1.
Athenian democracy
–
Other Greek cities set up democracies, most following the Athenian model, but none are as well documented as Athens. It was a system of democracy, in which participating citizens voted directly on legislation. The longest-lasting democratic leader was Pericles, after his death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interrupted by oligarchic revolutions towards the end of the Peloponnesian War. It was modified somewhat after it was restored under Eucleides, the most detailed accounts of the system are of this fourth-century modification rather than the Periclean system, Democracy was suppressed by the Macedonians in 322 BC. The Athenian institutions were revived, but how close they were to a real democracy is debatable. Solon, Cleisthenes, and Ephialtes contributed to the development of Athenian democracy and he broke up the power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten groups based on where they lived rather than on their wealth. The word democracy combines the elements dêmos and krátos, and thus means literally people power, in the words monarchy and oligarchy, the second element comes from archē, meaning beginning, and hence also first place or power, sovereignty. One might expect the term demarchy to have adopted, by analogy. However, the word demarchy had already taken and meant mayoralty. We are not certain that the democracy was extant when systems that came to be called democratic were first instituted. The word is attested in Herodotus, who some of the earliest surviving Greek prose. Around 460 BC an individual is known with the name of Democrates, a name possibly coined as a gesture of democratic loyalty, Athens was not the only polis in Ancient Greece that instituted a democratic regime. Aristotle cites many other cities as well, yet, it is only with reference to Athens that we can attempt to trace some of specific sixth century events that led to the institution of democracy at the end of the century. Before the first attempt at government, Athens was ruled by a series of archons or chief magistrates. The members of these institutions were generally aristocrats, who ruled the polis for their own advantage, in 621 BC Draco codified a set of notoriously harsh laws that were a clear expression of the power of the aristocracy over everybody else. This did not stop the aristocratic families feuding amongst themselves to obtain as much power as possible, however, the enfranchisement of the local laboring classes was succeeded by the development of chattel slavery, the enslavement of, in large part, foreigners. Solon, the mediator, reshaped the city by absorbing the traditional aristocracy in a definition of citizenship which allotted a political function to every resident of Attica. Athenians were not slaves but citizens, with the right, at the very least, under these reforms, the position of archon was opened to all with certain property qualifications, and a Boule, a rival council of 400, was set up
Athenian democracy
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Cleisthenes.
Athenian democracy
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Water Clock in the Ancient Agora of Athens.
2.
Ohio Statehouse
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The Ohio Statehouse, located in Columbus, Ohio, is the house of government for the state of Ohio. The Greek Revival building houses the Ohio General Assembly and the offices of the governor, lieutenant governor, treasurer. When the state government relocated to the new city of Columbus in 1816, it occupied a modest two-story building on the corner of High and State Streets. This early capitol had chambers for the Ohio House of Representatives and Ohio Senate, efforts to relieve the cramped quarters with additional small buildings were ineffective and it soon became apparent that the government would require a larger facility. In 1838, Ohios government announced a competition to select the design for a new Statehouse and this strategy was not unusual at the time, as important public buildings such as the U. S. Capitol had resulted from similar contests. However, the commission responsible for choosing the winners was unable to agree on a final design for construction. When the cornerstone was laid on July 4,1839, the commission was still without a final design. Consultation with New York architect Alexander Jackson Davis resulted in a design that merged some key features of the three winning entries, but it was rejected as being too expensive. Cole had a friendship with one of the commissioners, a man named William A. Adams who was from Steubenville. Coles nephew, William Henry Bayless, coincidentally a Steubenville native, was apprenticed in the office of Alexander Jackson Davis, work on the buildings foundation and lower level had only just begun when the Statehouse project encountered the first of many difficulties. The legislation that made Columbus the official city of Ohio was set to expire. While various factions within the government engaged in debate over relocating the capitol to another city, open excavations were refilled with earth, and Capitol Square became open pasture for livestock. The Statehouse remained neglected until February,1848, when William Russell West and J. O. Sawyer of Cincinnati were appointed architects, by May of that same year construction had resumed. Unfortunately, an epidemic began in Columbus, prompting widespread flight to the countryside by residents. Once the epidemic subsided, work on the Statehouse continued, interrupted only by intermissions during the harsh Ohio winters, while some suspected arson, the exact cause of the fire remains a mystery to this day. With the Statehouse exterior nearing completion by 1854, Columbus architect Nathan Kelley was hired to supervise the design, one of his major tasks would be to provide a system for heating and ventilation in the building, which had not been considered previously. With great fanfare, the new Statehouse opened to the public on January 7,1857, by now, most of the building was completed, with the notable exception of the rotunda. Although actual work on the building was proceeding smoothly, government officials were deeply dissatisfied with Mr. Kelley, citing problems with his working methods and aesthetic choices
Ohio Statehouse
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Ohio Statehouse
Ohio Statehouse
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The Cabinet Room of the Ohio Statehouse
Ohio Statehouse
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The Statehouse in downtown Columbus
3.
Columbus, Ohio
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Columbus is the capital and largest city of the U. S. state of Ohio. It is the 15th-largest city in the United States, with a population of 850,106 as of 2015 estimates and this makes Columbus the fourth-most populous state capital in the United States, and the third-largest city in the Midwestern United States. It is the city of the Columbus, Ohio, Metropolitan Statistical Area. With a population of 2,021,632, it is Ohios third-largest metropolitan area, Columbus is the county seat of Franklin County. The city proper has also expanded and annexed portions of adjoining Delaware County, named for explorer Christopher Columbus, the city was founded in 1812 at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and assumed the functions of state capital in 1816. As of 2013, the city has the headquarters of five corporations in the U. S, fortune 500, Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, American Electric Power, L Brands, Big Lots, and Cardinal Health. In 2012, Columbus was ranked in BusinessWeeks 50 best cities in America. In 2013, Forbes gave Columbus an A rating as one of the top cities for business in the U. S. and later that included the city on its list of Best Places for Business. Columbus was also ranked as the No.1 up-and-coming tech city in the nation by Forbes in 2008, and the city was ranked a top-ten city by Relocate America in 2010. In 2007, fDi Magazine ranked the city no.3 in the U. S. for cities of the future, and the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium was rated no.1 in 2009 by USA Travel Guide. The area including modern-day Columbus once comprised the Ohio Country, under the control of the French colonial empire through the Viceroyalty of New France from 1663 until 1763. In the 18th century, European traders flocked to the area, the area found itself frequently caught between warring factions, including American Indian and European interests. In the 1740s, Pennsylvania traders overran the territory until the French forcibly evicted them, in the early 1750s, the Ohio Company sent George Washington to the Ohio Country to survey. Fighting for control of the territory in the French and Indian War became part of the international Seven Years War, during this period, the region routinely suffered turmoil, massacres, and battles. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the Ohio Country to the British Empire, after the American Revolution, the Ohio Country became part of the Virginia Military District, under the control of the United States. Colonists from the East Coast moved in, but rather finding a empty frontier, they encountered people of the Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Shawnee. The tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, leading to years of bitter conflict, the decisive Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, which finally opened the way for new settlements. By 1797, a surveyor from Virginia named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto River
Columbus, Ohio
–
Images, from top left to right:
Downtown Columbus, Ohio Statehouse Capitol Square, University Hall (Ohio State University),
Short North,
Nationwide Arena, Santa Maria replica
Columbus, Ohio
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Old City Hall, completed in 1872 and burned in 1921
Columbus, Ohio
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The Great Southern Hotel, located in downtown Columbus was completed in 1897
Columbus, Ohio
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Legendary Columbus native
James Thurber, subject of
TIME Magazine's July 9, 1951, cover
4.
Greek language
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Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, native to Greece and other parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. It has the longest documented history of any living language, spanning 34 centuries of written records and its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the major part of its history, other systems, such as Linear B and the Cypriot syllabary, were used previously. The alphabet arose from the Phoenician script and was in turn the basis of the Latin, Cyrillic, Armenian, Coptic, Gothic and many other writing systems. Together with the Latin texts and traditions of the Roman world, during antiquity, Greek was a widely spoken lingua franca in the Mediterranean world and many places beyond. It would eventually become the official parlance of the Byzantine Empire, the language is spoken by at least 13.2 million people today in Greece, Cyprus, Italy, Albania, Turkey, and the Greek diaspora. Greek roots are used to coin new words for other languages, Greek. Greek has been spoken in the Balkan peninsula since around the 3rd millennium BC, the earliest written evidence is a Linear B clay tablet found in Messenia that dates to between 1450 and 1350 BC, making Greek the worlds oldest recorded living language. Among the Indo-European languages, its date of earliest written attestation is matched only by the now extinct Anatolian languages, the Greek language is conventionally divided into the following periods, Proto-Greek, the unrecorded but assumed last ancestor of all known varieties of Greek. The unity of Proto-Greek would have ended as Hellenic migrants entered the Greek peninsula sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age, Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Mycenaean civilisation. It is recorded in the Linear B script on tablets dating from the 15th century BC onwards, Ancient Greek, in its various dialects, the language of the Archaic and Classical periods of the ancient Greek civilisation. It was widely known throughout the Roman Empire, after the Roman conquest of Greece, an unofficial bilingualism of Greek and Latin was established in the city of Rome and Koine Greek became a first or second language in the Roman Empire. The origin of Christianity can also be traced through Koine Greek, Medieval Greek, also known as Byzantine Greek, the continuation of Koine Greek in Byzantine Greece, up to the demise of the Byzantine Empire in the 15th century. Much of the written Greek that was used as the language of the Byzantine Empire was an eclectic middle-ground variety based on the tradition of written Koine. Modern Greek, Stemming from Medieval Greek, Modern Greek usages can be traced in the Byzantine period and it is the language used by the modern Greeks, and, apart from Standard Modern Greek, there are several dialects of it. In the modern era, the Greek language entered a state of diglossia, the historical unity and continuing identity between the various stages of the Greek language is often emphasised. Greek speakers today still tend to regard literary works of ancient Greek as part of their own rather than a foreign language and it is also often stated that the historical changes have been relatively slight compared with some other languages. According to one estimation, Homeric Greek is probably closer to demotic than 12-century Middle English is to modern spoken English, Greek is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece, Albania and Cyprus, but also worldwide by the large Greek diaspora. Greek is the language of Greece, where it is spoken by almost the entire population
Greek language
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Idealized portrayal of
Homer
Greek language
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regions where Greek is the official language
Greek language
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Greek language road sign, A27 Motorway, Greece
5.
Athens
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Athens is the capital and largest city of Greece. In modern times, Athens is a cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime. In 2015, Athens was ranked the worlds 29th richest city by purchasing power, Athens is recognised as a global city because of its location and its importance in shipping, finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, culture, education and tourism. It is one of the biggest economic centres in southeastern Europe, with a financial sector. The municipality of Athens had a population of 664,046 within its limits. The urban area of Athens extends beyond its administrative city limits. According to Eurostat in 2011, the Functional urban areas of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union, Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland. The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a number of Ottoman monuments. Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery, Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it welcomed home the 2004 Summer Olympics. In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was Ἀθῆναι a plural, in earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as Ἀθήνη. It was possibly rendered in the later on, like those of Θῆβαι and Μυκῆναι. During the medieval period the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as Ἀθήνα, an etiological myth explaining how Athens has acquired its name was well known among ancient Athenians and even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon. The goddess of wisdom, Athena, and the god of the seas, Poseidon had many disagreements, in an attempt to compel the people, Poseidon created a salt water spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power. However, when Athena created the tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity. Different etymologies, now rejected, were proposed during the 19th century. Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word ἄθος or ἄνθος meaning flower, ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb θάω, stem θη- to denote Athens as having fertile soil. In classical literature, the city was referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindars ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι. In medieval texts, variant names include Setines, Satine, and Astines, today the caption η πρωτεύουσα, the capital, has become somewhat common
Athens
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From upper left: the
Acropolis, the
Hellenic Parliament, the
Zappeion, the
Acropolis Museum,
Monastiraki Square, Athens view towards the sea
Athens
–
Athena, patron goddess of Athens;
National Archaeological Museum
Athens
–
Acropolis of Athens, with
Odeon of Herodes Atticus seen on bottom left
6.
