1.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
2.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Newport, Rhode Island
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Newport is a seaside city on Aquidneck Island in Newport County, Rhode Island, United States. The City of Newport is located approximately 37 miles southeast of Providence,21 miles south of Fall River and it is known as a New England summer resort and famous for its mansions. It was a major 18th-century port city and also contains a number of surviving buildings from the colonial era of the United States. The city is the county seat of Newport County and it was known for being the city of some of the Summer White Houses during the administrations of Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy. The population was 24,027 as of 2013 and its eight founders and first officers were Nicholas Easton, William Coddington, John Clarke, John Coggeshall, William Brenton, Jeremy Clark, Thomas Hazard, and Henry Bull. They left Portsmouth, Rhode Island after a fallout with Anne Hutchinson. As part of the agreement, Coddington and his followers took control of the side of the island. They were soon joined by Nicholas Easton, who had recently expelled from Massachusetts Bay Colony for holding heretical beliefs. The settlement grew to be the largest of the four settlements of Rhode Island. Many of the first colonists in Newport became Baptists, and the second Baptist congregation in Rhode Island was formed in 1640 under the leadership of John Clarke, peace did not last long in Newport, as many did not like Coddingtons autocratic style. As a result, a counter-faction was formed by 1650, led by Nicholas Easton, Newport became the most important port in colonial Rhode Island, and a public school was established in 1640. In 1658, a group of Jews were allowed to settle in Newport who were fleeing the Inquisition in Spain, the Newport congregation is now referred to as Congregation Jeshuat Israel and is the second-oldest Jewish congregation in the United States. It meets in Touro Synagogue, the oldest standing synagogue in the United States, in 1663, the colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations received its Royal Charter, and Benedict Arnold was elected its first Governor at Newport. The commercial activity which raised Newport to its fame as a port was begun by a second wave of Portuguese Jews who settled there about the middle of the 18th century. They brought with them experience and connections, capital. Most prominent among those were Jacob Rodrigues Rivera who arrived in 1745, Rivera introduced into America the manufacture of sperm oil, which became one of the leading industries and made Newport rich. Newports inhabitants who were engaged in whaling developed 17 manufactories of oil and candles, Aaron Lopez fled to Newport from Lisbon in 1752 and is credited with making Newport an important center of trade. To him in a degree than to any one else was due the rapid commercial development which made Newport for a quarter of a century afterward the most formidable rival of New York
5.
Rhode Island
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Rhode Island, officially the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Rhode Island is the smallest in area, the eighth least populous, and its official name is also the longest of any state in the Union. Rhode Island is bordered by Connecticut to the west, Massachusetts to the north and east, the state also shares a short maritime border with New York. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, on May 29,1790, Rhode Island became the 13th and last state to ratify the Constitution. Rhode Islands official nickname is The Ocean State, a reference to the fact that the state has several large bays, Rhode Island covers 1,214 square miles, of which 1,045 square miles are land. Despite its name, most of Rhode Island is located on the mainland of the United States, the official name of the state is State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, which is derived from the merger of four settlements. Rhode Island is now commonly called Aquidneck Island, the largest of several islands in Narragansett Bay, Providence Plantation was the name of the colony founded by Roger Williams in the area now known as the city of Providence. This was adjoined by the settlement of Warwick, hence the plural Providence Plantations and it is unclear how Aquidneck Island came to be known as Rhode Island, although there are two popular theories. Explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano noted the presence of an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay in 1524, subsequent European explorers were unable to precisely identify the island that Verrazzano had named, but the Pilgrims who later colonized the area assumed that it was Aquidneck. A second theory concerns the fact that Adriaen Block passed by Aquidneck during his expeditions in the 1610s, historians have theorized that this reddish appearance resulted from either red autumn foliage or red clay on portions of the shore. The earliest documented use of the name Rhode Island for Aquidneck was in 1637 by Roger Williams, the name was officially applied to the island in 1644 with these words, Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Isle of Rodes or Rhode-Island. The name Isle of Rodes is used in a document as late as 1646. Dutch maps as early as 1659 call the island Red Island, Williams was a theologian forced out of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Seeking religious and political tolerance, he and others founded Providence Plantation as a proprietary colony. Providence referred to the concept of providence, and plantation was an English term for a colony. State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations is the longest official name of any state in the Union, advocates for excising plantation asserted that the word specifically referred to the British colonial practice of establishing settlements which disenfranchised native people. Advocates for retaining the name argued that plantation was simply an archaic English synonym for colony, the referendum election was held on November 2,2010, and the people voted overwhelmingly to retain the entire original name. It shares a maritime border with New York State between Block Island and Long Island
6.
