peninsula as far back as 25,000 to 20,000 BC and these ancient horses were used for war, with clear evidence of their use by Phoenicians around 1100 BC and Celts around 600 BC. It is believed that these also brought horses with them. By 800 BC, the known as Celtiberians had been formed by the Iberians and Celts. Xenophon, writing around 370 BC, admired the advanced horsemanship and riding techniques used by Iberian horsemen in war, later invasions into the area by Carthaginians and Romans resulted in these civilizations establishing stud farms that bred cavalry horses for the Roman army from local stock. When the Umayyad Muslims invaded the Iberian peninsula in 711 AD, their invasion brought Barb horses, the cross between these two breeds produced a war horse superior even to the original Iberian horse, and it was this new type that the Conquistadors introduced to the Americas. Called the Iberian war horse, this ancestor of the Lusitano was used both on the battlefield and in major riding academies throughout Europe, bullfighting on horseback and displays of high school dressage were common entertainment for the Portuguese gentry. Prior to modern times, horse breeds throughout Europe were known primarily by the name of the region where they were bred, the Lusitano takes its name from Lusitania, an ancient Roman name for the region that today is Portugal. A very similar horse, the Spanish Andalusian, originally described the horses of distinct quality that came from Andalusia in Spain, some sources state that the Andalusian and the Lusitano are genetically the same breed, and the only difference is the country in which individual horses are born. The Lusitano is also known as the Portuguese, Peninsular, National or Betico-lusitano horse, during the 16th and 17th centuries, horses moved continually between Spain and Portugal, and horses from the studs of Andalusia were used to improve the Portuguese cavalry
30.
Vienna
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Vienna is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austrias primary city, with a population of about 1.8 million, and its cultural, economic and it is the 7th-largest city by population within city limits in the European Union. Today, it has the second largest number of German speakers after Berlin, Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city is located in the part of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region, along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site, apart from being regarded as the City of Music because of its musical legacy, Vienna is also said to be The City of Dreams because it was home to the worlds first psycho-analyst – Sigmund Freud. The citys roots lie in early Celtic and Roman settlements that transformed into a Medieval and Baroque city and it is well known for having played an essential role as a leading European music centre, from the great age of Viennese Classicism through the early part of the 20th century. The historic centre of Vienna is rich in architectural ensembles, including Baroque castles and gardens, Vienna is known for its high quality of life. In a 2005 study of 127 world cities, the Economist Intelligence Unit ranked the city first for the worlds most liveable cities, between 2011 and 2015, Vienna was ranked second, behind Melbourne, Australia. Monocles 2015 Quality of Life Survey ranked Vienna second on a list of the top 25 cities in the world to make a base within, the UN-Habitat has classified Vienna as being the most prosperous city in the world in 2012/2013. Vienna regularly hosts urban planning conferences and is used as a case study by urban planners. Between 2005 and 2010, Vienna was the worlds number-one destination for international congresses and it attracts over 3.7 million tourists a year. The English name Vienna is borrowed from the homonymous Italian version of the name or the French Vienne. The etymology of the name is still subject to scholarly dispute. Some claim that the name comes from Vedunia, meaning forest stream, which produced the Old High German Uuenia. A variant of this Celtic name could be preserved in the Czech and Slovak names of the city, the name of the city in Hungarian, Serbo-Croatian and Ottoman Turkish has a different, probably Slavonic origin, and originally referred to an Avar fort in the area. Slovene-speakers call the city Dunaj, which in other Central European Slavic languages means the Danube River, evidence has been found of continuous habitation since 500 BC, when the site of Vienna on the Danube River was settled by the Celts. In 15 BC, the Romans fortified the city they called Vindobona to guard the empire against Germanic tribes to the north
31.