Pericles
–
Pericles was a prominent and influential Greek statesman, orator and general of Athens during the Golden Age—specifically the time between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars. He was descended, through his mother, from the powerful, Pericles had such a profound influence on Athenian society that Thucydides, a contemporary historian, acclaimed him as the first citizen of Athens. Pericles turned the Delian League into an Athenian empire, and led his countrymen during the first two years of the Peloponnesian War. Pericles promoted the arts and literature, it is principally through his efforts that Athens holds the reputation of being the educational and cultural center of the ancient Greek world and he started an ambitious project that generated most of the surviving structures on the Acropolis. This project beautified and protected the city, exhibited its glory, Pericles also fostered Athenian democracy to such an extent that critics call him a populist. Pericles was born c.495 BC, in Athens, Greece and he was the son of the politician Xanthippus, who, though ostracized in 485–484 BC, returned to Athens to command the Athenian contingent in the Greek victory at Mycale just five years later. Agariste was the great-granddaughter of the tyrant of Sicyon, Cleisthenes, according to Herodotus and Plutarch, Agariste dreamed, a few nights before Pericles birth, that she had borne a lion. Interestingly, legends say that Philip II of Macedon had a dream before the birth of his son. Pericles belonged to the tribe of Acamantis and his early years were quiet, the introverted young Pericles avoided public appearances, instead preferring to devote his time to his studies. His familys nobility and wealth allowed him to pursue his inclination toward education. He learned music from the masters of the time and he is considered to have been the first politician to attribute importance to philosophy and he enjoyed the company of the philosophers Protagoras, Zeno of Elea, and Anaxagoras. Anaxagoras, in particular, became a friend and influenced him greatly. Pericles manner of thought and rhetorical charisma may have been in part products of Anaxagoras emphasis on emotional calm in the face of trouble and his proverbial calmness and self-control are also often regarded as products of Anaxagoras influence. In the spring of 472 BC, Pericles presented The Persians of Aeschylus at the Greater Dionysia as a liturgy, Plutarch says that Pericles stood first among the Athenians for forty years. If this was so, Pericles must have taken up a position of leadership by the early 460s BC- in his early or mid-thirties, throughout these years he endeavored to protect his privacy and to present himself as a model for his fellow citizens. For example, he would often avoid banquets, trying to be frugal, in 463 BC, Pericles was the leading prosecutor of Cimon, the leader of the conservative faction who was accused of neglecting Athens vital interests in Macedon. Although Cimon was acquitted, this proved that Pericles major political opponent was vulnerable. The leader of the party and mentor of Pericles, Ephialtes, the Ecclesia adopted Ephialtes proposal without opposition
Pericles
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Bust of Pericles bearing the inscription "Pericles, son of Xanthippus, Athenian". Marble, Roman copy after a Greek original from c. 430 BC
Pericles
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Phidias Showing the Frieze of the Parthenon to Pericles, Aspasia, Alcibiades and friends, by Sir
Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1868,
Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery.
Pericles
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Bust of Pericles after Kresilas,
Altes Museum,
Berlin
Pericles
–
Aspasia of Miletus (c. 469 BC – c. 406 BC), Pericles' companion.
7.
Alcibiades
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Alcibiades, son of Cleinias, from the deme of Scambonidae, was a prominent Athenian statesman, orator, and general. He was the last famous member of his mothers family, the Alcmaeonidae. He played a role in the second half of that conflict as a strategic advisor, military commander. During the course of the Peloponnesian War, Alcibiades changed his political allegiance several times, in Sparta, he served as a strategic adviser, proposing or supervising several major campaigns against Athens. In Sparta too, however, Alcibiades soon made powerful enemies, there he served as an adviser to the satrap Tissaphernes until his Athenian political allies brought about his recall. He then served as an Athenian general for years. Once restored to his city, however, he played a crucial role in a string of Athenian victories that eventually brought Sparta to seek a peace with Athens. He favored unconventional tactics, frequently winning cities over by treachery or negotiation rather than by siege and his mother was Deinomache, the daughter of Megacles, and could trace her family back to Eurysaces and the Telamonian Ajax. His maternal grandfather, also named Alcibiades, was a friend of Cleisthenes, after the death of Cleinias at the Battle of Coronea, Pericles and Ariphron became his guardians. According to Plutarch, Alcibiades had several teachers, including Socrates. He was noted, however, for his behavior, which was mentioned by ancient Greek. It was believed that Socrates took Alcibiades as a student because he believed he could change Alcibiades from his vain ways, Xenophon attempted to clear Socrates name at trial by relaying information that Alcibiades was always corrupt and that Socrates merely failed in attempting to teach him morality. Alcibiades took part in the Battle of Potidaea in 432 BC, Alcibiades had a particularly close relationship with Socrates, whom he admired and respected. According to Plutarch, Alcibiades feared and reverenced Socrates alone, Alcibiades was married to Hipparete, the daughter of Hipponicus, a wealthy Athenian. According to Plutarch, Hipparete loved her husband, but she attempted to divorce him because he consorted with courtesans and she lived with him until her death, which came soon after, and gave birth to two children, a daughter and a son, Alcibiades the Younger. Alcibiades first rose to prominence when he began advocating aggressive Athenian action after the signing of the Peace of Nicias, disputes over the interpretation of the treaty led the Spartans to dispatch ambassadors to Athens with full powers to arrange all unsettled matters. He urged them to renounce their diplomatic authority to represent Sparta, the representatives agreed and, impressed with Alcibiades, they alienated themselves from Nicias, who genuinely wanted to reach an agreement with the Spartans. The next day, during the Assembly, Alcibiades asked them what powers Sparta had granted them to negotiate and they replied, as agreed and this ploy increased Alcibiadess standing while embarrassing Nicias, and Alcibiades was subsequently appointed General
Alcibiades
–
Marble bust of Alcibiades, dating from the 4th century BC. The inscription translates "Alcibiades [son] of Cleinias Athenian".
Alcibiades
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Jean-Léon Gérôme (1824–1904): Socrates seeking Alcibiades in the House of Aspasia, 1861.
Alcibiades
–
Jean-Baptiste Regnault (1754–1829):
Socrates dragging Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure, 1791.
Alcibiades
–
Michele de Napoli (1808–1892): Morte di Alcibiade (Death of Alcibiades) (1839 circa),
Naples National Archaeological Museum.
8.
Tyrant
–
A tyrant, in its modern English usage, is an absolute ruler unrestrained by law or person, or one who has usurped legitimate sovereignty. Often described as a character, a tyrant defends his position by oppressive means. The original Greek term, however, merely meant an authoritarian sovereign without reference to character, bearing no pejorative connotation during the Archaic, Plato and Aristotle define a tyrant as one who rules without law, and uses extreme and cruel tactics–against his own people as well as others. It is defined further in the Encyclopédie as a usurper of sovereign power who makes his subjects the victims of his passions and unjust desires, which he substitutes for laws. During the seventh and sixth centuries BC, tyranny was often looked upon as a stage between narrow oligarchy and more democratic forms of polity. However, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, a new kind of tyrant. Tyranny includes a variety of types of government – by a tyrant. The definition is extended to other leadership and to oppressive policies. For example, a teacher may find the school administration, the textbook or standardized tests to be oppressive, the English noun tyrant appears in Middle English use, via Old French, from the 1290s. The final -t arises in Old French by association with the present participles in -ant, the word tyranny is used with many meanings, not only by the Greeks, but throughout the tradition of the great books. The Oxford English Dictionary offers alternative definitions, a ruler, an illegitimate ruler, the term is usually applied to vicious dictators who achieve bad results for the governed. The definition of a tyrant is cursed by subjectivity, oppression, injustice and cruelty do not have standardized measurements or thresholds. The Greeks defined both usurpers and those inheriting rule from usurpers as tyrants, Old words are defined by their historical usage. It is difficult to determine characteristics of tyrants were defining rather than descriptive. Biblical quotations do not use the word tyrant, but express opinions very similar to those of the Greek philosophers, citing the wickedness, cruelty, like a roaring lion or a charging bear is a wicked ruler over a poor people. A ruler who lacks understanding is a cruel oppressor, but one who hates unjust gain will enjoy a long life, proverbs 28, 15–16 By justice a king gives stability to the land, but one who makes heavy extractions ruins it. Proverbs 29,4 The Greek philosophers stressed the quality of rule rather than legitimacy or absolutism, both Plato and Aristotle speak of the king as a good monarch and the tyrant as a bad one. Both say that monarchy, or rule by a man, is royal when it is for the welfare of the ruled
Tyrant
–
François Gérard, The French people demanding destitution of the Tyran on
10 August 1792
9.
Peisistratos (Athens)
–
Peisistratos, Latinized Pisistratus, the son of Hippocrates, was a ruler of ancient Athens during most of the period between 561 and 527 BC. Peisistratos championing of the class of Athens, the Hyperakrioi, is an early example of populism. Peisistratus was the brother-in-law of Cleisthenes, however, Peisistratus was much older, Peisistratids is the common term for the three tyrants who ruled in Athens from 546 to 510 BC, namely Peisistratos and his two sons, Hipparchus and Hippias. Peisistratos was a distant relative of Solon from northern Attica and he had made a name for himself by capturing the port of Nisaea in nearby Megara by creating a successful coup in 564 BC. Peisistratos was backed by the Men of the Hill, the poorer and this victory opened up the unofficial trade blockage that had been contributing to food shortage in Athens during the past several decades. In the period after the Megaran defeat, several factions competed for control in the government of Athens. These groups were both economically and geographically partitioned, Pedieis, the population that resided on the plains, led by Lycurgus. These landowners produced grain, giving them leverage during the food shortage, with the Megarans patrolling the sea, much of Athens import/export power was limited. Hyperakrioi, not previously represented by party, dwelled primarily in the hills and were by far the poorest of the Athenian population. Their only production was barter in items like honey and wool, Peisistratos organised them into the Hyperakrioi, or hill dwellers. This party grossly outnumbered the other two parties combined and his role in the Megaran conflict gained Peisistratos popularity in Athens, but he did not have the political clout to seize power. Herodotus tells us how he intentionally wounded himself and his mules in order to demand from the Athenian people bodyguards for protection, by obtaining support from the vast number of the poorer population as well as bodyguards, he was able to seize the Acropolis and the reins of government. The Athenians were open to a similar to that under Solon – and possible stability and internal peace –. With this in his possession, and the collusion of Megacles and his party, Peisistratos was ousted from political office and exiled twice during his reign. The first occurrence was circa 555 BC after the two parties, normally at odds with each other, joined forces and removed Peisistratos from power. Actual dates after this point become unclear, Peisistratos was exiled for 3 to 6 years during which the agreement between the Pedieis and the Paralioi fell apart. Peisistratos returned to Athens and rode into the city in a golden chariot accompanied by a tall woman appearing to be Athena, many returned to his side, believing he had the favour of the goddess. Differing sources state that he held the tyranny for one to six years before he was exiled again, during his second exile, he gathered support from local cities and resources from the Laurion silver mines near Athens
Peisistratos (Athens)
–
Didrachm of Athens, 545-510 BC
Peisistratos (Athens)
–
Obol of Athens, 545-525 BC
10.
Cleomenes I
–
Cleomenes was an Agiad King of Sparta in the late 6th and early 5th centuries BC. It was during his reign that the Peloponnesian League came formally into existence, during his reign, he intervened twice successfully in Athenian affairs but kept Sparta out of the Ionian Revolt. He died in prison in mysterious circumstances, with the Spartan authorities claiming his death was due to insanity. He was the son of Anaxandrides II and his wife, and was the half-brother of Dorieus, Leonidas I. He allowed his half-brother Dorieus to mount expeditions outside the Peloponnese, perhaps as a way of expanding Spartan influence and territories, and perhaps to rid himself of a potential rival. Around 510 BC the Alcmaeonidae family, who had exiled from Athens, requested that Sparta help them overthrow Hippias. The Alcmaeonidae, led by Cleisthenes, bribed the oracle at Delphi to tell the Spartans to assist them, the first attack on Athens was a failure, but Cleomenes personally led the second attack and besieged Hippias and his supporters on the Acropolis. He was unable to force Hippias to surrender, but the Spartans captured some of Hippias relatives, Cleisthenes and the Athenian aristocrat Isagoras then fought each other for control of Athens. Cleomenes came with a force to support Isagoras, and they forced Cleisthenes. Cleomenes also abolished the Boule, a set up by Cleisthenes. The citizens of Athens objected to this and forced him out of the city, the following year Cleomenes gathered an army, with the aim of setting up Isagoras as tyrant of Athens. The Corinthians in his force refused to attack Athens once they learned of Cleomenes plan, Sparta then proposed to her allies to mount an expedition to restore Hippias as tyrant of Athens. According to W G Forrest, it was Cleomenes who argued for change of position with Spartas allies. However, the allies, led by Corinth, rejected the proposal in the first act of the Peloponnesian League, in 499 BC, Aristagoras, the tyrant of Miletus, came to Sparta to request help from King Cleomenes with the Ionian Revolt against Persia. Aristagoras nearly persuaded Cleomenes to help, promising an easy conquest of Persia and its riches, according to Herodotus, Cleomeness young daughter Gorgo warned Cleomenes not to trust a man who threatened to corrupt him. Around 494 BC, Cleomenes invaded and defeated Argos at Sepeia killing a number of Argives, Herodotus says 6000. Argos would remain a bitter enemy of Sparta for decades after this attack and it is not clear why the attack on Argos took place. When the Persians invaded Greece after putting down the Ionian revolt in 493 BC, among these states was Aegina, so in 491 BC, Cleomenes attempted to arrest the major collaborators there
Cleomenes I
–
Lelegids
11.