General Theological Seminary
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Founded in 1817, GTS is the oldest seminary of the Episcopal Church and a leading center of theological education in the Anglican Communion. The seminary was chartered by an act of the Episcopal Churchs General Convention, duncan Cameron mollified them and convinced one to note that the evil of the undue influence of New York in the General Seminary. Would be chiefly at the beginning, and would be decreasing every year, with some stipulations concerning its governance, Bishop Hobart consented to the union of the diocesan school with the General Seminary rather than contesting the inheritance. The unified school opened for the term of 1822. Other parishioners of Trinity Church went on to support the more local institution. Clement Clarke Moore, famous for penning A Visit from St. Nicholas, owned the estate Chelsea, also a member of Trinity Church, he donated 66 tracts of land—which was his apple orchard—to become the site of the new seminary. It was not, however, until 1827 that the seminary occupied that land, other figures influential in the founding of the seminary include Theodore Dehon, William White, and John Henry Hobart. Bishop Hobart served as the seminarys first dean, after which the Bishop of New York served in capacity until the 1850s. In 1878, Eugene Augustus Hoffman – said to be the richest clergyman in the due to his extensive real estate holdings – was appointed dean. Under his tenure, the seminary saw tremendous growth, both in student body and facilities, dean Hoffmans grand design was for the seminarys Chelsea campus to be built on an Oxford model, with neo-Gothic buildings facing onto a central quadrangle or Close. The tower chime is played daily by members of the seminarys Guild of Chimers to call the community to worship, haight designed and supervised construction of most of the buildings on Chelsea Square while Haights father, Benjamin I. Haight, was the first priest at nearby St. Peters Episcopal Church, due to growing housing needs for married students, GTS acquired 422 West 20th Street, a residential building opposite the seminarys 20th Street gate in March 1957. A renovation and expansion of the buildings facing 10th Avenue was completed in 2007. Named for Desmond Tutu, former visiting professor at GTS and retired archbishop of the Church of the Province of Southern Africa, the Tutu Center operates primarily as a hotel and conference center. In 2007 the seminary engaged in an effort to reduce its footprint, along with general operating costs. Also in 2007, the seminary, in need of funds, sold Sherrill Hall, the Chelsea Enclave was completed in 2010 and contains 53 residential units as well as retail space, an underground parking garage, and the seminarys new Keller Library. The seminarys main entrance is now located on 21st Street between 9th and 10th Avenues, assets from the sales are expected to eliminate the seminarys debt, rebuild its depleted endowment, and restore it to financial solvency. The protesting faculty warned that unless the Board agreed to meet to discuss the allegations, the eight would be obliged to absent themselves from teaching, meetings, the Board of Trustees of the seminary treated the letter as a mass resignation, which it accepted on September 29
7.
