1.
Punchcutting
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Punchcutting is a craft used in traditional typography to cut letter punches in steel from which matrices were made in copper for type founding in the letterpress era. Cutting punches and casting type was the first step of traditional typesetting, the cutting of letter punches was a highly skilled craft requiring much patience and practice. Often the designer of the type would not be involved in the cutting. The angle of the side of the punch was particularly significant, the punchcutter begins by transferring the outline of a letter design to one end of a steel bar. The outer shape of the punch could be cut directly, but the curves of a small punch were particularly difficult as it was necessary to cut deep enough. While this can be done with cutting tools, a counterpunch, a counterpunch could be used to create this negative space, not just where the space was completely enclosed by the letter, but in any concavity. Of course, the counterpunch had to be harder than the punch itself and this was accomplished by annealing the punch blank, and hardening and tempering the counterpunch. Such a tool solved two issues, one technical and one aesthetic, that arose in punchcutting, often the same counterpunch could be used for several letters in a typeface. For example, the space inside an uppercase P and R is usually very similar. Counterpunches were regularly used in this way to give typefaces a more consistent look, the counterpunch would be struck into the face of the punch. The outer form of the letter is then shaped using files, to test the punch, the punchcutter makes an imprint on a piece of paper after coating the punch with soot from an open flame. The soot left by the flame acts like ink to create an image on the paper, once the punches are ready a mold could then be created from the punch by using the punch on a softer metal to create a matrix. Then, type metal, an alloy of lead, antimony, one characteristic of type metal that makes it valuable for this use is that it expands as it cools, keeping the accurate dimensions of letters. This characteristic is shared by the used to cast sculptures. Bradford Industrial Museum Commemorative coin Letterpress printing Amoretti Brothers
2.
Paris
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Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
3.
Engraving
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Engraving is the practice of incising a design onto a hard, usually flat surface by cutting grooves into it. Wood engraving is a form of printing and is not covered in this article. Engraving was an important method of producing images on paper in artistic printmaking, in mapmaking. Other terms often used for printed engravings are copper engraving, copper-plate engraving or line engraving, hand engraving is a term sometimes used for engraving objects other than printing plates, to inscribe or decorate jewellery, firearms, trophies, knives and other fine metal goods. Traditional engravings in printmaking are also engraved, using just the same techniques to make the lines in the plate. Each graver is different and has its own use, engravers use a hardened steel tool called a burin, or graver, to cut the design into the surface, most traditionally a copper plate. Modern professional engravers can engrave with a resolution of up to 40 lines per mm in high grade work creating game scenes, dies used in mass production of molded parts are sometimes hand engraved to add special touches or certain information such as part numbers. In addition to engraving, there are engraving machines that require less human finesse and are not directly controlled by hand. They are usually used for lettering, using a pantographic system, there are versions for the insides of rings and also the outsides of larger pieces. Such machines are used for inscriptions on rings, lockets. Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that yield different line types, the burin produces a unique and recognizable quality of line that is characterized by its steady, deliberate appearance and clean edges. The angle tint tool has a curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines incised into them, ring gravers are made with particular shapes that are used by jewelry engravers in order to cut inscriptions inside rings. Flat gravers are used for work on letters, as well as wriggle cuts on most musical instrument engraving work, remove background. Knife gravers are for line engraving and very deep cuts, round gravers, and flat gravers with a radius, are commonly used on silver to create bright cuts, as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel. Square or V-point gravers are typically square or elongated diamond-shaped and used for cutting straight lines, V-point can be anywhere from 60 to 130 degrees, depending on purpose and effect. These gravers have very small cutting points, other tools such as mezzotint rockers, roulets and burnishers are used for texturing effects. Burnishing tools can also be used for stone setting techniques
4.