Cadre Noir
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The Cadre Noir is a corps of ecuyers, or instructors, at the French military riding academy École Nationale dÉquitation at Saumur in western France, founded in 1828. It also performs as a display team. Its name comes from the uniforms that are still in use today. It is considered one of the most prestigious schools in the world. The historic role of the Saumur School of Cavalry was to provide training for the officers, in 1843, François Baucher introduced his method into the school. This event marked the beginning of a war between the vicomte dAure and Baucher, which continued for several years. After World War II the mounted element of the French Army had been reduced to a few squadrons of North African spahis, accordingly, in 1972, the National School of Équitation was constituted around the Cadre Noir, which provided its core teaching staff. Today, there are about 50 horses and a team of elite riders, the members of the Cadre Noir have either civilian or military status. Military and civilian riders are distinguished by the insignia on their collar, some of the riders have reached the highest level of international sport, being Olympic or world champions. The Cadre Noir mainly uses Thoroughbreds, Anglo-Arabians, Hanoverians and Selle Français, the Thoroughbreds and Anglo Arabians are used for the Grand Prix dressage, and perform individually, pas de deux, pas de trois, and dûe quantité. They may be displayed in hand or ridden. The Selle Français are used to display the airs above the ground
32.
Saumur
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Saumur is a commune in the Maine-et-Loire department in western France. Its skyline has often compared with that of Bratislava, the capital of Slovakia. Early settlement of the region goes back thousands of years. The Dolmen de Bagneux on the south of the town, is 23 meters long and is built from 15 large slabs of the local stone and it is the largest in France. The Château de Saumur was constructed in the 10th century to protect the Loire river crossing from Norman attacks after the settlement of Saumur was sacked in 845. The castle, destroyed in 1067 and inherited by the House of Plantagenet, was rebuilt by Henry II of England in the later 12th century and it changed hands several times between Anjou and France until 1589. Houses in Saumur are constructed almost exclusively of the beautiful, but fragile, the caves dug to excavate the stone have become tunnels and have been used by the local vineyards as locations to store their wines. Amyraldism, or the School of Saumur, is the used to denote a distinctive form of Reformed theology taught by Moses Amyraut at the University of Saumur in the 17th century. Saumur is also the scene for Balzacs novel Eugénie Grandet, written by the French author in 1833, prior to the French Revolution Saumur was the capital of the Sénéchaussée de Saumur, a bailiwick, which existed until 1793. Saumur was then the location of the Battle of Saumur during the Revolt in the Vendée, becoming a state prison under Napoleon Bonaparte. The town was a centre with both the military cavalry school from 1783 and later the Cadre Noir based there. In 1944 it was the target of Tallboy and Azon bombing raids by Allied planes, the first raid, on 8/9 June 1944, was against a railway tunnel near Saumur, seeing the first use of the 12,000 lb Tallboy earthquake bombs. The hastily organized night raid was to stop a planned German Panzer Division, the panzers were expected to use the railway to cross the Loire. No.83 Squadron RAF illuminated the area with flares by four Avro Lancasters,25 Lancasters of No.617 Squadron RAF, the Dambusters then dropped their Tallboys from 18,000 ft with great accuracy. The damaged tunnel was dug out to make a deeper cutting, resulting in the need for a second attack. On 22 June, nine Consolidated B-24 Liberators of the United States Army Air Forces used the new Azon 1,000 lb glide bombs against the Saumur rail bridge and they failed to destroy the bridge. During the morning of 24 June,38 American Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses with conventional bombs attacked the bridge, the town of Saumur was awarded the Croix de Guerre with palm for its resistance and display of French patriotism during the war. Saumur is home to the Cadre Noir, the École Nationale dÉquitation, known for its horse shows, as well as the Armoured Branch and Cavalry Training School
33.