Episcopal Church (United States)
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The Episcopal Church is the United States-based member church of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The current presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church is Michael Bruce Curry, in 2014, the Episcopal Church had 1,956,042 baptized members. In 2011, it was the nations 14th largest denomination, in 2015, Pew Research estimated that 1.2 percent of the adult population in the United States, or 3 million people, self-identify as mainline Episcopalians/Anglicans. The Episcopal Church describes itself as Protestant, yet Catholic, the Episcopal Church is an apostolic church, tracing its bishops back to the apostles via holy orders. The Book of Common Prayer, a collection of traditional rites, blessings, liturgies, the Episcopal Church was active in the Social Gospel movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Since the 1960s and 1970s, the church has pursued a more liberal course. It has opposed the death penalty and supported the civil rights movement, some of its leaders and priests are known for marching with influential civil rights demonstrators such as Martin Luther King Jr. The Church calls for the legal equality of gay and lesbian people. Due to the process of editing or making additions to the Prayer Book, the BCP still describes marriage as being the union of a man. The Episcopal Church ordains women and LGBT people to the priesthood, the diaconate, in 2003, Gene Robinson was the first non-celibate openly gay person ordained as a bishop in documented Christian history. There are two names of the Episcopal Church specified in its constitution, The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. The latter is the commonly used name. In other languages, an equivalent is used, until 1964, the only official name in use was The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America. In the 19th century, High Church members advocated changing the name and they were opposed by the churchs evangelical wing, which felt that the Protestant Episcopal label accurately reflected the Reformed character of Anglicanism. After 1877, alternative names were proposed and rejected by the General Convention. A commonly proposed alternative was the American Catholic Church, by the 1960s, opposition to dropping the word Protestant had largely subsided. The 66th General Convention voted in 1979 to use the name The Episcopal Church in the Oath of Conformity of the Declaration for Ordination, the evolution of the name can be seen in the churchs Book of Common Prayer. The alternate name The Episcopal Church in the United States of America has never been a name of the church but is commonly seen in English
8.
New York Institute for the Blind
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It was located at 34th Street and Ninth Avenue in Manhattan, New York City. Early in the 20th century, the school was renamed the New York Institute for the Education of the Blind to emphasize its educational character, the institutes multiple facilities now serve children ranging in age from newborn to age 21. Samuel Wood was a wealthy publisher who had been a teacher until he was 40. Recognizing that reading books for children were few, he prepared and published a primer, The Young Childs A B C, or First Book. Wood had seen eager-to-learn blind children in the poorhouses, where their future was bleak. Wood was in his sixties and of a philanthropic bent, samuel Akerly had been for ten years the superintendent and attending physician of the New York Institution for the Deaf. He had been active in developing instruction for deaf-mutes and became interested in doing the same for the blind, the legislation passed, but was amended by one state senator to limit the institutions purpose to children. John Dennison Russ, a philanthropist and physician, had proposed on his own to instruct children in the poorhouse before Akerly made him aware of the newly approved institution. Russ served without salary as the first teacher of the first class — three blind orphan boys brought from the poorhouse to a home on Canal Street. After two months, three boys were added and the school moved to Mercer Street. Teaching was by experiment, with successful methods discovered as time progressed, a demonstration of the students progress was given at the end of the year, generating public interest and stimulating contributions and new benefactors. By 1833, ten students, four of them girls, had joined the original six. In 1834, New York State began paying for some students, by now there were 26 students in all, and Russ was assisted by one teacher of literary subjects, a foreman of mechanical pursuits, and a teacher of music. According to the history, Dr. Russ achieved results most remarkable. Russ resigned from the school in 1835, fanny Crosby, a poet who wrote the lyrics for thousands of Christian hymns, was both a student and a teacher at the institute. Blind since infancy, she entered the institute in 1835, at age 14 and she was a student for 9 years, then a teacher from September 1847 to March 1858. Grover Cleveland and his brother William came to be employed at the school in 1853 and 1854, at that time there were about 116 pupils, ranging in age from 8 to 25, half male and half female. To finance his studies for the ministry, William was teaching the older students history, philosophy, logic
9.