Quill
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A quill pen is a writing implement made from a moulted flight feather of a large bird. Quills were used for writing with ink before the invention of the dip pen, the pen, the fountain pen, and, eventually. The hand-cut goose quill is rarely used as a tool, because many papers are now derived from wood pulp. However, it is still the tool of choice for a few professionals, in a carefully prepared quill the slit does not widen through wetting and drying with ink. It will retain its shape adequately and only requires infrequent sharpening, the hollow shaft of the feather acts as an ink reservoir and ink flows to the tip by capillary action. The strongest quills come from the flight feathers discarded by birds during their annual moult. Generally the left wing is favored by the majority of writers because the feather curves away from the sight line. The quill barrel is cut to six or seven inches in length, additionally, writing with the left-hand in the long era of the quill was discouraged, and quills were never sold as left and right-handed, only by their size and species. Goose feathers are most commonly used, scarcer, more expensive swan feathers are used for larger lettering, on a true quill the barbs are always stripped off completely on the trailing edge. Later a fashion developed for stripping partially and leaving a decorative top of a few barbs, the fancy, fully plumed quill is mostly a Hollywood invention and has little basis in reality. Most, if not all, manuscript illustrations of scribes show a quill devoid of decorative barbs, quill pens were used to write the vast majority of medieval manuscripts, the Magna Carta and the Declaration of Independence. Quill pens are used today mainly by professional scribes and calligraphers. Quills are also used as the material in string instruments. Quills were the writing instrument in the Western World from the 6th to the 19th century. The best quills were usually made from goose, swan, quills went into decline after the invention of the metal pen, mass production beginning in Great Britain as early as 1822 by John Mitchell of Birmingham. Quill pens were the instrument of choice during the medieval era due to their compatibility with parchment, prior to this the reed pen had been used, but a finer letter was achieved on animal skin using a cured quill. Other than written text, they were used to create figures, decorations. The variety of different strokes in formal hands was accomplished by good penmanship as the tip was square cut and rigid and this has been done since the earliest sessions of the Court
5.
Typeface
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In metal typesetting, a font is a particular size, weight and style of a typeface. Each font was a set of type, one piece for each glyph. In modern usage, with the advent of digital typography, font is frequently synonymous with typeface, in particular, the use of vector or outline fonts means that different sizes of a typeface can be dynamically generated from one design. The word font derives from Middle French fonte melted, a casting, the term refers to the process of casting metal type at a type foundry. In a manual printing house the word font would refer to a set of metal type that would be used to typeset an entire page. Unlike a digital typeface it would not include a definition of each character. A font when bought new would often be sold as 12pt 14A 34a, meaning that it would be a size 12-point font containing 14 uppercase As, given the name upper and lowercase because of which case the metal type was located in, otherwise known as majuscule and minuscule. The rest of the characters would be provided in quantities appropriate for the distribution of letters in that language. Some metal type characters required in typesetting, such as dashes, spaces and line-height spacers, were not part of a specific font, line spacing is still often called leading, because the strips used for line spacing were made of lead. In the 1880s–90s, hot lead typesetting was invented, in which type was cast as it was set, either piece by piece or in entire lines of type at one time. In European alphabetic scripts, i. e. Latin, Cyrillic and Greek, the main properties are the stroke width, called weight, the style or angle. The regular or standard font is sometimes labeled roman, both to distinguish it from bold or thin and from italic or oblique. The keyword for the default, regular case is often omitted for variants and never repeated, otherwise it would be Bulmer regular italic, Bulmer bold regular, Roman can also refer to the language coverage of a font, acting as a shorthand for Western European. Different fonts of the same typeface may be used in the work for various degrees of readability and emphasis. The weight of a font is the thickness of the character outlines relative to their height. A typeface may come in fonts of many weights, from ultra-light to extra-bold or black, four to six weights are not unusual, many typefaces for office, web and non-professional use come with just a normal and a bold weight which are linked together. If no bold weight is provided, many renderers support faking a bolder font by rendering the outline a second time at an offset, the base weight differs among typefaces, that means one normal font may appear bolder than some other normal font. For example, fonts intended to be used in posters are often quite bold by default while fonts for long runs of text are rather light, therefore, weight designations in font names may differ in regard to the actual absolute stroke weight or density of glyphs in the font
6.