Lipizzan
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The horses at the Spanish Riding School are trained using traditional methods that date back hundreds of years, based on the principles of classical dressage. The Lipizzan breed dates back to the 16th century, when it was developed with the support of the Habsburg nobility, the breed takes its name from one of the earliest stud farms established, located near the Karst Plateau village of Lipica, in modern-day Slovenia. The breed has been endangered numerous times by warfare sweeping Europe, including during the War of the First Coalition, World War I, the rescue of the Lipizzans during World War II by American troops was made famous by the Disney movie Miracle of the White Stallions. Along with the Disney movie, Lipizzans have also starred or played supporting roles in movies, TV shows, books. Today, eight stallions are recognized as the foundation bloodstock of the breed, all foaled the late 18th, all modern Lipizzans trace their bloodlines to these eight stallions, and all breeding stallions have included in their name the name of the foundation sire of their bloodline. There are also classic mare lines, with up to 35 recognized by breed registries. The majority of horses are registered through the organizations of the Lipizzan International Federation. The majority of Lipizzans reside in Europe, with numbers in the Americas, Africa. Generally gray in color, the Lipizzan is a breed that matures slowly and is long-lived. Most Lipizzans measure between 14.2 and 15.2 hands, however, horses bred that are closer to the original carriage-horse type are taller, approaching 16.1 hands. Lipizzans have a head, with a straight or slightly convex profile. The jaw is deep, the small, the eyes large and expressive. They have a neck that is sturdy, yet arched and withers that are low, muscular and they are a Baroque-type horse, with a wide, deep chest, broad croup and muscular shoulder. The tail is carried high and well set, the legs are well-muscled and strong, with broad joints and well-defined tendons. The feet tend to be small, but are tough, Lipizzan horses tend to mature slowly. However, they live and are longer than many other breeds, with horses performing the difficult exercises of the Spanish Riding School well into their 20s. Aside from the rare solid-colored horse, most Lipizzans are gray, like all gray horses, they have black skin, dark eyes, and as adult horses, a white hair coat. Gray horses, including Lipizzans, are born bay or black—and become lighter each year as the graying process takes place
34.
Lisbon
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Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal, with a population of 552,700 within its administrative limits in an area of 100.05 km². Its urban area extends beyond the administrative limits with a population of around 2.7 million people. About 2.8 million people live in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area and it is continental Europes westernmost capital city and the only one along the Atlantic coast. Lisbon lies in the western Iberian Peninsula on the Atlantic Ocean, the westernmost areas of its metro area is the westernmost point of Continental Europe. Lisbon is recognised as a city because of its importance in finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, education. It is one of the economic centres on the continent, with a growing financial sector. Humberto Delgado Airport serves over 20 million passengers annually, as of 2015, and the motorway network, the city is the 7th-most-visited city in Southern Europe, after Istanbul, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Athens and Milan, with 1,740,000 tourists in 2009. The Lisbon region contributes with a higher GDP PPP per capita than any region in Portugal. Its GDP amounts to 96.3 billion USD and thus $32,434 per capita, the city occupies 32nd place of highest gross earnings in the world. Most of the headquarters of multinationals in the country are located in the Lisbon area and it is also the political centre of the country, as its seat of Government and residence of the Head of State. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world, julius Caesar made it a municipium called Felicitas Julia, adding to the name Olissipo. Ruled by a series of Germanic tribes from the 5th century, in 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city and since then it has been a major political, economic and cultural centre of Portugal. Unlike most capital cities, Lisbons status as the capital of Portugal has never been granted or confirmed officially – by statute or in written form. Its position as the capital has formed through constitutional convention, making its position as de facto capital a part of the Constitution of Portugal. It has one of the warmest winters of any metropolis in Europe, the typical summer season lasts about four months, from June to September, although also in April temperatures sometimes reach around 25 °C. Although modern archaeological excavations show a Phoenician presence at this location since 1200 BC, another conjecture based on ancient hydronymy suggests that the name of the settlement derived from the pre-Roman appellation for the Tagus, Lisso or Lucio. Lisbons name was written Ulyssippo in Latin by the geographer Pomponius Mela and it was later referred to as Olisippo by Pliny the Elder and by the Greeks as Olissipo or Olissipona. The Indo-European Celts invaded in the 1st millennium BC, mixing with the Pre-Indo-European population and this indigenous settlement maintained commercial relations with the Phoenicians, which would account for the recent findings of Phoenician pottery and other material objects
35.