Christmas
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In several countries, celebrating Christmas Eve on December 24 has the main focus rather than December 25, with gift-giving and sharing a traditional meal with the family. Although the month and date of Jesus birth are unknown, by the fourth century the Western Christian Church had placed Christmas on December 25. Today, most Christians celebrate on December 25 in the Gregorian calendar and this is not a disagreement over the date of Christmas as such, but rather a preference of which calendar should be used to determine the day that is December 25. Although it is not known why December 25 became a date of celebration, December 25 was the date the Romans marked as the winter solstice, the shortest, and therefore darkest day of the year. Jesus was identified with the Sun based on an Old Testament verse, the date is exactly nine months following Annunciation, when the conception of Jesus is celebrated. Finally, the Romans had a series of pagan festivals near the end of the year, so Christmas may have been scheduled at this time to appropriate, or compete with, one or more of these festivals. The celebratory customs associated in various countries with Christmas have a mix of pre-Christian, Christian, the economic impact of Christmas has grown steadily over the past few centuries in many regions of the world. Christmas is a form of Christs mass. It is derived from the Middle English Cristemasse, which is from Old English Crīstesmæsse, crīst is from Greek Khrīstos, a translation of Hebrew Māšîaḥ, Messiah, meaning anointed, and mæsse is from Latin missa, the celebration of the Eucharist. The form Christenmas was also used, but is now considered archaic and dialectal, it derives from Middle English Cristenmasse. In addition to Christmas, the holiday has been known by other names throughout its history. The Anglo-Saxons referred to the feast as midwinter, or, more rarely, Nativity, meaning birth, is from Latin nātīvitās. In Old English, Gēola referred to the corresponding to December and January. Noel entered English in the late 14th century and is from the Old French noël or naël, itself ultimately from the Latin nātālis, the canonical gospels of Luke and Matthew both describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem in Judea, to a virgin mother. In the Gospel of Luke account, Joseph and Mary travel from Nazareth to Bethlehem for the census and it says that angels proclaimed him a savior for all people, and shepherds came to adore him. In the Matthew account, magi follow a star to Bethlehem to bring gifts to Jesus, King Herod orders the massacre of all the boys less than two years old in Bethlehem, but the family flees to Egypt and later settles in Nazareth. The Nativity stories of Matthew and Luke are prominent in the gospels, the first recorded Christmas celebration was in Rome in 336. Christmas played a role in the Arian controversy of the fourth century, the feast regained prominence after 800, when Charlemagne was crowned emperor on Christmas Day
10.
A Visit from St. Nicholas
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Some commentators now believe the poem was written by Henry Livingston, Jr. The poem has been called arguably the best-known verses ever written by an American and is responsible for some of the conceptions of Santa Claus from the mid-nineteenth century to today. It has had a impact on the history of Christmas gift-giving. Before the poem gained wide popularity, American ideas had varied considerably about Saint Nicholas, a Visit from St. Nicholas eventually was set to music and has been recorded by many artists. On Christmas Eve night, while his wife and children sleep, looking out the window, he sees Santa Claus in an air-borne sleigh pulled by eight reindeer. After landing his sleigh on the roof, the saint enters the house through the chimney, the father watches Santa filling the childrens Christmas stockings hanging by the fire, and laughs to himself. They share a moment before the saint bounds up the chimney again. As he flies away, Santa wishes everyone a Happy Christmas to all, the poems meter is anapestic tetrameter. The anapest is the foot used to construct limericks. For example, while the first two lines each use full anapests, lines 3 and 4 each drop the first unstressed syllable, likewise, lines 9 and 10 drop the first unstressed syllable, they also add an extra unstressed syllable to the end. According to legend, A Visit was composed by Clement Clarke Moore on a winters day during a shopping trip on a sleigh. His inspiration for the character of Saint Nicholas was a local Dutch handyman as well as the historical Saint Nicholas, Moore originated many of the features that are still associated with Santa Claus today while borrowing other aspects, such as the use of reindeer. It was first attributed in print to Moore in 1837, Moore himself acknowledged authorship when he included it in his own book of poems in 1844. By then, the publisher and at least seven others had already acknowledged his authorship. Moore had a reputation as a professor and had not wished at first to be connected with the unscholarly verse. He included it in the anthology at the insistence of his children, Moores conception of Saint Nicholas was borrowed from his friend Washington Irving, but Moore portrayed his jolly old elf as arriving on Christmas Eve rather than Christmas Day. By having Saint Nicholas arrive the night before, Moore deftly shifted the focus away from Christmas Day with its religious associations. As a result, New Yorkers embraced Moores child-centered version of Christmas as if they had doing it all their lives
11.