Garamond
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Garamond is a group of many old-style serif typefaces, originally those designed by Parisian craftsman Claude Garamond and other 16th century French engravers, and now many modern revivals. Though his name was written as Garamont in his lifetime, the typefaces are generally spelled Garamond, Garamond worked as an engraver of punches, the masters used to stamp matrices, the moulds used to cast metal type. Therefore, the term Garamond in modern use may be understood to mean typefaces based on the appearance of early modern French printing, not necessarily specifically Garamonds work. Some distinctive characteristics in Garamonds letters are the eye of the e and the bowl of the a. Garamond typefaces are popular and often used, particularly for printing body text, since around 1910, many modern revivals of Garamond and related typefaces have been developed. Among these, the versions of Adobe Garamond, Granjon, Sabon. It is common to pair these with italics based on those created by his contemporary Robert Granjon, however, many Garamond revivals are actually based on the work of a later punch-cutter, Jean Jannon, whose work was for some years misattributed to Garamond. Modern Garamond revivals also often add a matching bold and lining numbers at the height of capital letters, the most common digital release of Garamond is Monotype Garamond. Bundled with many Microsoft products, it is a revival of Jannons work, Garamond designed type in the roman, or upright style, in italic, and Greek. In the period of Garamonds early life roman type had been displacing the blackletter or Gothic type which was used in much early French printing. The roman designs of Garamond which are his most imitated were based on a cut in 1495–1496 for the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius by Francesco Griffo. Historian Beatrice Warde has assessed De Aetna as something of a pilot project, French typefounders of the 16th century assiduously examined Manutiuss work as a source of inspiration. This examination extended to in some cases copying his first M shown in De Aetna which had no serif pointing out of the letter at top right, the period from 1520 to around 1560, encompassing Garamonds career, was an extremely busy period for typeface creation. Many fonts were created, some apparently for use by a specific printer. This period saw the creation of a pool of high-quality punches and matrices that would supply the French printing industry, to a large extent, Garamond was born perhaps around 1510, but very little is known about his life or work before 1540. He worked for a variety of employers on commission, creating punches for publishers, Garamonds typefaces were popular abroad, and replaced Griffos original roman type at the Aldine Press in Venice. He also worked as a publisher and bookseller, how many italics Garamond cut himself is unknown. This style is impractical for modern setting of text, since it requires careful manual choice of characters for every word
7.
New Testament
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The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
8.
Sans-serif
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In typography and lettering, a sans-serif, sans serif, gothic, or simply sans letterform is one that does not have extending features called serifs at the end of strokes. Sans-serif fonts tend to have less line width variation than serif fonts, in most print, they are often used for headings rather than for body text. They are often used to convey simplicity and modernity or minimalism, Sans-serif fonts have become the most prevalent for display of text on computer screens. On lower-resolution digital displays, fine details like serifs may disappear or appear too large, the term comes from the French word sans, meaning without and serif of uncertain origin, possibly from the Dutch word schreef meaning line or pen-stroke. Before the term became common in English typography, a number of other terms had been used. One of these terms for sans serif was gothic, which is still used in East Asian typography and sometimes seen in font names like Century Gothic, Highway Gothic. Sans-serif fonts are sometimes, especially in older documents, used as a device for emphasis and this group features most of the early sans-serif designs. Influenced by Didone serif fonts of the period and signpainting traditions, the early sans-serif typefaces often did not feature a lower case or italics, since they were not needed for such uses. They were sometimes released by width, with a range of widths from extended to normal to condensed, with each different, meaning to modern eyes they can look quite irregular. Grotesque fonts have limited variation of stroke width, the terminals of curves are usually horizontal, and many have a spurred G and an R with a curled leg. Capitals tend to be of uniform width. Cap height and ascender height are generally the same to create a more regular effect in such as titles with many capital letters. Most avoid having a true italic in favour of a more restrained oblique or sloped design, Akzidenz Grotesk Old Face, Knockout, Grotesque No.9 and Monotype Grotesque are examples of digital fonts that retain eccentricities of early sans-serif types. The term realist has also applied to these designs due to their practicality and simplicity. As the name implies, these modern designs consist of an evolution of grotesque types. They are relatively straightforward in appearance with limited width variation, unlike earlier grotesque designs, many were issued in extremely large and versatile families from the time of release, making them easier to use for body text. Helvetica is an example of this, others such as Univers are less regular. Neo-grotesque type began in the 1950s with the emergence of the International Typographic Style and its members looked at the clear lines of Akzidenz Grotesk as an inspiration to create rational, almost neutral typefaces
9.