Texcoco, State of Mexico
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Texcoco is a city and municipality located in the State of Mexico,25 km northeast of Mexico City. In the pre-Hispanic era, this was a major Aztec city on the shores of Lake Texcoco, after the Conquest, the city was initially the second most important after Mexico City, but its importance faded over time, becoming more rural in character. Over the colonial and post-independence periods, most of Lake Texcoco was drained, numerous Aztec archeological finds have been discovered here, including the 125 tonne stone statue of Tlaloc, which now resides at the Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City. Much of Texcocos recent history involves the clash of the populace with local, state, the most serious of these is the continued attempts to develop an airport here, which despite the saturation of the current Mexico City airport, is opposed by local residents. The city and municipality is home to a number of sites, such as the palace of Nezahualcoyotl, Texcotzingo. Other important sites include the Cathedral, the Juanino Monastery, the most important annual festival is the Feria Internacional del Caballo, which showcases the area’s mostly agricultural economic base. The official name of the municipality is Texcoco and the name of the city is Texcoco de Mora. However, both are commonly called Texcoco, the name has been spelled a number of other ways over the city’s history including Tetzcuco, Tezcoco and Tezcuco. The name is derived from Nahuatl and most likely means “among the jarilla which grow in crags”. The Paleontological Museum in Tocuila displays part of one of the richest deposits of Late Pleistocene fauna in the Americas, while there is no exact date for the first human settlements in Texcoco, it is likely that the first people here were Toltec or from Teotihuacan. The Xototl, Tolotzin and Quinatzin Codices indicate that the first people here were ethnically Chichimeca and this tribe is credited for founding a province known in pre-Hispanic Valley of Mexico as Acolhuacan. The most notable rulers of Acolhuacan, who resided in Texcoco were Nopaltzin, Tlotzin Pochotl, Quinatzin, Techotlalatzin, Ixtlixochitl El Viejo, Nezahualcoyotl, Nezahualpilli, all of these rulers were considered to be great warriors and priests who influenced the history of this valley. The most prominent of these rulers was Nezahualcoyotl who was one of the founders of the Aztec Triple Alliance, during his forty-year reign, the arts, culture and architecture flourished in the dominion. Hernán Cortés initially arrived to Texcoco in 1519, while Cacamatzin was leader, here the brigantines to attack Tenochtitlan were constructed in 1521. On Juárez Street there is an obelisk which marks this event, after the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire, Franciscan friars came to Texcoco to evangelize, principally Juan de Tecto, Juan de Ayora and Pedro de Gante. Gante founded the first primary school in Mesoamerica, teaching Latin, Spanish, sewing, carpentry and he also wrote the first catechism in Nahuatl. In the north of the Texcoco cathedral, there is a named after him. In 1551, indigenous leader Fernando Pimentel y Alvarado petitioned to have Texcoco recognized as a city by the Spanish Crown and this petition was granted and it received a coat of arms
36.
South African Lipizzaners
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The South African Lipizzaners is the name of a riding academy that operates according to the classical model in Kyalami, Midrand, South Africa. In contrast to other classical riding schools, only women ride, public performances take place every week on Sundays. There is also a stud farm that provides horses for the academy as well as preserving a valuable genetic outcross pool for European studs. The Janković-Bésán family was known as influential breeders of Lipizzan horses. The animals they bred included Tulipan, founder of the bloodline of the same name. They also preserved an important branch of the Pluto bloodline, about 1890, the family stud farm at Terezovac, a part of the Janković-Bésán estate, was split up because of an inheritance issue. As a result, a second stud was founded in Cabuna, after the resolution of yet another dispute over the Slavonian property of the Janković-Bésáns in the late 1920s, the horse breeding operation then moved to Öreglak in Hungary. In 1944, the owner of the stud, Count Janković-Bésán, was forced to flee Hungary due to the advance of the Red Army and he left with eight Lipizzans, six mares and two stallions. He first went to Sünching, Germany, where his parents farm was located. Then, in December,1948, Janković-Bésán brought the horses to South Africa where he settled in Mooi River in KwaZulu-Natal, major George Iwanowski, a former Polish cavalry officer, set up the tradition of classical horsemanship in South Africa on his own. Iwanowski was born on the property of his family in Lebiodka and he earned a degree at the College of Agriculture in Warsaw. In his dissertation, he wrote about horse breeding, after two years as an assistant manager of the Polish National Stud in Bogusławice, he finished cavalry school and went into the army. After the Second World War he took over Gestüt Lauvenburg in Rhineland for two years, then he went to South Africa. He and Josy Hicks founded Centaur Stables in Johannesburg and this later became the first home of the South African Lipizzaners. The relationship between Janković-Bésáns horses and the talents of Iwanowski began in 1951, when the two men met at the Royal Agricultural Show in Pietermaritzburg. Janković-Bésán then invited Iwanowski to his farm in Mooi River, Iwanowski trained the stallion up to the Haute ecole level. Later Janković-Bésán had to sell his herd, which consisted of 6 stallions,9 mares and 3 fillies. They were purchased by Jack and Angela Irvin, about 1972, the Irvins went to Vienna and imported the stallion Maestoso Palmira to add new blood to the herd in order to prevent inbreeding
37.