Acropolis of Athens
–
The word acropolis comes from the Greek words ἄκρον and πόλις. Although there are many other acropoleis in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is known as The Acropolis without qualification. The Acropolis is located on a rock that rises 150 m above sea level in the city of Athens. It was also known as Cecropia, after the legendary serpent-man, Cecrops, while the earliest artifacts date to the Middle Neolithic era, there have been documented habitations in Attica from the Early Neolithic. There is little doubt that a Mycenaean megaron stood upon the hill during the late Bronze Age, nothing of this megaron survives except, probably, a single limestone column-base and pieces of several sandstone steps. Soon after the palace was constructed, a Cyclopean massive circuit wall was built,760 meters long, up to 10 meters high and this wall would serve as the main defense for the acropolis until the 5th century. The wall consisted of two built with large stone blocks and cemented with an earth mortar called emplekton. There were two lesser approaches up the hill on its side, consisting of steep, narrow flights of steps cut in the rock. Homer is assumed to refer to this fortification when he mentions the strong-built House of Erechtheus, at some point before the 13th century BC, an earthquake caused a fissure near the northeastern edge of the Acropolis. This fissure extended some 35 meters to a bed of marl in which a well was dug. An elaborate set of stairs was built and the served as an invaluable. There is no evidence for the existence of a Mycenean palace on top of the Athenian Acropolis. However, if there was such a palace, it seems to have been supplanted by later building activity, not a lot is known about the architectural appearance of the Acropolis until the Archaic era. In the 7th and the 6th centuries BC, the site was taken over by Kylon during the failed Kylonian revolt, nevertheless, it seems that a nine-gate wall, the Enneapylon, had been built around the biggest water spring, the Clepsydra, at the northwestern foot. A temple to Athena Polias, the deity of the city, was erected around 570–550 BC. Whether this temple replaced an older one, or just a sacred precinct or altar, is not known, probably, the Hekatompedon was built where the Parthenon now stands. Between 529–520 BC yet another temple was built by the Peisistratids and this temple of Athena Polias was built upon the Doerpfeld foundations, between the Erechtheion and the still-standing Parthenon. Arkhaios Neōs was destroyed by the Persian invasion in 480 BC, however, the temple may have been burnt down in 406/405 BC as Xenophon mentions that the old temple of Athena was set on fire
Acropolis of Athens
–
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Acropolis of Athens
Acropolis of Athens
–
View of the Acropolis from the Agora, 2010
Acropolis of Athens
–
View of the Acropolis from the
Areopagus, 2010
12.
Bronze sculpture
–
Bronze is the most popular metal for cast metal sculptures, a cast bronze sculpture is often called simply a bronze. It can be used for statues, singly or in groups, reliefs and it is often gilded to give gilt-bronze or ormolu. Common bronze alloys have the unusual and desirable property of expanding slightly just before they set, then, as the bronze cools, it shrinks a little, making it easier to separate from the mould. Their strength and ductility is an advantage when figures in action are to be created and these qualities allow the creation of extended figures, as in Jeté, or figures that have small cross sections in their support, such as the equestrian statue of Richard the Lionheart. As recently as 2007 several life sized bronze sculptures by John Waddell were stolen, there are many different bronze alloys, and the term is now tending to be regarded by museums as too imprecise, and replaced in descriptions by copper alloy, especially for older objects. Typically modern bronze is 88% copper and 12% tin, alpha bronze consists of the alpha solid solution of tin in copper. Alpha bronze alloys of 4–5% tin are used to make coins, the proportions of this mixture may suggest that the candlestick was made from a hoard of old coins. The Benin Bronzes are really brass, and the Romanesque Baptismal font at St Bartholomews Church, Liège is described as both bronze and brass. In the Bronze Age, two forms of bronze were used, classic bronze, about 10% tin, was used in casting. Bladed weapons were mostly cast from bronze, while helmets. On one definition, modern statuary bronze is 90% copper and 10% tin, the great civilizations of the old world worked in bronze for art, from the time of the introduction of the alloy for edged weapons. Dancing Girl from Mohenjodaro belonging to Harappan Civilization dating back to 2500 BCE is perhaps the first bronze statue of the world, the Greeks were the first to scale the figures up to life size. Few examples exist in good condition, one is the seawater-preserved bronze Victorious Youth that required painstaking efforts to bring it to its present state for museum display, far more Roman bronze statues have survived. Over the long period of Egyptian dynastic art, small lost-wax bronze figurines were made in large numbers. Sri Lankan Sinhalese Bronze statue of Buddhist Alakothiveshwara Tara Devi statue now in England is an example of Bronze statues. From the ninth through the century the Chola dynasty in South India represented the pinnacle of bronze casting in India. Making bronzes is highly skilled work, and a number of casting processes may be employed, including lost-wax casting, sand casting. The term bronze is also applied to metal sculptures made by electrotyping, although these sculptures are typically pure copper and their fabrication does not involve metal casting
Bronze sculpture
–
The
Victorious Youth (ca. 310 B.C.), is a rare, water-preserved bronze from ancient Greece. (
3D image available)
Bronze sculpture
–
Benin bronze of a woman's head
Bronze sculpture
–
Gilt-bronze doors of the
Baptistry at Florence (
Lorenzo Ghiberti, 1401-22)
Bronze sculpture
–
Chola bronze of Queen Sembiyan Mahadevi as the Goddess
Parvati
13.
Harmodius and Aristogeiton (sculpture)
–
A sculptural pairing of the tyrannicides Harmodius and Aristogeiton was well known in the ancient world in two major versions but survives only in Roman marble copies. The lovers Harmodius and Aristogeiton were Athenian heroes whose act of daring in 514 BC opened the way for Athenian democracy. Though it was returned to Athens by Alexander the Great or by Seleucus I, or again by Antiochus according to Pausanias, it never attracted copyists and is now lost. To replace the stolen first version, the Athenians commissioned Kritios and Nesiotes to produce a new statue, both pairs stood side-by-side in the Agora as late as the 2nd century AD when Pausanias noted them there. The pair by Kritios and Nesiotes too are now lost, but unlike Antenors they were copied in Hellenistic. The best surviving of those copies may be seen in the National Archaeological Museum in Naples, of the four swords only the hilts are left. The Tyrant Slayers, The Heroic Image in Fifth Century B. C, Athenian Art and Politics 2nd ed.1991. Media related to Harmodius and Aristogeiton at Wikimedia Commons
Harmodius and Aristogeiton (sculpture)
–
Statue of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Naples. These are Roman copies of the Athenian originals, now lost
Harmodius and Aristogeiton (sculpture)
–
Historical
plaster cast by
Adolf Michaelis (
Gypsothèque de Strasbourg)
14.
Greek sculpture
–
Ancient Greek sculpture is the sculpture of ancient Greece. Modern scholarship identifies three major stages, frequent subjects were the battles, mythology, and rulers of the area historically known as Ancient Greece. Smaller works were in a variety of materials, many of them precious. The ores for bronze were also easy to obtain. Marble was mostly found around the Parthenon and other major Greek buildings, many copies of the Roman period are marble versions of works originally in bronze. Ordinary limestone was used in the Archaic period, but thereafter, except in areas of modern Italy with no local marble, only for architectural sculpture, plaster or stucco was sometimes used for the hair only. Many statues were given jewellery, as can be seen from the holes for attaching it, by the early 19th century, the systematic excavation of ancient Greek sites had brought forth a plethora of sculptures with traces of notably multicolored surfaces, some of which were still visible. It was not until published findings by German archaeologist Vinzenz Brinkmann in the late 20th and he analyzed the pigments of the original paint to discover their composition. Brinkmann made several painted replicas of Greek statues that went on tour around the world, museums that hosted the exhibit included the Glyptotek Museum in Munich, the Vatican Museum, and the National Archaeological Museum in Athens, et al. The collection made its American debut at Harvard University in the Fall of 2007 and it is commonly thought that the earliest incarnation of Greek sculpture was in the form of wooden cult statues, first described by Pausanias as xoana. No such statues survive, and the descriptions of them are vague, the first piece of Greek statuary to be reassembled since is probably the Lefkandi Centaur, a terra cotta sculpture found on the island of Euboea, dated c.920 BCE. The statue was constructed in parts, before being dismembered and buried in two separate graves, the centaur has an intentional mark on its knee, which has led researchers to postulate that the statue might portray Cheiron, presumably kneeling wounded from Herakles arrow. If so, it would be the earliest known depiction of myth in the history of Greek sculpture, the forms from the geometrical period were chiefly terra cotta figurines, bronzes, and ivories. The bronzes are chiefly tripod cauldrons, and freestanding figures or groups, typical works of the era include the Karditsa warrior and the many examples of the equestrian statuette. The repertory of this work is not confined to standing men and horses, however, as vase paintings of the time also depict imagery of stags, birds, beetles, hares. There are no inscriptions on early-to-middle geometric sculpture, until the appearance of the Mantiklos Apollo of the early 7th century BCE found in Thebes, the inscription is a declaration of the statuette to Apollo, followed by a request for favors in return. Apart from the novelty of recording its own purpose, this sculpture adapts the formulae of oriental bronzes, as seen in the shorter more triangular face and slightly advancing left leg. This is sometimes seen as anticipating the greater freedom of the 7th century BCE and, as such
Greek sculpture
–
Athena in the workshop of a sculptor working on a marble horse,
Attic red-figure
kylix, 480 BCE,
Staatliche Antikensammlungen (Inv. 2650)
Greek sculpture
–
Natural
marble
Greek sculpture
–
The
Victorious Youth (c. 310 BCE). A remarkably weather-preserved bronze statue of a Greek athlete in
Contrapposto pose.
15.
Greek love
–
Greek love is a term originally used by classicists to describe the sexual, primarily homoerotic, customs, practices and attitudes of the ancient Greeks. It was frequently used as a euphemism for homosexuality and pederasty, the phrase is a product of the enormous impact of the reception of classical Greek culture on historical attitudes toward sexuality, and its influence on art and various intellectual movements. Following the work of sexuality theorist Michel Foucault, the validity of an ancient Greek model for gay culture has been questioned. In his essay Greek Love, Alastair Blanshard sees Greek love as one of the defining and it often serves as a coded phrase for pederasty, or to sanitize homosexual desire in historical contexts where it was considered unacceptable. The German term griechische Liebe appears in German literature between 1750 and 1850, along with socratische Liebe and platonische Liebe in reference to male-male attractions. Ancient Greece became a reference point by which homosexual men of a certain class. In the early Modern period, a disjuncture was carefully maintained between idealized male eros in the tradition, which was treated with reverence, and sodomy. In his classic study Greek Homosexuality, Kenneth Dover points out that the English nouns a homosexual, there was no concept in ancient Greece equivalent to the modern conception of sexual preference, it was assumed that a person would have both hetero- and homosexual responses at different times. Evidence for same-sex attractions and behaviors is more abundant for men than for women, both romantic love and sexual passion between men were often considered normal, and under some circumstances healthy or admirable. The most common male-male relationship was paiderasteia, an institution in which a mature male bonded with or mentored a teen-aged youth. Martin Litchfield West views Greek pederasty as a substitute for heterosexual love, Greek art and literature portray these relationships as sometimes erotic or sexual, or sometimes idealized, educational, non-consummated, or non-sexual. Some Greek myths have been interpreted as reflecting the custom of paiderasteia, the death of Hyacinthus is also frequently referenced as a pederastic myth. The main Greek literary sources for Greek homosexuality are lyric poetry, Athenian comedy, the works of Plato and Xenophon, vase paintings from the 500s and 400s BCE depict courtship and sex between males. In Latin, mos Graeciae or mos Graecorum refers to a variety of behaviors the ancient Romans regarded as Greek, including but not confined to sexual practice. Slaves often were given, and prostitutes sometimes assumed, Greek names regardless of their ethnic origin, the use of slaves defined Roman pederasty, sexual practices were somehow Greek when they were directed at freeborn boys openly courted in accordance with the Hellenic tradition of pederasty. Effeminacy or a lack of discipline in managing ones sexual attraction to another male threatened a mans Roman-ness, by the close of the 2nd century BCE, however, the elevation of Greek literature and art as models of expression caused homoeroticism to be regarded as urbane and sophisticated. The consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus was among a circle of poets who made short, one of his few surviving fragments is a poem of desire addressed to a male with a Greek name, signaling the new aesthetic in Roman culture. The poems of Gaius Valerius Catullus, written in forms adapted from Greek meters and his Latin name and free-born status subvert pederastic tradition at Rome
Greek love
–
Zeus carrying away Ganymede (
Late Archaic terracotta)
Greek love
–
Marsilio Ficino, as portrayed by Leonardo da Vinci (although scholars argue that it is depicting musician Franchino Gaffurio) articulated an idealized form of male love within the classical tradition
Greek love
–
Winckelmann saw the Apollo Belvedere as embodying a Greek ideal
Greek love
–
The idealization of Greek
homosocial culture in David's Death of Socrates
16.