Benjamin Moore (bishop)
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Benjamin Moore was the second Episcopal bishop of New York. He is now remembered for having given Holy Communion to Alexander Hamilton on his deathbed. Moore was born in Newtown, New York, in 1748 and he was the great-grandson of John Moore, the first Independent minister allowed in New England. He attended Kings College, graduating in 1768 with a degree of A. B. Moore returned to Kings College for a degree in 1771. He traveled to England and was ordained deacon in the Anglican Church by Bishop Richard Terrick in Fulham Palace on June 24,1774 and he was advanced to the priesthood the next day. On returning to America in 1775, Moore was made assistant rector at Trinity Church in New York City, located in lower Manhattan, Clarke had a large country estate known as Chelsea, named after the Royal Hospital Chelsea, a retirement home for soldiers in London, England. The estate was located in what is now Chelsea, Manhattan, the Moores had one child together, Clement Clarke Moore. While at Trinity Church, Moore was awarded a degree of doctor of sacred theology from Columbia College in 1789, by that time, some Loyalists associated with the college had left for Canada. Moore kept officially neutral on the questions surrounding the Revolution. He continued in his duties as assistant rector under Samuel Provoost until 1800, as Provoost had resigned, Moore was elected rector. The Episcopal Church of the United States of America became independent of the Anglican Church after the war, Moore was elected coadjutor bishop of New York in 1801 to assist Provoost, who wished to retire. The diocese of New York covered the state and the population was rapidly increasing upstate. This area had opened up for settlement and development as agricultural lands after the war due to the cession by the Iroquois League, allies of the British. Moore was the 9th bishop in the ECUSA, and was consecrated in St. Michaels Church, Trenton, New Jersey by Bishops William White, Thomas John Claggett and that same year, Moore was elected President of Columbia College, a position he held for ten years. In 1811, Moore had a stroke and asked for the election of a coadjutor bishop to assist him. In 1815, Bishop Provoost died, and Moore succeeded to become the bishop of New York. He died the year in Greenwich Village, New York and was buried at Trinity Church. On July 11,1804, Moore was summoned to the deathbed of Alexander Hamilton, who had been fatally wounded in a duel with Aaron Burr, Hamilton asked to receive holy communion
12.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
13.
French and Indian War
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The French and Indian War comprised the North American theater of the worldwide Seven Years War of 1754–1763. At the start of the war, the French North American colonies had a population of roughly 60,000 European settlers, the outnumbered French particularly depended on the Indians. Following months of localised conflict, the nations declared war on each other in 1756. The name French and Indian War, used mainly in the United States, British and European historians use the term the Seven Years War, as do English speaking Canadians. French Canadians call it La guerre de la Conquête or the Fourth Intercolonial War, fighting took place primarily along the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. It began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, called the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne. The dispute erupted into violence in the Battle of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, in 1755, six colonial governors in North America met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way attack on the French. None succeeded, and the effort by Braddock proved a disaster, he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9,1755. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, orders for the deportation were given by William Shirley, Commander-in-Chief, North America, without direction from Great Britain. The Acadians, both captured in arms and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to His Britannic Majesty, were expelled. Native Americans were likewise driven off their land to make way for settlers from New England, after the disastrous 1757 British campaigns, the British government fell. France concentrated its forces against Prussia and its allies in the European theatre of the war, between 1758 and 1760, the British military launched a campaign to capture the Colony of Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec, though the British later lost the Battle of Sainte-Foy west of Quebec, the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris. The outcome was one of the most significant developments in a century of Anglo-French conflict, France ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Great Britain. It ceded French Louisiana west of the Mississippi River to its ally Spain, in compensation for Spains loss to Britain of Florida. Frances colonial presence north of the Caribbean was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the conflict is known by multiple names. In British America, wars were often named after the sitting British monarch, such as King Williams War or Queen Annes War. As there had already been a King Georges War in the 1740s, British colonists named the war in King Georges reign after their opponents
14.