Letter case
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Letter case is the distinction between the letters that are in larger upper case and smaller lower case in the written representation of certain languages. The writing systems that distinguish between the upper and lower case have two sets of letters, with each letter in one set usually having an equivalent in the other set. Basically, the two variants are alternative representations of the same letter, they have the same name and pronunciation. Letter case is generally applied in a fashion, with both upper- and lower-case letters appearing in a given piece of text. The choice of case is often prescribed by the grammar of a language or by the conventions of a particular discipline, in mathematics, letter case may indicate the relationship between objects, with upper-case letters often representing superior objects. In some contexts, it is conventional to use only one case, the terms upper case and lower case can be written as two consecutive words, connected with a hyphen, or as a single word. These terms originated from the layouts of the shallow drawers called type cases used to hold the movable type for letterpress printing. Traditionally, the letters were stored in a separate case that was located above the case that held the small letters. Majuscule, for palaeographers, is technically any script in which the letters have very few or very short ascenders and descenders, or none at all. By virtue of their impact, this made the term majuscule an apt descriptor for what much later came to be more commonly referred to as uppercase letters. The word is often spelled miniscule, by association with the word miniature. This has traditionally been regarded as a mistake, but is now so common that some dictionaries tend to accept it as a nonstandard or variant spelling. Miniscule is still less likely, however, to be used in reference to lower-case letters, the glyphs of lower-case letters can resemble smaller forms of the upper-case glyphs restricted to the base band or can look hardly related. There is more variation in the height of the minuscules, as some of them have higher or lower than the typical size. In Times New Roman, for instance, b, d, f, h, k, l, t are the letters with ascenders, and g, j, p, q, y are the ones with descenders. In addition, with old-style numerals still used by traditional or classical fonts,6 and 8 make up the ascender set. Writing systems using two separate cases are bicameral scripts, languages that use the Latin, Cyrillic, Greek, Coptic, Armenian, Adlam, Varang Kshiti, Cherokee, and Osage scripts use letter cases in their written form as an aid to clarity. Other bicameral scripts, which are not used for any modern languages, are Old Hungarian, Glagolitic, the Georgian alphabet has several variants, and there were attempts to use them as different cases, but the modern written Georgian language does not distinguish case
10.
Robert Estienne
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Robert I Estienne, known as Robertus Stephanus in Latin and also referred to as Robert Stephens by 18th and 19th-century English writers, was a 16th-century printer and classical scholar in Paris. He was a former Catholic who became a Protestant late in his life, Robert was born in Paris, the second son of the famous humanist printer Henri Estienne. He became acquainted early on with ancient languages, after Henris death in 1520, the printing establishment was maintained by his former partner Simon de Colines who also married Roberts mother, the widow Estienne. In 1526 Robert assumed control of his fathers printing shop while de Colines established his own firm nearby, the latter was called the olive of the Stephens family. In 1539 he received the title of Printer in Greek to the king. But the official recognition and the approval to his undertaking could not save him from the censure. In 1550, to escape the violence of his persecutors, he emigrated to Geneva, many of these, especially the Greek editions, were famous for their typographical elegance. The last was completed, after Roberts departure from Paris, by his brother Charles and these editions, all in folio, except the Moschopulus, which is in quarto, are unrivalled for beauty. Robert also printed editions of Latin classics, of which perhaps the folio Virgil of 1532 is the most noteworthy. He printed a large quantity of Latin grammars and other works, many of which were written by Maturin Cordier, his friend. In 1532 he published the remarkable Thesaurus