Tyrannicide
–
Tyrannicide is the killing or assassination of a tyrant or unjust ruler, usually for the common good, and usually by one of the tyrants subjects. The term also denotes those who kill a tyrant, tyrannicide can also be a political theory, and as such dates from antiquity. Support for tyrannicide can be found in Plutarchs Lives, Ciceros De Officiis, various Christian philosophers and theologians also wrote about tyrannicide. The Jesuistic casuistry developed a theory, criticized by Blaise Pascal in the Provincial Letters. Before them, the scholastic philosopher John of Salisbury also legitimised tyrannicide, under conditions, in the Policraticus. His theory was derived from his idea of the state as an organism in which all the members cooperate actively in the realization of the common utility. In 1408 the theologian Jean Petit used biblical examples to justify tyrannicide following the murder of Louis I, Duke of Orleans by Petits patron John the Fearless, Petits thesis was extensively discussed and eventually condemned by the church. The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates by John Milton in 1649 also described the history of tyrannicide, cambridges David George has also argued that terrorism is a form of tyranny of which tyrannicide is a negation. Libertarian Nick Roberts argues, Top-level assassination hurts only volunteers — the willing tyrants, if rulers choose to rule and to go to war, their lives become forfeit because they are acting coercively towards their subjects and intended conquests. As a natural rights libertarian, I do not consider that the Hitlers, the Kennedys and those who plan and order the deaths of millions deserve to die. After all, who else is there to blame, throughout history, many leaders have died under the pretext of tyrannicide. Hipparchus, one of the last Greek leaders to use the title of tyrant, was assassinated in 514 BC by Harmodius and Aristogeiton, since then tyrant has been a pejorative term, lacking objective criteria. Many rulers and heads of state have been considered as such by their enemies but not by their adherents, tyrannicides have a poor record of achieving their intended outcome. Caesars death, for example, failed to bring a return to power, and instead led to the Roman Empire. Many attempts on Commoduss life in the late 2nd century failed, including the one instigated by his own sister Lucilla, but he ultimately fell victim to his own excess by a successful murderous coup. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, tyrannicide continued in the Byzantine Empire when Emperor Andronikos I Komnenos, was tied to a pillar, beaten, tyrannicide has also been connected to revolution, with many taking place during successful revolutions, and others sparking revolutionary upheavals. Many assassins were killed in the act, such as Rigoberto López Pérez, others were prosecuted for the killing. Khalid Islambouli was one of three members of Egyptian Islamic Jihad executed for the assassination of Anwar Sadat, the autocratic President of Egypt in 1981, outright revolt was the context for other tyrannicides, and allowed individual killers to escape or remain anonymous
Tyrannicide
–
Benjamin Franklin 's suggestion for the
Great Seal of the United States included the phrase "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God."
Tyrannicide
–
Statue of Harmodius and Aristogeiton
17.
Harmodius and Aristogeiton
–
Harmodius and Aristogeiton were two men from ancient Athens. They became known as the Tyrannicides after they killed the Peisistratid tyrant Hipparchus, however, their story is documented by a great many other ancient writers, including important sources such as such as Herodotus and Plutarch. Herodotus claimed that Harmodius and Aristogeiton presumably were Gephyraeans i. e. Boeotians of Syrian or Phoenician origin, Plutarch, in his book On the malice of Herodotus criticized Herodotus for and he argued that Harmodius and Aristogeiton were Euboeans or Eretrians. Peisistratus had become tyrant of Athens after his attempt in 546/7 BCE. In Archaic Greece, the tyrant, referred to one who had seized power and ruled outside of a states constitutional law. When Peisistratus died in 528/7 BC, his son Hippias took the position of Archon and became the new tyrant of Athens, with the help of his brother, Hipparchus, who acted as the minister of culture. The two continued their fathers policies, but their popularity declined after Hipparchus began to abuse the power of his position and this publicly shamed Harmodius family, then he, with his lover Aristogeiton, resolved to assassinate both Hippias and Hipparchus and thus to overthrow the tyranny. The assassination attempt succeeded and Hipparchus was killed in 514/3, the truly tyrannical actions in the remaining years of his reign are typically attributed by contemporary scholars as paranoia and anger over the assassination. The plot – to be carried out by means of daggers hidden in the ceremonial myrtle wreaths on the occasion of the Panathenaic Games – involved a number of other co-conspirators. Thucydides claims that this was the day on which it was possible for the citizens who formed the parade to assemble armed without arousing suspicion. Aristotle disagrees, asserting that the custom of bearing weapons was introduced later, seeing one of these greet Hippias in a friendly manner on the assigned day, the two thought themselves betrayed and rushed into action, ruining the carefully laid plans. They managed to kill Hipparchus, stabbing him to death as he was organizing the Panathenaean processions at the foot of the Acropolis, Herodotus expresses surprise at this event, asserting that Hipparchus had received a clear warning concerning his fate in a dream. Harmodius was killed on the spot by spearmen of Hipparchus guards, upon being told of the event, Hippias, feigning calm, ordered the marching Greeks to lay down their ceremonial weapons and to gather at an indicated spot. All those with concealed weapons or under suspicion were arrested, gaining Hippias a respite from the uprising, Thucydides identification of Hippias as the twos purported main target, rather than Hipparchus who was Aristogeitons rival erastes, has been suggested as a possible indication of bias on his part. Aristotle in the Constitution of Athens preserves a tradition that Aristogeiton died only after being tortured in the hope that he would reveal the names of the other conspirators. During his ordeal, personally overseen by Hippias, he feigned willingness to betray his co-conspirators, upon receiving the tyrants hand he is reputed to have berated him for shaking the hand of his own brothers murderer, upon which the tyrant wheeled and struck him down on the spot. One version holds that previous to being tortured she had bitten off her tongue, another is that the Athenians, unwilling to honour a courtesan, placed a statue of a lioness without a tongue in the vestibule of the Acropolis simply to honor her fortitude in maintaining silence. The statue was made by the sculptor Amphicrates and it was also in her honor that Athenian statues of Aphrodite were from then on accompanied by stone lionesses
Harmodius and Aristogeiton
–
Statue of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, Naples. Roman copy of the Athenian version by Kritios and Nesiotes (see below)
18.
Tyranny
–
A tyrant, in its modern English usage, is an absolute ruler unrestrained by law or person, or one who has usurped legitimate sovereignty. Often described as a character, a tyrant defends his position by oppressive means. The original Greek term, however, merely meant an authoritarian sovereign without reference to character, bearing no pejorative connotation during the Archaic, Plato and Aristotle define a tyrant as one who rules without law, and uses extreme and cruel tactics–against his own people as well as others. It is defined further in the Encyclopédie as a usurper of sovereign power who makes his subjects the victims of his passions and unjust desires, which he substitutes for laws. During the seventh and sixth centuries BC, tyranny was often looked upon as a stage between narrow oligarchy and more democratic forms of polity. However, in the fifth and fourth centuries BC, a new kind of tyrant. Tyranny includes a variety of types of government – by a tyrant. The definition is extended to other leadership and to oppressive policies. For example, a teacher may find the school administration, the textbook or standardized tests to be oppressive, the English noun tyrant appears in Middle English use, via Old French, from the 1290s. The final -t arises in Old French by association with the present participles in -ant, the word tyranny is used with many meanings, not only by the Greeks, but throughout the tradition of the great books. The Oxford English Dictionary offers alternative definitions, a ruler, an illegitimate ruler, the term is usually applied to vicious dictators who achieve bad results for the governed. The definition of a tyrant is cursed by subjectivity, oppression, injustice and cruelty do not have standardized measurements or thresholds. The Greeks defined both usurpers and those inheriting rule from usurpers as tyrants, Old words are defined by their historical usage. It is difficult to determine characteristics of tyrants were defining rather than descriptive. Biblical quotations do not use the word tyrant, but express opinions very similar to those of the Greek philosophers, citing the wickedness, cruelty, like a roaring lion or a charging bear is a wicked ruler over a poor people. A ruler who lacks understanding is a cruel oppressor, but one who hates unjust gain will enjoy a long life, proverbs 28, 15–16 By justice a king gives stability to the land, but one who makes heavy extractions ruins it. Proverbs 29,4 The Greek philosophers stressed the quality of rule rather than legitimacy or absolutism, both Plato and Aristotle speak of the king as a good monarch and the tyrant as a bad one. Both say that monarchy, or rule by a man, is royal when it is for the welfare of the ruled
Tyranny
–
François Gérard, The French people demanding destitution of the Tyran on
10 August 1792
19.
Deme
–
The group is based in Zwijndrecht, Belgium, and has current operations on the five continents. The roots of the date back to the mid 19th century. DEME is committed to the practice of sustainable development, in a survey by temporary employment company Randstad Holding of 12,000 Belgians in early 2010 DEME was proclaimed one of the most attractive employers in Belgium. In the process valuable expertise was built up in throwing up banks, reclaiming polders and this millenary experience is well documented in history. At around 1180, an early canal lock was already in operation at the Belgian city of Damme on the canal from Bruges to the sea. In 1292 dredging works are chronicled in the canals that linked the city of Bruges to the North Sea. In his Divina Commedia the Italian writer Dante Alighieri compared the hard embankment on which he was sitting to the dikes that Flemish craftsmen had built between Bruges and the Dutch border, but the millenary tradition, skills and expertise of dealing with water has remained. The roots of DEME are in the region and the Antwerp area of Belgium. Three companies are at the cradle of DEME, Baggerwerken Decloedt & Zoon, Ackermans & van Haaren, around 1850, the De Cloedt family had a small contracting business in the Belgian city of Bruges which diversified into dredging canals and building coastal defences as from 1875. The company would be incorporated in 1928, and is part of DEME as Baggerwerken Decloedt & Zoon. In 1880 the contractors Nicolaas van Haaren and Hendrik-Willem Ackermans established a winning and dredging business in the Belgian city of Antwerp. It was incorporated on 30 December 1924 and remained the core asset of what is nowadays the Belgian investment company Ackermans & van Haaren, maintenance dredging on the Scheldt river was also carried out by Société Générale de Dragage/Algemene Baggermaatschappij. This company was established on 5 April 1930 with the De Cloedt family, however, SGD had older roots dating back to the construction of the port of Zeebrugge. In the 1970s a major consolidation movement happened in the industry in Europe. In 25 years, the number of European dredging companies dropped from fourteen in 1970 to six by the turn of the century. After the global crisis in the business during the 1980s had been resolved, Dredging International. In 2000 the De Cloedt family was out by the other shareholders. By 2010 Dredging International and Baggerwerken Decloedt & Zoon are two DEME operating companies, the founding companies of DEME have always been active both on their first home market Belgium and abroad
Deme
–
Dredging in
Baarland
Deme
Deme
–
The
trailing suction hopper dredger "Congo River" (capacity 30,000 m 3) is one of the largest ships in the DEME fleet.
20.