South Africa
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South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is the southernmost country in Africa. South Africa is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area and it is the southernmost country on the mainland of the Old World or the Eastern Hemisphere. About 80 percent of South Africans are of Sub-Saharan African ancestry, divided among a variety of ethnic groups speaking different Bantu languages, the remaining population consists of Africas largest communities of European, Asian, and multiracial ancestry. South Africa is a multiethnic society encompassing a variety of cultures, languages. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the recognition of 11 official languages. The country is one of the few in Africa never to have had a coup détat, however, the vast majority of black South Africans were not enfranchised until 1994. During the 20th century, the black majority sought to recover its rights from the dominant white minority, with this struggle playing a role in the countrys recent history. The National Party imposed apartheid in 1948, institutionalising previous racial segregation, since 1994, all ethnic and linguistic groups have held political representation in the countrys democracy, which comprises a parliamentary republic and nine provinces. South Africa is often referred to as the Rainbow Nation to describe the multicultural diversity. The World Bank classifies South Africa as an economy. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world, in terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed, nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence. The name South Africa is derived from the geographic location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, since 1961 the long form name in English has been the Republic of South Africa. In Dutch the country was named Republiek van Zuid-Afrika, replaced in 1983 by the Afrikaans Republiek van Suid-Afrika, since 1994 the Republic has had an official name in each of its 11 official languages. Mzansi, derived from the Xhosa noun umzantsi meaning south, is a name for South Africa. South Africa contains some of the oldest archaeological and human fossil sites in the world, extensive fossil remains have been recovered from a series of caves in Gauteng Province. The area is a UNESCO World Heritage site and has termed the Cradle of Humankind
38.
Portugal
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Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. It is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, to the west and south it is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and to the east and north by Spain. The Portugal–Spain border is 1,214 kilometres long and considered the longest uninterrupted border within the European Union, the republic also includes the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira, both autonomous regions with their own regional governments. The territory of modern Portugal has been settled, invaded. The Pre-Celts, Celts, Carthaginians and the Romans were followed by the invasions of the Visigothic, in 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by the Moors, making Portugal part of Muslim Al Andalus. Portugal was born as result of the Christian Reconquista, and in 1139, Afonso Henriques was proclaimed King of Portugal, in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal established the first global empire, becoming one of the worlds major economic, political and military powers. Portugal monopolized the trade during this time, and the Portuguese Empire expanded with military campaigns led in Asia. After the 1910 revolution deposed the monarchy, the democratic but unstable Portuguese First Republic was established, democracy was restored after the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution in 1974. Shortly after, independence was granted to almost all its overseas territories, Portugal has left a profound cultural and architectural influence across the globe and a legacy of over 250 million Portuguese speakers today. Portugal is a country with a high-income advanced economy and a high living standard. It is the 5th most peaceful country in the world, maintaining a unitary semi-presidential republican form of government and it has the 18th highest Social Progress in the world, putting it ahead of other Western European countries like France, Spain and Italy. Portugal is a pioneer when it comes to drug decriminalization, as the nation decriminalized the possession of all drugs for use in 2001. The early history of Portugal is shared with the rest of the Iberian Peninsula located in South Western Europe, the name of Portugal derives from the joined Romano-Celtic name Portus Cale. Other influences include some 5th-century vestiges of Alan settlements, which were found in Alenquer, Coimbra, the region of present-day Portugal was inhabited by Neanderthals and then by Homo sapiens, who roamed the border-less region of the northern Iberian peninsula. These were subsistence societies that, although they did not establish prosperous settlements, neolithic Portugal experimented with domestication of herding animals, the raising of some cereal crops and fluvial or marine fishing. Chief among these tribes were the Calaicians or Gallaeci of Northern Portugal, the Lusitanians of central Portugal, the Celtici of Alentejo, a few small, semi-permanent, commercial coastal settlements were also founded in the Algarve region by Phoenicians-Carthaginians. Romans first invaded the Iberian Peninsula in 219 BC, during the last days of Julius Caesar, almost the entire peninsula had been annexed to the Roman Republic. The Carthaginians, Romes adversary in the Punic Wars, were expelled from their coastal colonies and it suffered a severe setback in 150 BC, when a rebellion began in the north
39.