linguae latinae and twice he published the entire Hebrew Bible—one with the Commentary of Kimchi on the minor prophets, both of these editions are rare. Of more importance are his four editions of the Greek New Testament,1546,1549,1550, and 1551, the first two are among the neatest Greek texts known, called O mirificam. The third, a masterpiece of typographical skill, is known as the Editio Regia. The 1551 edition contains the Latin translation of Erasmus and the Vulgate, is not nearly as fine as the three, and is exceedingly rare. It was in this edition that the division of the New Testament into verses was for the first time introduced, a number of editions of the Vulgate also appeared from his presses, of which the principal are those of 1528,1532,1540, and 1546. His editions, especially that of 1546, containing a new translation at the side of the Vulgate, was the subject of sharp, on his arrival at Geneva, he published a defense against the attacks of the Sorbonne. He issued the French Bible in 1553 and many of John Calvins writings and his fine edition of the Latin Bible with glosses contained the translation of the Old Testament by Santes Pagninus and the first edition of Theodore Bezas Latin edition of the New Testament. Three of Roberts sons, Henri, Robert, and François, François printed on his own account in Geneva from 1562–1582, issuing a number of editions of the Bible in Latin and French, and some of Calvins works
11.
Fontainebleau
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Fontainebleau is a commune in the metropolitan area of Paris, France. It is located 55.5 kilometres south-southeast of the centre of Paris, Fontainebleau is a sub-prefecture of the Seine-et-Marne department, and it is the seat of the arrondissement of Fontainebleau. The commune has the largest land area in the Île-de-France region, Fontainebleau, together with the neighbouring commune of Avon and three other smaller communes, form an urban area of 39,713 inhabitants. This urban area is a satellite of Paris, inhabitants of Fontainebleau are called Bellifontains. Fontainebleau has been recorded in different Latinised forms, such as, Fons Bleaudi, Fons Bliaudi, Fons Blaadi in the 12th and 13th centuries and it became Fons Bellaqueus in the 17th century, which gave rise to the name of the inhabitants as Bellifontains. The name originates as a composite of two words, Fontaine– meaning spring, or fountainhead, followed by a person’s Germanic name Blizwald. This hamlet was endowed with a hunting lodge and a chapel by Louis VII in the middle of the twelfth century. A century later, Louis IX, also called Saint Louis, who held Fontainebleau in high esteem and referred to it as his wilderness, had a country house, philip the Fair was born there in 1268 and died there in 1314. In all, thirty-four sovereigns, from Louis VI, the Fat, to Napoleon III, the connection between the town of Fontainebleau and the French monarchy was reinforced with the transformation of the royal country house into a true royal palace, the Palace of Fontainebleau. On 18 October 1685, Louis XIV signed the Edict of Fontainebleau there, the result was that a large number of Protestants were forced to convert to the Catholic faith, killed, or forced into exile, mainly in the Low Countries, Prussia and in England. The 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau, an agreement between France and Spain concerning the Louisiana territory in North America, was concluded here. Also, preliminary negotiations, held before the 1763 Treaty of Paris was signed, during the French Revolution, Fontainebleau was temporarily renamed Fontaine-la-Montagne, meaning Fountain by the Mountain. On 20 June 1812, Pope Pius VII arrived at the château of Fontainebleau, after a transfer from Savona, accompanied by his personal physician. In poor health, the Pope was the prisoner of Napoleon, from June 1812 until 23 January 1814, the Pope never left his apartments. According to contemporary sources, the occasion was very moving, the 1814 Treaty of Fontainebleau stripped Napoleon of his powers and sent him into exile on Elba. Until the 19th century, Fontainebleau was a village and a suburb of Avon, later, it developed as an independent residential city. For the 1924 Summer Olympics, the town played host to the portion of the modern pentathlon event. This event took place near a golf course, Fontainebleau also hosted the general staff of the Allied Forces in Central Europe and the land forces command, the air forces command was located nearby at Camp Guynemer