Elmhurst, Queens
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Elmhurst is a working/middle class neighborhood in the borough of Queens in New York City. It is bounded by Roosevelt Avenue on the north, the Long Island Expressway on the south, Junction Boulevard on the east, the neighborhood is part of Queens Community Board 4. The village was established in 1652 by the Dutch as Middenburgh and was a suburb of New Amsterdam in New Netherland, the original European settlers of Elmhurst were from the nearby colony of Maspat, following threats and attacks by local Native Americans. When the British took over New Netherland in 1664, they renamed Middleburgh as New Town to maintain the Dutch heritage and this was eventually simplified to Newtown. Among the English settlers in the present Elmhurst section of Newtown was Gershom Moore, in whose orchard a chance seedling produced the Newtown Pippin, Colonial Americas most famous apple. The village of Newtown was established as the seat for the township in 1683. Development came when a line, the Grand Street Line, came in 1854. Cord Meyer bought land at Broadway and Whitney Avenue in 1896 and he proposed that the town be renamed Elmhurst, meaning a grove of elms, in 1897, one year before Queens County was incorporated in the Greater City of New York, the town was renamed. The renaming was done partially to disassociate the town from nearby Maspeth and the smelly, polluted Newtown Creek and they expanded their holdings between 1905 and 1930, including Elmhurst Square, Elmhurst South, Elmhurst Heights, and New Elmhurst. Elmhurst also became home to the Grand Street LIRR station just west of the current Grand Avenue – Newtown subway station, the Grand Street LIRR station was served by the Main Line and the former Rockaway Beach Branch. In 1936, the Independent Subway Systems Queens Boulevard line was built through the neighborhood, spurring economic development, prior to World War II, Elmhurst was an almost exclusively Jewish and Italian neighborhood. Following the war, Elmhurst evolved into what has been considered one of the most ethnically diverse neighborhoods in New York City, by the 1980s, there were persons from 112 nations in residence in the neighborhood, which has continued to further diversify since then. Among the largest ethnic groups that have settled in the area are Latinos, because the Long Island Expressway frequently became congested in that area, backup at the Elmhurst Gas Tanks became a familiar phrase in radio traffic reporting. The gas storage facilities were removed in 2001, and the site was redeveloped and opened as the Elmhurst Park in 2011. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Elmhurst was 88,427, covering an area of 750.28 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 117.9 inhabitants per acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 6. 6% White,1. 3% African American,0. 2% Native American,43. 8% Asian,0. 0% Pacific Islander,0. 4% from other races, and 1. 6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 46. 1% of the population, Elmhursts rapidly growing Chinatown is the second in Queens, the other Chinatown being located in Flushing. It is the second largest Chinese enclave in Queens, behind Flushing, in Chinese translation, Elmhurst is named 艾浒
15.
Bachelor of Arts
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A Bachelor of Arts is a bachelors degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs take three to four years depending on the country, academic institution, and specific specializations, majors or minors. The word baccalaureus or baccalarium should not be confused with baccalaureatus, degree diplomas generally are printed on high-quality paper or parchment, individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees. In Pakistan, the Bachelor of Arts degree can also be attained within two years as an external degree, in colleges and universities in Australia, New Zealand, Nepal and South Africa, the BA degree can be taken over three years of full-time study. Unlike in other countries, students do not receive a grade for their Bachelor of Arts degree with varying levels of honours. Qualified students may be admitted, after they have achieved their Bachelors program with an overall grade point average. Thus, to achieve a Bachelor Honours degree, a postgraduate year. A student who holds a Honours degree is eligible for entry to either a Doctorate or a very high research Master´s degree program. Education in Canada is controlled by the Provinces and can be different depending on the province in Canada. Canadian universities typically offer a 3-year Bachelor of Arts degrees, in many universities and colleges, Bachelor of Arts degrees are differentiated either as Bachelors of Arts or as honours Bachelor of Arts degree. The honours degrees are designated with the abbreviation in brackets of. It should not be confused with the consecutive Bachelor of Arts degree with Honours, Latin Baccalaureatus in Artibus Cum Honore, BA hon. de jure without brackets and with a dot. It is a degree, which is considered to be the equivalent of a corresponding maîtrise degree under the French influenced system. Going back in history, a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree was called a pass degree or general degree. Students may be required to undertake a long high-quality research empirical thesis combined with a selection of courses from the relevant field of studies. The consecutive B. cum Honore degree is essential if students ultimate goal is to study towards a two- or three-year very high research masters´ degree qualification. A student holding a Baccalaureatus Cum Honore degree also may choose to complete a Doctor of Philosophy program without the requirement to first complete a masters degree, over the years, in some universities certain Baccalaureatus cum Honore programs have been changed to corresponding master´s degrees. In general, in all four countries, the B. A. degree is the standard required for entry into a masters programme, in science, a BA hons degree is generally a prerequisite for entrance to a Ph. D program or a very-high-research-activity master´s programme
16.