On Horsemanship
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On Horsemanship is the English title usually given to Περὶ ἱππικῆς, peri hippikēs, one of the two treatises on horsemanship by the Athenian historian and soldier Xenophon. Other common titles for this work are De equis alendis and The Art of Horsemanship, the other work by Xenophon on horsemanship is Ἱππαρχικὸς, hipparchikos, usually known as Hipparchicus, or The cavalry commander. The title De re equestri may refer to either of the two, on horsemanship deals with the selection, care and training of horses in general. Military training and the duties of the commander are dealt with in the Hipparchicus. A treatise on horsemanship by Pliny the Elder is believed lost, as was that by Simon of Athens, some fragments of Simons treatise survive, however, they were published by Ruehl in 1912. The first printed edition of On horsemanship is that in the edition of Xenophon of 1516 from the Giunti press. Ταδε ̓ενεστιν ̓εν τͅηδε τͅη βιβλͅω· Ξενοφωντος Κυρου Παιδειας βιβλια ηʹ, venatoria. de re equestri. de equis alendis, lacedæmonum resp. atheniensium resp. Florentiæ, In ædibus P. Juntæ,1516 The earliest printing in Greek in England may be, the Art of Horsemanship by Xenophon Boston, Little, Brown 1893 pp. He is especially careful to stress the importance of soundness and his recommendations include, A hoof of thick horn, and a frog that is held off the ground. Xenophon believed this would allow the horse to see what was in front of him. It is interesting to note that many of Xenophons suggestions are still applied today when selecting a sport horse, Xenophon first makes a point to say that the reader should not waste his time nor endanger his health by personally breaking colts. Before the horse is delivered to the trainer, the owner should know that he has a good temperament, the horse should trust people, knowing that they are the providers of food and water. If this is correctly, the young colt should grow to love people. The groom should stroke or scratch the colt, so that he enjoys human company, if the colt is frightened, the groom should reassure him, rather than punish him, and teach the animal that there is nothing to fear. Xenophon writes that these passages are to help the reader from being cheated, the age of the horse should first be determined. To do so, Xenophon directs the reader to look at the horses teeth, if the horse has lost all of his milk teeth, the author suggests the reader not buy the horse. The horse should then be bridled, to make sure he accepts the bit and he should then be ridden away from the stable, to see if he is willing to leave other horses. The softness of the mouth may be determined by performing a volte in both directions
40.