Solon
–
Solon was an Athenian statesman, lawmaker, and poet. He is remembered particularly for his efforts to legislate against political, economic and his reforms failed in the short term, yet he is often credited with having laid the foundations for Athenian democracy. He wrote poetry for pleasure, as propaganda, and in defense of his constitutional reforms. Ancient authors such as Herodotus and Plutarch are the source of information, yet they wrote about Solon long after his death. Fourth century orators, such as Aeschines, tended to attribute to Solon all the laws of their own, Solon was born in Athens around 638 B. C. His family was distinguished in Attica as they belonged to a noble or Eupatrid clan although only possessing moderate wealth, Solons lineage, therefore, could be traced back to Codrus, the last King of Athens. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he had a brother named Dropides who was an ancestor of Plato, according to Plutarch, Solon was related to the tyrant Peisistratos for their mothers were cousins. Solon was eventually drawn into the pursuit of commerce. When Athens and Megara were contesting for the possession of the Salamis Island, after repeated disasters, Solon was able to increase the morale and spirits of his body of troops on the strength of a poem he wrote about the islands. Supported by Peisistratos, he defeated the Megarians either by means of a trick or more directly through heroic battle around 595 B. C. The Megarians however refused to give up their claim to the island, the dispute was referred to the Spartans, who eventually awarded possession of the island to Athens on the strength of the case that Solon put to them. According to Diogenes Laertius, in 594 B. C, Solon was chosen archon or chief magistrate. As archon, Solon discussed his intended reforms with some friends, knowing that he was about to cancel all debts, these friends took out loans and promptly bought some land. Suspected of complicity, Solon complied with his own law and released his own debtors and his friends never repaid their debts. After he had finished his reforms, he travelled abroad for ten years, there, according to Herodotus he visited the Pharaoh of Egypt Amasis II. According to Plutarch, he spent some time and discussed philosophy with two Egyptian priests, Psenophis of Heliopolis and Sonchis of Sais, according to Platos dialogues Timaeus and Critias, he visited Neiths temple at Sais and received from the priests there an account of the history of Atlantis. Next Solon sailed to Cyprus, where he oversaw the construction of a new capital for a local king, Solons travels finally brought him to Sardis, capital of Lydia. According to Herodotus and Plutarch, he met with Croesus and gave the Lydian king advice, Croesus had considered himself to be the happiest man alive and Solon had advised him, Count no man happy until he be dead
Solon
–
Bas-relief of Solon from the chamber of the
U.S. House of Representatives.
Solon
–
Bust of Solon from the National Museum,
Naples.
Solon
–
Croesus awaits fiery execution (
Attic red-figure
amphora, 500–490 BC,
Louvre G 197)
Solon
–
Solon, the wise lawgiver of Athens
21.
Ostracism
–
Ostracism was a procedure under the Athenian democracy in which any citizen could be expelled from the city-state of Athens for ten years. While some instances clearly expressed popular anger at the citizen, ostracism was often used preemptively and it was used as a way of neutralizing someone thought to be a threat to the state or potential tyrant. It has been called an honourable exile by scholar P. J. Rhodes, the word ostracism continues to be used for various cases of social shunning. The name is derived from the ostraka, referring to the shards that were used as voting tokens. Broken pottery, abundant and virtually free, served as a kind of scrap paper, each year the Athenians were asked in the assembly whether they wished to hold an ostracism. The question was put in the sixth of the ten months used for business under the democracy. If they voted yes, then an ostracism would be two months later. The presiding officials counted the ostraka submitted and sorted the names into separate piles, according to a fragment of Philochorus, the winner of the ostracism must have obtained at least 6,000 votes. The person nominated had ten days to leave the city, if he attempted to return, the penalty was death. Notably, the property of the man banished was not confiscated, after the ten years, he was allowed to return without stigma. Similarly, Cimon, ostracised in 461 BC, was recalled during an emergency, Ostracism was crucially different from Athenian law at the time, there was no charge, and no defence could be mounted by the person expelled. The two stages of the procedure ran in the order from that used under almost any trial system — here it is as if a jury are first asked Do you want to find someone guilty. And subsequently asked Whom do you wish to accuse, equally out of place in a judicial framework is perhaps the institutions most peculiar feature, that it can take place at most once a year, and only for one person. In this it resembles the Greek pharmakos or scapegoat — though in contrast, by contrast, an Athenian trial needed the initiative of a particular citizen-prosecutor. While prosecution often led to a counterattack, no response was possible in the case of ostracism as responsibility lay with the polity as a whole. In contrast to a trial, ostracism generally reduced political tension rather than increased it, however, ten years of exile usually resolved whatever had prompted the expulsion. Ostracism was simply a measure, the concept of serving out the full sentence did not apply as it was a preventative measure. One curious window on the practicalities of ostracism comes from the cache of 190 ostraka discovered dumped in a next to the acropolis
Ostracism
–
Ostraca from 482 BC
22.
Xanthippus
–
Xanthippus was a wealthy Athenian politician and general during the early part of the 5th century BC. He was the son of Ariphron and father of Pericles and he is often associated with the Alcmaeonid clan. Although not born to the Alcmaeonidae, he married into the family when he wed Cleisthenes niece Agariste and he distinguished himself in the Athenian political arena, championing the aristocratic party. His rivalry with Themistocles led to his ostracism, only to be recalled from exile when the Persians invaded Greece and he distinguished himself during the Greco-Persian Wars making a significant contribution to the victory of the Greeks and the subsequent ascendancy of the Athenian Empire. As a citizen-soldier of Athens and a member of the aristocracy, Xanthippus first appears in the historical record the following year, when he led the prosecution of Miltiades the Younger, the general who led Athenians to victory at Marathon. The Athenians granted his wish, but when he met with set-backs and injury during an attack on Paros he had to return empty handed, many Athenians suspected him of deceiving them. He died there of his wounds, Athenians would come to regret their treatment of their war hero, but immediately following the trial Xanthippus became the pre-eminent politician of the day, if only briefly. Xanthippus leadership was short lived due to the rise of Themistocles, the lower classes had begun to flex their political muscle with Themistocles, and the results of the ostracisms reflected their new-found power. There were 5 prominent ostracisms of aristocrats during the clashes of the 480s BCE. Xanthippus was ostracised in 484 BCE, normally, an ostracism led to a 10-year exile. But when the Persians returned to attack Greece in 480 BCE, Themistocles, the rival politicians settled their differences and prepared for war. The dog was so loyal that it jumped into the sea and swam after Xanthippus boat, managing to swim across to the isle, in Plutarchs day there was still a place on Salamis called the dogs grave. Xanthippus was elected to the position of eponymous archon the following year, at that time a large force of Persian infantry still remained in Greece and Athens was still under threat. He also succeeded Themistocles as commander of the Athenian fleet that year, the remains of the Persian fleet that had survived the Battle of Salamis were stationed at the island of Samos. The Greek forces launched an attack on them, with Xanthippus leading his Athenian contingent on the left flank, Xanthippus men had easier terrain to cross than the other flank, so they engaged in combat with the Persians first and fought ferociously to earn all the credit. They broke through the line and sent the Persian troops running to their fort for safety, but the Athenians were able to breach the wall and when the other flank joined them they set to slaughtering the enemy. After the rout, the Greeks, led by Xanthippus and Leotychidas, went back to the beach, with these two decisive battles the war was won and Athens was now safe. After the Battle of Mycale, the Spartans suggested that the defence of the Ionian colonies of Asia Minor should be abandoned, Xanthippus, however, refused to consider the proposal
Xanthippus
–
Ostrakon mentioning Xanthippus (484 BC)
23.
Democracy
–
Democracy, in modern usage, is a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or elect representatives from among themselves to form a governing body, such as a parliament. Democracy is sometimes referred to as rule of the majority, Democracy was originally conceived in Classical Greece, where political representatives were chosen by a jury from amongst the male citizens, rich and poor. The English word dates to the 16th century, from the older Middle French, in the 5th century BC, to denote the political systems then existing in Greek city-states, notably Athens, the term is an antonym to aristocracy, meaning rule of an elite. While theoretically these definitions are in opposition, in practice the distinction has been blurred historically, the political system of Classical Athens, for example, granted democratic citizenship to free men and excluded slaves and women from political participation. In 1906, Finland became the first government to harald a more inclusive democracy at the national level. Democracy contrasts with forms of government where power is held by an individual, as in an absolute monarchy, or where power is held by a small number of individuals. Nevertheless, these oppositions, inherited from Greek philosophy, are now ambiguous because contemporary governments have mixed democratic, oligarchic, and monarchic elements. Karl Popper defined democracy in contrast to dictatorship or tyranny, thus focusing on opportunities for the people to control their leaders, No consensus exists on how to define democracy, but legal equality, political freedom and rule of law have been identified as important characteristics. These principles are reflected in all eligible citizens being equal before the law, other uses of democracy include that of direct democracy. In some countries, notably in the United Kingdom which originated the Westminster system, in the United States, separation of powers is often cited as a central attribute. In India, parliamentary sovereignty is subject to the Constitution of India which includes judicial review, though the term democracy is typically used in the context of a political state, the principles also are applicable to private organisations. Majority rule is listed as a characteristic of democracy. Hence, democracy allows for political minorities to be oppressed by the tyranny of the majority in the absence of legal protections of individual or group rights. An essential part of a representative democracy is competitive elections that are substantively and procedurally fair, i. e. just. It has also suggested that a basic feature of democracy is the capacity of all voters to participate freely and fully in the life of their society. While representative democracy is sometimes equated with the form of government. Many democracies are constitutional monarchies, such as the United Kingdom, the term democracy first appeared in ancient Greek political and philosophical thought in the city-state of Athens during classical antiquity. The word comes from demos, common people and kratos, strength, led by Cleisthenes, Athenians established what is generally held as the first democracy in 508–507 BC
Democracy
–
A woman casts her vote in the second round of the
2007 French presidential election.
Democracy
–
Cleisthenes, "father of
Athenian democracy ", modern bust.
Democracy
–
Magna Carta, 1215, England.
Democracy
–
The establishment of
universal male suffrage in France in 1848 was an important milestone in the history of democracy.
24.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
25.
Frederic George Kenyon
–
Sir Frederic George Kenyon GBE KCB TD FBA FSA was a British palaeographer and biblical and classical scholar. He occupied from 1889 to 1931 a series of posts at the British Museum and he was also the president of the British Academy from 1917 to 1921, and from 1918 to 1952 he was Gentleman Usher of the Purple Rod. Kenyon was born in London, the son of John Robert Kenyon, the Vinerian Professor of English Law at Oxford and he was educated at Winchester College. He graduated BA from Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was later a fellow, Kenyon joined the British Museum in 1889 and rose to be its Director and Principal Librarian by 1909. He was knighted for his services in 1912 and remained at his post until 1931, in 1891, Kenyon edited the editio princeps of Aristotles Constitution of Athens. In 1920, he was appointed president of the British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem and he spent most of his retirement researching and publishing ancient papyri. He died on 23 August 1952, Kenyon was a noted scholar of ancient languages, and made a lifelong study of the Bible, especially the New Testament as an historical text. His book Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts shows one way that Egyptian papyri, from 1899 to 1901 Frederic was Commanding Officer of the Roxeth & Harrow Company of the London Diocesan Church Lads Brigade. Aristotle on the Constitution of Athens, edited by F. G. Kenyon,1895, Our Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, Eyre and Spottiswoode, London,18961897, The Letters of Elizabeth Barrett Browning, edited with biographical additions by Frederic G. Kenyon. 1901, Handbook to the criticism of the New Testament 1912, Handbook to the textual criticism of the New Testament 1914, Aristotle, The Athenian Constitution. London, G. Bell Gutenberg fulltext Wikisource fulltext 1915, Codex Alexandrinus in Reduced Photographic Facsimile,1932, Books and Readers in Ancient Greece and Rome Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1936, The Story of the Bible, A Popular Account of How It Came to Us London, J. Murray 1940, The Bible, London, G. Harrap / New York, Harper & Row 1948, The Bible and Modern Scholarship London, J. Murray. Works by Frederic G. Kenyon at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Frederic G. Kenyon at Internet Archive Works by Frederic G. Kenyon at LibriVox Wolfgang Weiß, the Masters Seminary Journal 1,10,42
Frederic George Kenyon
–
Sir Frederic G. Kenyon
26.