Antoine de Pluvinel
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Antoine de Pluvinel was the first of the French riding masters, and has had great influence on modern dressage. Antoine de Pluvinel was born in the town of Crest, then in the province of the Dauphiné in France and his date of birth is given as 1552 by Terrebasse, where it is based on the Mémoire of Pluvinels son-in-law. It is given as 1555 by several authors including Saurel, Christian, Mennessier, and Monteilhet. Antoine de Pluvinel left for Italy at the age of 10 or seventeen to begin studying horsemanship under Giovanni Battista Pignatelli, and trained under him until 1571 or 1572. He then returned to France to study under M. de Sourdis, before becoming the premier ecuyer to the Duc dAnjou, after the death of King Charles IX, Henri returned to France, taking Pluvinel with him. The diary of Jean Héroard describes the relationships between the King and his sub-governor, in 1594, Pluvinel founded the Academie dEquitation near what is now Place des Pyramides, a long-time dream. Richelieu, the future Prime minister of King Louis XIII attended the Academie, so did William, Pluvinel died on 24 August 1620, leaving no male heir. His name passed on his nephews La Baume, who were authorized to add Pluvinel to their own name and later became marquesses of la Baume de Pluvinel. In 1625 the book was published in its form, having been edited by Pluvinels friend Menou de Charnizay. It has since been re-printed several times, and translated into many languages, Pluvinel is perhaps most well known for his kind, humane training methods. Unlike his Italian teacher Pignatelli, who often used methods to gain obedience from the horse, Pluvinel used praise, careful use of aids. He is also credited with the use of the pillars, and he used extensively in his training of collection. Additionally, he employed the two-track movements, such as shoulder-in and his theories include that the horse must take pleasure in work, due to gentle, understanding riding, and that such a horse will move much more gracefully if he enjoys being ridden. Le tout gravé et représenté en grandes figures de taille-douce par Crispian de Pas, Paris, Guillaume le Noir et Melchior Tavernier,1623 LInstruction du Roy en lexercice de monter à cheval, par messire Antoine de Pluvinel. Enrichy de grandes figures en taille-douce, desseignées et gravées par Crispian de Pas le jeune Paris, Michel Nivelle,1625 Pluvinel-quotes at Artisticdressage
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King Louis XIII
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Louis XIII was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France from 1610 to 1643 and King of Navarre from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. Shortly before his birthday, Louis became king of France. His mother, Marie de Medici, acted as regent during his minority, Louis XIII, taciturn and suspicious, relied heavily on his chief ministers, first Charles dAlbert, duc de Luynes then Cardinal Richelieu, to govern the kingdom of France. King and cardinal are remembered for establishing the Académie française, the reign of Louis the Just was also marked by the struggles against Huguenots and Habsburg Spain. This battle marked the end of Spains military ascendancy in Europe and foreshadowed French dominance in Europe under Louis XIV, his son, born at the Château de Fontainebleau, Louis XIII was the oldest child of King Henry IV of France and his second wife Marie de Medici. As son of the king, he was a Fils de France and his father Henry IV was the first French king of the House of Bourbon, having succeeded his ninth cousin, Henry III of France, in application of Salic law. Louis XIIIs paternal grandparents were Antoine de Bourbon, duc de Vendôme and his maternal grandparents were Francesco I de Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Joanna of Austria, Grand Duchess of Tuscany. Eleonora de Medici, his aunt, was his godmother. His mother Marie de Medici acted as Regent until 1617, although Louis XIII became of age at thirteen, his mother did not give up her position as Regent until 1617. Marie maintained most of her husbands ministers, with the exception of Maximilien de Béthune, Duke of Sully and she mainly relied on Nicolas de Neufville, seigneur de Villeroy, Noël Brûlart de Sillery, and Pierre Jeannin for political advice. Marie pursued a policy, confirming the Edict of Nantes. She was not, however, able to prevent rebellion by nobles such as Henri, Prince of Condé second in line to the throne after Maries second surviving son Gaston, Duke of Orléans. Condé squabbled with Marie in 1614, and briefly raised an army, but he found support in the country. Nevertheless, Marie agreed to call an Estates General assembly to address Condés grievances, the assembly of this Estates General was delayed until Louis XIII formally came of age on his thirteenth birthday. Although Louiss coming-of-age formally ended Maries Regency, she remained the de facto ruler of France, the Estates General accomplished little, spending its time discussing the relationship of France to the Papacy and the venality of offices, but reaching no resolutions. Beginning in 1615, Marie came to rely increasingly on the Italian Concino Concini, Concini was widely unpopular because he was a foreigner. This further antagonised Condé, who launched another rebellion in 1616, Huguenot leaders supported Condés rebellion, which led the young Louis XIII to conclude that they would never be loyal subjects. Eventually, Condé and Queen Marie made peace via the Treaty of Loudun, which allowed Condé great power in government, but did not remove Concini