Wikisource
–
Wikisource is an online digital library of free content textual sources on a wiki, operated by the Wikimedia Foundation. Wikisource is the name of the project as a whole and the name for each instance of that project, the projects aims are to host all forms of free text, in many languages, and translations. Originally conceived as an archive to store useful or important historical texts, the project officially began in November 24,2003 under the name Project Sourceberg. The name Wikisource was adopted later that year and it received its own domain name seven months later, the project has come under criticism for lack of reliability but it is also cited by organisations such as the National Archives and Records Administration. The project holds works that are either in the domain or freely licensed, professionally published works or historical source documents, not vanity products. Verification was initially made offline, or by trusting the reliability of digital libraries. Now works are supported by online scans via the ProofreadPage extension, some individual Wikisources, each representing a specific language, now only allow works backed up with scans. While the bulk of its collection are texts, Wikisource as a whole hosts other media, some Wikisources allow user-generated annotations, subject to the specific policies of the Wikisource in question. Wikisources early history included several changes of name and location, the original concept for Wikisource was as storage for useful or important historical texts. These texts were intended to support Wikipedia articles, by providing evidence and original source texts. The collection was focused on important historical and cultural material. The project was originally called Project Sourceberg during its planning stages, in 2001, there was a dispute on Wikipedia regarding the addition of primary source material, leading to edit wars over their inclusion or deletion. Project Sourceberg was suggested as a solution to this, perhaps Project Sourceberg can mainly work as an interface for easily linking from Wikipedia to a Project Gutenberg file, and as an interface for people to easily submit new work to PG. Wed want to complement Project Gutenberg--how, exactly, and Jimmy Wales adding like Larry, Im interested that we think it over to see what we can add to Project Gutenberg. It seems unlikely that primary sources should in general be editable by anyone -- I mean, Shakespeare is Shakespeare, unlike our commentary on his work, the project began its activity at ps. wikipedia. org. The contributors understood the PS subdomain to mean either primary sources or Project Sourceberg, however, this resulted in Project Sourceberg occupying the subdomain of the Pashto Wikipedia. A vote on the name changed it to Wikisource on December 6,2003. Despite the change in name, the project did not move to its permanent URL until July 23,2004, since Wikisource was initially called Project Sourceberg, its first logo was a picture of an iceberg
Wikisource
–
The original Wikisource logo
Wikisource
–
Screenshot of wikisource.org home page
Wikisource
–
::: Original text
Wikisource
–
::: Action of the modernizing tool
27.
Classical Athens
–
Athenian democracy was established in 508 BC under Cleisthenes following the tyranny of Isagoras. This system remained remarkably stable, and with a few brief interruptions remained in place for 180 years, the peak of Athenian hegemony was achieved in the 440s to 430s BC, known as the Age of Pericles. The radical politician of aristocratic background, Cleisthenes, then took charge, the reforms of Cleisthenes replaced the traditional four Ionic tribes with ten new ones, named after legendary heroes of Greece and having no class basis, which acted as electorates. Each tribe was in divided into three trittyes, while each trittys had one or more demes —depending on their population—which became the basis of local government. The tribes each selected fifty members by lot for the Boule, the public opinion of voters could be influenced by the political satires written by the comic poets and performed in the city theaters. Most offices were filled by lot, although the ten strategoi were elected, prior to the rise of Athens, Sparta, a city-state with a militaristic culture, considered itself the leader of the Greeks, and enforced a hegemony. In 499 BC Athens sent troops to aid the Ionian Greeks of Asia Minor and this provoked two Persian invasions of Greece, both of which were repelled under the leadership of the soldier-statesmen Miltiades and Themistocles. In 490 the Athenians, led by Miltiades, prevented the first invasion of the Persians, guided by king Darius I, in 480 the Persians returned under a new ruler, Xerxes I. Simultaneously the Athenians led a naval battle off Artemisium. However, this action was not enough to discourage the Persian advance which soon marched through Boeotia, setting up Thebes as their base of operations. This forced the Athenians to evacuate Athens, which was taken by the Persians, subsequently the Athenians and their allies, led by Themistocles, defeated the Persian navy at sea in the Battle of Salamis. It is interesting to note that Xerxes had built himself a throne on the coast in order to see the Greeks defeated, spartas hegemony was passing to Athens, and it was Athens that took the war to Asia Minor. These victories enabled it to bring most of the Aegean and many parts of Greece together in the Delian League. He fostered arts and literature and gave to Athens a splendor which would never return throughout its history and he executed a large number of public works projects and improved the life of the citizens. Hence, he gave his name to the Athenian Golden Age, silver mined in Laurium in southeastern Attica contributed greatly to the prosperity of this Golden Age of Athens. During the time of the ascendancy of Ephialtes as leader of the democratic faction, the conflict marked the end of Athenian command of the sea. The war between Athens and the city-state Sparta ended with an Athenian defeat after Sparta started its own navy, Athenian democracy was briefly overthrown by the coup of 411, brought about because of its poor handling of the war, but it was quickly restored. The war ended with the defeat of Athens in 404
Classical Athens
–
Early
Athenian coin, 5th century BC.
British Museum.
Classical Athens
–
Delian League ("Athenian Empire") shown in yellow, Athenian territory shown in red, situation in 431 BC, before the
Peloponnesian War.
Classical Athens
–
The modern
National Academy in Athens, with Apollo and Athena on their columns, and Socrates and Plato seated in front.
Classical Athens
–
Map of the environs of Athens showing
Piraeus,
Phalerum, and the
Long Walls
28.
Aristides
–
Aristides was an ancient Athenian statesman. Nicknamed the Just, he flourished in the quarter of Athens Classical period and is remembered for his generalship in the Persian War. The ancient historian Herodotus cited him as the best and most honourable man in Athens, Aristides was the son of Lysimachus, and a member of a family of moderate fortune. Of his early life, it is told that he became a follower of the statesman Cleisthenes. Pursuing a conservative policy to maintain Athens as a land power, the conflict between the two leaders ended in the ostracism of Aristides at a date variously given between 485 and 482. It is said that, on occasion, an illiterate voter who did not recognise Aristides approached the statesman. The latter asked if Aristides had wronged him, no, was the reply, and I do not even know him, but it irritates me to hear him everywhere called the Just. Aristides then wrote his own name on the ballot, early in 480, Aristides profited by the decree recalling exiles to help in the defence of Athens against Persian invaders, and was elected strategos for the year 480–479. His assessment was universally accepted as equitable, and continued as the basis of taxation for the part of the league’s duration. He continued to hold a predominant position in Athens, at first he seems to have remained on good terms with Themistocles, whom he is said to have helped in outwitting the Spartans over the rebuilding of the walls of Athens. He is said by authorities to have died at Athens. The date of his death is given by Nepos as 468, at any rate, he lived to witness the ostracism of Themistocles, towards whom he always displayed generosity, Herodotus is practically the only trustworthy authority on Aristides life. Aristides is praised by Socrates in Platos dialogues Gorgias and Meno as an instance of good leadership. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
Aristides
–
An
ostrakon bearing the name of Aristeides, displayed in the
Ancient Agora Museum in Athens
29.
Cimon
–
Cimon or Kimon was an Athenian statesman and general in mid-5th century BC Greece. He was the son of Miltiades, the victor of the Battle of Marathon, Cimon played a key role in creating the powerful Athenian maritime empire following the failure of the Persian invasion of Greece by Xerxes I in 480-479 BC. Cimon became a military hero and was elevated to the rank of admiral after fighting in the Battle of Salamis. One of Cimon’s greatest exploits was his destruction of a Persian fleet, in 462 BC, he led an unsuccessful expedition to support the Spartans during the helot uprisings. For this participation in policy, he has often been called a laconist. Cimon also led the Athenian aristocratic party against Pericles and opposed the revolution of Ephialtes seeking to retain aristocratic party control over Athenian institutions. Cimon was born into Athenian nobility in 510 BC and he was a member of the Philaidae clan, from the deme of Laciadae. His grandfather was Cimon the Silly, who won three Olympic victories with his chariot and was assassinated by the sons of Peisistratus. His father was the celebrated Athenian general Miltiades and his mother was Hegesipyle, daughter of the Thracian king Olorus, while Cimon was a young man, his father was fined 50 talents after an accusation of treason by the Athenian state. As Miltiades could not afford to pay this amount, he was put in jail, Cimon inherited this debt and, according to Diodorus, some of his fathers unserved prison sentence in order to obtain his body for burial. As the head of his household, he also had to look after his sister or half-sister Elpinice, according to Plutarch, the wealthy Callias took advantage of this situation by proposing to pay Cimons debts for Elpinices hand in marriage. He later married Isodice, Megacles granddaughter and a member of the Alcmaeonidae family and their first children were twin boys named Lacedaemonius and Eleus. During the Battle of Salamis, Cimon distinguished himself by his bravery and he is mentioned as being a member of an embassy sent to Sparta in 479 BC. Between 478 BC and 476 BC, a number of Greek maritime cities around the Aegean Sea did not wish to submit to Persian control again, there, they formed the Delian League, and it was agreed that Cimon would be their principal commander. As strategos, Cimon commanded most of the League’s operations until 463 BC, during this period, he and Aristides drove the Spartans under Pausanias out of Byzantium. Cimon also captured Eion on the Strymon from the Persian general Boges and he also conquered Scyros and drove out the pirates who were based there. On his return, he brought the “bones” of the mythological Theseus back to Athens, to celebrate this achievement, three Herma statues were erected around Athens. Around 466 BC, Cimon carried the war against Persia into Asia Minor, Cimons land and sea forces captured the Persian camp and destroyed or captured the entire Persian fleet of 200 triremes manned by Phoenicians
Cimon
–
Bust of Cimon in
Larnaca,
Cyprus
Cimon
–
Most important geographical locations during Cimon's life.
Cimon
–
Timeline
30.
Demetrius of Phalerum
–
Demetrius of Phalerum was an Athenian orator originally from Phalerum, a student of Theophrastus, and perhaps of Aristotle, himself, and one of the first Peripatetics. He was exiled by his enemies in 307 BC, and he went first to Thebes and he wrote extensively on the subjects of history, rhetoric, and literary criticism. Demetrius was born in Phalerum, c.350 BC and he was the son of Phanostratus, a man without rank or property. He was educated, together with the poet Menander, in the school of Theophrastus and he began his public career about 325 BC, at the time of the disputes concerning Harpalus, and soon acquired a great reputation by the talent he displayed in public speaking. He belonged to the party of Phocion, and he acted in the spirit of that statesman. When Xenocrates was unable to pay the new tax on metics c.322 BC, after the death of Phocion in 317 BC, Cassander placed Demetrius at the head of the administration of Athens. He filled this office for ten years, instituting extensive legal reforms, the Athenians conferred upon him the most extraordinary distinctions, and no fewer than 360 statues were erected to him. According to Stephen V. Tracy, the story about the statues was not historical and he remained in power until 307 BC when Cassanders enemy, Demetrius Poliorcetes captured Athens, and Demetrius was obliged to take to flight. Carystius of Pergamum mentions that he had a lover by the name of Diognis, after his exile, his enemies contrived to induce the people of Athens to pass the death sentence upon him, in consequence of which his friend Menander nearly fell a victim. All his statues, with the exception of one, were demolished, during his stay at Alexandria, he devoted himself mainly to literary pursuits, ever cherishing the recollection of his own country. On the accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, Demetrius fell into disfavour, and was sent into exile to Upper Egypt and his death appears to have taken place soon after the year 283 BC. Demetrius was the last among the Attic orators worthy of the name and his orations were characterised as being soft, graceful, and elegant, rather than sublime like those of Demosthenes. These works, which were historical, partly political, partly philosophical. The work On Style which has come down under his name, is the work of a later writer, the performance of tragedy had fallen into disuse in Athens, on account of the great expense involved. In order to afford the people less costly and yet intellectual amusement, he caused the Homeric, according to Strabo, Demetrius inspired the creation of the Mouseion, the location of the Library of Alexandria, which was modeled after the arrangement of Aristotles school. The Mouseion contained a peripatos, a syssition and an organization of scrolls. Other sources claim it was created under the reign of his son Ptolemy II. Diogenes Laërtius devotes a section of his The Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers to Demetrius Phalereus, what the exact source was for Hegels claim is unclear
Demetrius of Phalerum
–
Statue of Demetrius at the entrance of the
Bibliotheca Alexandrina
31.
Demosthenes
–
Demosthenes was a Greek statesman and orator of ancient Athens. His orations constitute a significant expression of contemporary Athenian intellectual prowess and provide an insight into the politics, Demosthenes learned rhetoric by studying the speeches of previous great orators. He delivered his first judicial speeches at the age of 20, for a time, Demosthenes made his living as a professional speech-writer and a lawyer, writing speeches for use in private legal suits. Demosthenes grew interested in politics during his time as a logographer and he went on to devote his most productive years to opposing Macedons expansion. He idealized his city and strove throughout his life to restore Athens supremacy, after Philips death, Demosthenes played a leading part in his citys uprising against the new king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great. However, his efforts failed and the revolt was met with a harsh Macedonian reaction, to prevent a similar revolt against his own rule, Alexanders successor in this region, Antipater, sent his men to track Demosthenes down. Demosthenes took his own life, in order to avoid being arrested by Archias, the Alexandrian Canon compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium and Aristarchus of Samothrace recognised Demosthenes as one of the ten greatest Attic orators and logographers. Longinus likened Demosthenes to a thunderbolt, and argued that he perfected to the utmost the tone of lofty speech, living passions, copiousness, readiness. Quintilian extolled him as lex orandi, and Cicero said about him that inter omnis unus excellat, Demosthenes was born in 384 BC, during the last year of the 98th Olympiad or the first year of the 99th Olympiad. His father—also named Demosthenes—who belonged to the tribe, Pandionis. Aeschines, Demosthenes greatest political rival, maintained that his mother Kleoboule was a Scythian by blood—an allegation disputed by modern scholars. Demosthenes was orphaned at the age of seven, although his father provided well for him, his legal guardians, Aphobus, Demophon and Therippides, mishandled his inheritance. As soon as Demosthenes came of age in 366 BC, he demanded they render an account of their management, according to Demosthenes, the account revealed the misappropriation of his property. Although his father left an estate of nearly fourteen talents, Demosthenes asserted his guardians had left nothing except the house, and fourteen slaves and thirty silver minae. At the age of 20 Demosthenes sued his trustees in order to recover his patrimony and delivered five orations, the courts fixed Demosthenes damages at ten talents. When all the trials came to an end, he succeeded in retrieving a portion of his inheritance. According to Pseudo-Plutarch, Demosthenes was married once, the only information about his wife, whose name is unknown, is that she was the daughter of Heliodorus, a prominent citizen. Demosthenes also had a daughter, the one who ever called him father
Demosthenes
–
Bust of Demosthenes (
Louvre,
Paris,
France)
Demosthenes
–
Bust of Demosthenes (
British Museum, London), Roman copy of a Greek original sculpted by Polyeuktos.
Demosthenes
–
Demosthenes Practising Oratory by
Jean-Jules-Antoine Lecomte du Nouy (1842–1923). Demosthenes used to study in an underground room he constructed himself. He also used to talk with pebbles in his mouth and recited verses while running. To strengthen his voice, he spoke on the seashore over the roar of the waves.
Demosthenes
–
He leaves the Assembly, hiding his face in his cloak.
32.
Draco (lawgiver)
–
Draco was the first recorded legislator of Athens in Ancient Greece. He replaced the system of oral law and blood feud by a written code to be enforced only by a court. Dracos written law was characterized by its harshness, with the adjective referring to similarly unforgiving rules or laws. During the 39th Olympiad, in 622 or 621 BC, Draco established the code with which he is identified. Little is known about his life and he may have belonged to the Greek nobility of Attica, with which the 10th-century text records him as contemporaneous, prior to the period of the Seven Sages of Greece. It also relates a story of his death in the Aeginetan theatre. In a traditional ancient Greek show of approval, his supporters threw so many hats and shirts and cloaks on his head that he suffocated, and was buried in that same theatre. The truth about his death is unclear, but we do know that Draco was driven out of Athens by the Athenians to the neighbouring island of Aegina. The laws that he laid down were the first written constitution of Athens, so that no one would be unaware of them, they were posted on wooden tablets, where they were preserved for almost two centuries on steles of the shape of three-sided pyramids. The tablets were called axones, perhaps because they could be pivoted along the axis to read any side. The laws distinguish between murder and involuntary homicide, for example, any debtor whose status was lower than that of his creditor was forced into slavery. The punishment was more lenient for those owing a debt to a member of a lower class, the death penalty was the punishment for even minor offences, such as stealing a cabbage. All his laws were repealed by Solon in the early 6th century BC, after much debate, the Athenians decided to revise the laws, including the homicide law, in 409 BC. The homicide law is a fragmented inscription but states that it is up to the victims relatives to prosecute a killer. According to the part of the inscription, unintentional homicides received a sentence of exile. It is not clear whether Dracos law specified the punishment for intentional homicide, in 409 BC, intentional homicide was punished by death, but Dracos law begins, καὶ ἐὰμ μὲ ‘κ ρονοίς τε, which is ambiguous and difficult to translate. One possible translation offers, Even if a man not intentionally kills another, Draco introduced the lot-chosen Council of Four Hundred, distinct from the Areopagus, which evolved in later constitutions to play a large role in Athenian democracy. Aristotle notes that Draco, while having the written, merely legislated for an existing unwritten Athenian constitution such as setting exact qualifications for eligibility for office
Draco (lawgiver)
–
A representation of Draco at the library of the
Supreme Court of the United States
33.
Hyperbolus
–
Hyperbolus was an Athenian politician active during the first half of the Peloponnesian war, coming to particular prominence after the death of Cleon. Like Cleon, he counts as a demagogue, one who exercised power solely through speech in the assembly and it appears that like other such leaders he was wealthy. He is referred to by Aristophanes in the play Peace as having been a lampmaker previous to being a political figure, in attacks on him with comedy he is represented as being of slavish and foreign background, both of which are improbable. Sometime in the years 417-415 BC he was ostracised, perhaps the last person to be subject to the practice, the validity of Plutarchs take on these events, however, is hard to gauge. Oxford Classical Dictionary, 2nd edition, Hyperbolus, the Ostracism of Hyberbolus, J. P. Rhodes, in Ritual, Finance, Politics, Athenian Democratic Accounts presented to David Lewis, eds. R. Osborne, S. Hornblower, pp. 85–99, the New Politicians of Fifth-Century Athens by W. Robert Connor. Media related to Hyperbolus at Wikimedia Commons
Hyperbolus
–
Ostracon against Hyperbolus (417 BC).
34.
Hypereides
–
Hypereides or Hyperides was an Athenian logographer. He was one of the ten Attic orators included in the Alexandrian Canon compiled by Aristophanes of Byzantium, little is known about his early life except that he was the son of Glaucippus, of the deme of Collytus and that he studied logography under Isocrates. In 360 BCE he prosecuted Autocles for treason, during the Social War he accused Aristophon, then one of the most influential men at Athens, of malpractices, and impeached Philocrates for high treason. Although Hypereides supported Demosthenes in the struggle against Philip II of Macedon, after Demosthenes exile Hypereides became the head of the patriotic party. After the death of Alexander the Great, Hypereides was one of the promoters of war against Macedonian rule. His speeches are believed to have led to the outbreak of the Lamian War in which Athens, Aetolia, and Thessaly revolted against Macedonian rule. After the decisive defeat at Crannon in which Athens and her allies lost their independence, Hypereides, Hypereides fled to Aegina only to be captured at the temple of Poseidon. After being put to death, his body was taken to Cleonae, Hypereides was an ardent pursuer of the beautiful, which in his time generally meant pleasure and luxury. His temper was easy-going and humorous, though in his development of the periodic sentence he followed Isocrates, the essential tendencies of his style are those of Lysias. His diction was plain, though he indulged in long compound words probably borrowed from Middle Comedy. He was especially distinguished for subtlety of expression, grace and wit, seventy-seven speeches have been attributed to Hypereides, of which twenty-five were regarded as spurious by his contemporaries. Only a few fragments were known until recent times. In 1847 large fragments of his speeches, Against Demosthenes and For Lycophron, in 1856 a considerable portion of a logos epitaphios, a Funeral Oration over Leosthenes and his comrades who had fallen in the Lamian war was discovered. Currently this is the best surviving example of epideictic oratory, towards the end of the nineteenth century further discoveries were made including the conclusion of the speech Against Philippides, and of the whole of Against Athenogenes. In 2002 Natalie Tchernetska of Trinity College, Cambridge discovered fragments of two speeches of Hypereides, which had been considered lost, in the Archimedes Palimpsest and these were from the Against Timandros and Against Diondas. Tchernetskas discovery led to a publication on the subject in the Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik and this prompted the establishment of a working group under the auspices of the British Academy, which includes scholars from the UK, Hungary and the US. These were interpreted, transcribed and translated by the working group, the new Hypereides revelations include two previously unknown speeches, effectively increasing the quantity of material known by this author by 20 percent. Among the speeches not yet recovered is the Deliacus in which the presidency of the Delian temple claimed by both Athens and Cos, which was adjudged by the Amphictyonic League to Athens
Hypereides
–
Hypereides
Hypereides
–
The final two columns of P.Lit.Lond. 134, the 2nd-century BCE papyrus that transmits the conclusion to Against Philippides
Hypereides
–
Jean-Léon Gérôme, Phryne before the
Areopagus, 1861
35.
Miltiades
–
Miltiades, also known as Miltiades the Younger, was the son of Cimon Coalemos, a renowned Olympic chariot-racer. He was an Athenian citizen and is mostly for his role in the Battle of Marathon. Miltiades was a well-born Athenian, and considered himself a member of the Aeacidae and he came of age during the tyranny of the Peisistratids. His family was prominent, due in part to their success with Olympic chariot-racing. Miltiades was named after his fathers maternal half-brother, Miltiades the Elder, around 555 BC, Miltiades the Elder left Athens to establish a colony on the Thracian Chersonese, setting himself up as a semi-autonomous tyrant under the protection of Athens. Miltiades the Elder was childless, so when he died around 520 BC, his nephew, Miltiades the Youngers brother, Stesagoras, inherited the tyranny of the Chersonese. Four years later, Stesagoras met his death by an axe to the head, Stesagoras reign had been tumultuous, full of war and revolt. Wishing to achieve control over his lands than his brother had. When the men of rank from the Chersonese came to console him and he then ensured his power by employing 500 troops. He also made an alliance with King Olorus of Thrace by marrying his daughter, in about 513 BC, Darius I, the king of Persia, led a large army into the area, forcing the Thracian Chersonese into submission and making Miltiades a vassal of Persian rule. Miltiades tried to convince the officers to destroy the bridge and leave Darius and his forces to die, but the others were too afraid. When the king got wind of this scheme, Miltiades rule became a perilous affair, however, the revolt collapsed in 494 BC and in 492 BC Miltiades and his family fled to Athens in five ships to escape a retaliatory Persian invasion. The Athens to which Miltiades returned was no longer a tyranny, it had overthrown the Peisistratids, thus, Miltiades initially faced a hostile reception for his tyrannical rule in the Thracian Chersonese. His trial was further complicated by the politics of his aristocratic rivals, Miltiades is often credited with devising the tactics that defeated the Persians in the Battle of Marathon. Miltiades was elected to serve as one of the ten generals for 490 BC, in addition to the ten generals, there was one war-ruler, Callimachus, who had been left with a decision of great importance. The ten generals were split, five to five, on whether to attack the Persians at Marathon then, or later. He is quoted as saying I believe that, provided the Gods will give fair play and no favour, Miltiades feared the cavalry of the Persians attacking the flanks, and asked for the flanks to have more hoplites than the centre. Miltiades also had his men march to the end of the Persian archer range, called the beaten zone and this was very successful in defeating the Persians, who then tried to sail around the Cape Sounion and attack Attica from the west
Miltiades
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Outfit of an Ancient athenian warrior
Miltiades
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"Helmet of Miltiades". The helmet was given as an offering to the
temple of Zeus at
Olympia by Miltiades. Inscription on the helmet: ΜΙLTIAΔES.
Archaeological Museum of Olympia. His helmet read Miltiades dedicates this helmet to Zeus.
Miltiades
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"They crashed into the Persian army with tremendous force", illustration by Walter Crane in Mary Macgregor, The Story of Greece Told to Boys and Girls, London: T.C. & E.C. Jack.
36.
Nicias
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Nicias, was an Athenian politician and general during the period of the Peloponnesian War. Nicias was a member of the Athenian aristocracy and had inherited a fortune from his father. Following the death of Pericles in 429 BC, he became the rival of Cleon. He was a moderate in his views and opposed the aggressive imperialism of the democrats. His principal aim was to conclude a peace with Sparta as soon as it could be obtained on terms favourable to Athens and he was regularly elected to serve as strategos for Athens during the Peloponnesian War. He led several expeditions which achieved little, nevertheless, he was largely responsible for the successful negotiations which led to the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC. Following the Peace, he objected to the plans of Alcibiades for advancing Athens interests. Despite this, Nicias was appointed to participate in the Athenian invasion of Sicily, the Athenian siege of Syracuse was nearly successful until the arrival of the Spartan general Gylippus, who turned the situation around so that the Athenians were themselves under siege. Nicias led his forces in a attempt to escape by land. However, they were cut off and he and his Athenian army were overwhelmed and defeated and his army was almost wiped out, but he reminded Gylippus of all the times Nicias had spared him, and was in turn spared. Nicias inherited from his father, Niceratus, a considerable fortune and it is said that Nicias had over 1000 slaves working in the mines. Plutarch states that Nicias was also generous with his wealth, using his money for charitable activities in Athens. Nicias rise to prominence occurred while Pericles was at the head of the Athenian government, after Pericles death in 429 BC, Nicias became an important Athenian politician with the aristocratic party looking to him as their leader. As such, Nicias became the rival of Cleons popular or democratic party, Nicias lacked the eloquence or charm to win popularity among Athenians, according to the later historian Plutarch. Instead, Nicias gained popularity through the use of his wealth and he funded and organized choruses for Athenian dramas, sporting events, public exhibitions, and new or restored statues and temples. Plutarch specifically refers to an example of Nicias generosity - his funding of the festival of Delos, Nicias funded the building of a bridge of boats between Delos and the Rhenean islands. The ships were decorated with garlands, gilding, and rich tapestry, then a richly dressed chorus walked across the boats. Nicias then provided a 10,000 drachma fund to the Delians so they would continue this event into the future, such instructions were engraved onto a pillar
Nicias
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Nicias
Nicias
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Nicias' expeditions, before the Sicilian campaign.
37.
Phocion
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Phocion was an Athenian statesman and strategos, and the subject of one of Plutarchs Parallel Lives. Phocion was a politician of Athens. He believed that extreme frugality was the condition for virtue and lived in accord with this, consequently, further, people thought that Phocion was the most honest member of the Athenian Assembly. However, within this chamber, Phocions tendency to strong opposition relegated him to a stand against the entire political class. Nonetheless, by both his prestige and his military expertise, which was acquired by the side of Chabrias, Phocion was elected strategos numerous times. Thus, during most of his 84 years of life, Phocion occupied the most important Athenian offices, in the late 320s, when Macedon gained complete control of Athens, though somewhat compromised Phocion defended both the urban center and its citizens. He even refused to comply with some dishonorable requests of the enemy, however, his stance put Phocion in opposition to both most free Athenians and Polyperchon, the next ruler of Macedonia, who arranged his execution in Athens. Phocions father operated a lathe, producing iron tools, during his youth, Phocion sought to study liberal notions. He was both Platos pupil and Xenocrates friend, through such philosophical education, Phocion was of virtuous moral character and he used to give prudent advice. This academic training left its mark upon him, but it was as a rather than as a philosopher that he first came to notice. The Athenians recognized that Phocion was honest and he was respected as such and he had a reserved demeanor, he was never seen either laughing or weeping. Indeed, he appeared quite severe, and was feared by those meeting him for first time. Phocion believed that the frugality proved his own virtue and he was never seen at the public baths. Both on the Athenian streets and on campaign, he walked around wearing a simple tunic and he only made an exception in extreme cold, wearing a cloak, so other soldiers said that Phocion gave a meteorological indication. Throughout his life Phocion lived in a home which was humble, with decoration, located at the Melite neighborhood. His wife cooked their everyday bread, and Phocion drew water, Phocion was first married to a woman whose father was a maker of clay statues. His second wife was famous in Athens for her humility, once she said that her sole adornment was Phocions twentieth strategos appointment. During his youth he became licentious and addicted to partying and wine, the young Phocion enrolled with Chabrias armies, in many campaigns, gaining much experience
Phocion
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Locations of the most important events of Phocion's life.
Phocion
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The Funeral of Phocion by
Nicolas Poussin (1648)
Phocion
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The ashes of Phocion collected by his widow by
Nicolas Poussin (1648)
Phocion
–
Timeline
38.
Themistocles
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Themistocles was an Athenian politician and general. He was one of a new breed of politicians who rose to prominence in the early years of the Athenian democracy. As a politician, Themistocles was a populist, having the support of lower class Athenians, elected archon in 493 BC, he convinced the polis to increase the naval power of Athens, a recurring theme in his political career. During the first Persian invasion of Greece, he fought at the Battle of Marathon, in the years after Marathon, and in the run up to the second Persian invasion he became the most prominent politician in Athens. He continued to advocate a strong Athenian navy, and in 483 BC he persuaded the Athenians to build a fleet of 200 triremes, during the second invasion, he was in effective command of the Greek allied navy at the battles of Artemisium and Salamis. After the conflict ended, Themistocles continued to be pre-eminent among Athenian politicians, however, he aroused the hostility of Sparta by ordering Athens to be re-fortified, and his perceived arrogance began to alienate him from the Athenians. In 472 or 471 BC, he was ostracised, and went into exile in Argos, the Spartans now saw an opportunity to destroy Themistocles, and implicated him in the treasonous plot of their own general Pausanias. He was made governor of Magnesia, and lived there for the rest of his life, Themistocles died in 459 BC, probably of natural causes. Themistocless reputation was rehabilitated, and he was re-established as a hero of the Athenian cause. Themistocles can still reasonably be thought of as the man most instrumental in achieving the salvation of Greece from the Persian threat and his naval policies would have a lasting impact on Athens as well, since maritime power became the cornerstone of the Athenian Empire and golden age. Themistocles was born in Athens around 524 BC, the son of Neocles and his mother is more obscure, according to Plutarch, she was either a Thracian woman called Abrotonon, or Euterpe, a Carian from Halicarnassus. Like many contemporaries, little is known of his early years, some authors report that he was unruly as a child and was consequently disowned by his father. Plutarch considers this to be false, however, in an early example of his cunning, Themistocles persuaded well-born children to exercise with him in Cynosarges, thus breaking down the distinction between alien and legitimate. Plutarch further reports that Themistocles was preoccupied, even as a child and his teacher is said to have told him, My boy, you will be nothing insignificant, but definitely something great, either for good or evil. Themistocles left three sons by Archippe, daughter to Lysander of Alopece, —Archeptolis, Polyeuctus, and Cleophantus, plato the philosopher mentions Cleophantus as a most excellent horseman, but otherwise insignificant person. And Themistocles had two older than these three, Neocles and Diocles. Neocles died when he was young by the bite of a horse, Themistocles grew up in a period of upheaval in Athens. The tyrant Peisistratos had died in 527 BC, passing power to his sons, Hipparchus, Hipparchus was murdered in 514 BC, and in response to this, Hippias became paranoid and started to rely increasingly on foreign mercenaries to keep a hold on power
Themistocles
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A sluicing tank for silver ore, excavated at
Laurium,
Attica
Themistocles
–
Statue of Themistocles,
Piraeus.
Themistocles
–
Ostracon with inscription: "Themistocles, son of Neocles"
Themistocles
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He stands silently before great King
Artaxerxes
39.
Theramenes
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Theramenes was an Athenian statesman, prominent in the final decade of the Peloponnesian War. He was particularly active during the two periods of government at Athens, as well as in the trial of the generals who had commanded at Arginusae in 406 BC. A moderate oligarch, he found himself caught between the democrats on the one hand and the extremist oligarchs on the other. Successful in replacing a narrow oligarchy with a one in 411 BC, he failed to achieve the same end in 404 BC. Theramenes was a figure in four major episodes of Athenian history. He served as a general for years after this, but was not reelected to that office in 407 BC. After the Battle of Arginusae, in which he served as a trierarch, he was assigned to rescue Athenian sailors from sinking ships, after the Athenian defeat at Aegospotami in 405 BC, Theramenes arranged the terms by which Athens surrendered to Sparta. He then became a member of the oligarchic government, known as the Thirty Tyrants. Theramenes remained a controversial figure after his death, Lysias vigorously denounced him while prosecuting several of his political allies. Some historians have found in Theramenes a selfish opportunist, others a principled moderate, the details of his actions, his motivations, and his character continue to be debated down to the present day. No ancient biographies of Theramenes are known, but his life and actions are well documented. The Attic orator Lysias deals with him at length in several of his speeches, only the barest outlines of Theramenes life outside the public sphere have been preserved in the historical record. His father, Hagnon had played a significant role in Athenian public life in the decades before Theramenes appearance on the scene. Hagnons career overlapped with his sons when he served as one of the ten commissioners appointed by the government of the 400 to draft a new constitution in 411 BC, Theramenes first appearance in the historical record comes with his involvement in the oligarchic coup of 411 BC. In this context, a number of Athenian aristocrats, led by Peisander and with Theramenes prominent among their ranks and this intrigue was initiated by the exiled nobleman Alcibiades, who was at that time acting as an assistant to the Persian satrap Tissaphernes. Accordingly, a number of trierarchs and other leaders of the Athenian army at Samos began planning the overthrow of the democracy, in Athens, meanwhile, a party of young oligarchic revolutionaries succeeded in gaining de facto control of the government through assassination and intimidation. After making arrangements to their satisfaction at Samos the leaders of the conspiracy set sail for Athens, among them was Theramenes, Thucydides refers to him as one of the leaders of the party that put down the democracy—an able speaker and a man with ideas. At this point, several conflicts began to develop that threatened the future of the new government at Athens, first, the planned coup at Samos was thwarted by the efforts of Samian democrats and a group of Athenians who they entrusted with helping them
Theramenes
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Alcibiades incited the oligarchic coup by promising Persian support to Athens if the democracy was overthrown.
Theramenes
–
The
Pnyx with speaker's platform in Athens, upon which Theramenes and other politicians stood while speaking.
Theramenes
–
An ancient Greek
trireme. Twenty-five Athenian triremes were disabled or sunk at Arginusae, and Theramenes was detailed to rescue the survivors.
Theramenes
–
The historian
Xenophon wrote a scathing account of Theramenes' actions after Arginusae, but portrayed his resistance to the Thirty Tyrants favorably.
40.
Thrasybulus
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Thrasybulus was an Athenian general and democratic leader. In 411 BC, in the wake of a coup at Athens. As general, he was responsible for recalling the controversial nobleman Alcibiades from exile, in 411 and 410, Thrasybulus commanded along with Alcibiades and others at several critical Athenian naval victories. After Athens defeat in the Peloponnesian War, Thrasybulus led the resistance to the new oligarchic government, known as the Thirty Tyrants. In 404 BC, he commanded a force of exiles that invaded the Spartan ruled Attica and, in successive battles, defeated first a Spartan garrison. In the wake of these victories, democracy was re-established at Athens, as a leader of this revived democracy in the 4th century BC, Thrasybulus advocated a policy of resistance to Sparta and sought to restore Athens imperial power. He was killed in 388 BC while leading an Athenian naval force during the Corinthian War, almost nothing is known of Thrasybuluss background or early life. His father was named Lycus, and he was a native of the deme of Steiria in Athens and he was probably born between 455 and 441 BC, although a date as late as the late 430s BC cannot be ruled out. He was married, and had two children, by 411 BC, Thrasybulus was clearly established to some degree as a pro-democracy politician, as events discussed below make clear. He is not mentioned in any sources before 411, so it is impossible to present a picture of his actions, as a politician, Thrasybulus consistently advocated several policies throughout his career. He was an advocate of Athenian imperialism and expansionism, and a supporter of Periclean democracy. He seems to have been a public speaker, although Plutarch notes that he had the loudest voice of the Athenians. During his period of prominence within the democracy, he seems to have led what might now be termed a populist faction, in 413 BC, a massive Athenian expedition force was completely obliterated in Sicily. In the wake of defeat, Athens found itself facing a crisis of unprecedented magnitude. Cities throughout its Aegean empire began to rebel, and a Peloponnesian fleet sailed to assist them, seeking to contain the crisis, Athens tapped its reserve fund to rebuild its fleet and dispatched what ships it had to establish an advance naval base at Samos. Their plans included recalling Alcibiades, who had been exiled by the democratic government and these oligarchs initiated their plans at Samos, where they successfully encouraged a number of Samian oligarchs to begin a similar conspiracy. A dispute has arisen among modern historians over Thrasybulus involvement in this plot, R. J. Buck, on the other hand, maintains that Thrasybulus was probably never involved in the plot, possibly because he was absent from Samos at the time of its inception. Upon their return to Athens, the conspirators succeeded in ending democratic rule, at Samos, however, the coup did not go forward so smoothly
Thrasybulus
–
The Athenian strategy at Cyzicus. Left: Alcibiades' decoy force (blue) lures the Spartan fleet (black) out to sea. Right: Thrasybulus and Theramenes bring their squadrons in behind the Spartans to cut off their retreat towards Cyzicus, while Alcibiades turns to face the pursuing force.
Thrasybulus
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Thrasybulus receiving an olive crown for his successful campaign against the
Thirty Tyrants. From
Andrea Alciato 's
Emblemata.
41.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
Virtual International Authority File
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Screenshot 2012
42.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
Integrated Authority File
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GND screenshot
Athenian Constitution. Trans. Frederic George Kenyon. Wikisource.. See original text in Perseus program.
Media related to Cleisthenes at Wikimedia Commons