Master's degree
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A masters degree normally requires previous study at the bachelors level, either as a separate degree or as part of an integrated course. The original meaning of the degree was thus that someone who had been admitted to the rank of master in one university should be admitted to the same rank in other universities. This gradually became formalised as the licentia docendi, initially, the Bachelor of Arts was awarded for the study of the trivium and the Master of Arts for the study of the quadrivium. The nineteenth century saw an expansion in the variety of masters degrees offered. By 1861 this had been adopted throughout Scotland as well as by Cambridge and Durham in England, when the Philadelphia College of Surgeons was established in 1870, it too conferred the Master of Surgery, the same as that in Europe. In the United States, the first masters degrees were awarded at Harvard University soon after its foundation, at Harvard the 1700 regulations required that candidates for the masters degree had to pass a public examination, but by 1835 this was awarded Oxbridge-style 3 years after the BA. In Scotland, Edinburgh maintained separate BA and MA degrees until the mid nineteenth century, in Scotland all the statutes of the Universities which enforced conditions on the grant of degrees were a dead letter. Probably the most important masters degree introduced in the 19th century was the Master of Science, at the University of Michigan this was introduced in two forms in 1858, in course, first awarded in 1859, and on examination, first awarded in 1862. The in course MS was last awarded in 1876, in Britain, however, the degree took a while longer to arrive. The same two degrees, again omitting the masters, were awarded at Edinburgh, despite the MA being the undergraduate degree for Arts in Scotland. In 1862, a Royal Commission suggested that Durham should award masters degrees in theology and science and this scheme would appear to have then been quietly dropped, with Oxford going on to award BAs and MAs in science. The Master of Science degree was introduced in Britain in 1878 at Durham. At the Victoria University both the MA and MSc followed the lead of Durhams MA in requiring an examination for those with an ordinary bachelors degree. The Bologna declaration in 1999 started the Bologna Process, leading to the creation of the European Higher Education Area, as the process continued, descriptors were introduced for all three levels in 2004, and ECTS credit guidelines were developed. This led to questions as to the status of the masters degrees. In 1903, the London Daily News criticised the practice of Oxford and Cambridge, calling their MAs the most stupendous of academic frauds, in 1900, Dartmouth College introduced the Master of Commercial Science, first awarded in 1902. This was the first masters degree in business, the forerunner of the modern MBA, the idea quickly crossed the Atlantic, with Manchester establishing a Faculty of Commerce, awarding Bachelor and Master of Commerce degrees, in 1903. Over the first half of the century the masters degrees for honours graduates vanished as honours degrees became the standard undergraduate qualification in the UK
17.
Federalist Party
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The Federalist Party was the first American political party. It existed from the early 1790s to 1816, its remnants lasted into the 1820s, the Federalists called for a strong national government that promoted economic growth and fostered friendly relationships with Great Britain, as well as opposition to revolutionary France. The party controlled the government until 1801, when it was overwhelmed by the Democratic-Republican opposition led by Thomas Jefferson. The Federalist Party came into being between 1792 and 1794 as a coalition of bankers and businessmen in support of Alexander Hamiltons fiscal policies. These supporters developed into the organized Federalist Party, which was committed to a fiscally sound, the only Federalist president was John Adams, although George Washington was broadly sympathetic to the Federalist program, he remained officially non-partisan during his entire presidency. Federalist policies called for a bank, tariffs, and good relations with Great Britain as expressed in the Jay Treaty negotiated in 1794. Hamilton developed the concept of implied powers and successfully argued the adoption of that interpretation of the United States Constitution, the Jay Treaty passed, and the Federalists won most of the major legislative battles in the 1790s. They held a strong base in the cities and in New England. After the Democratic-Republicans, whose base was in the rural South, won the election of 1800. They recovered some strength by their opposition to the War of 1812. On taking office in 1789, President Washington nominated New York lawyer Alexander Hamilton to the office of Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton wanted a strong national government with financial credibility. James Madison was Hamiltons ally in the fight to ratify the new Constitution, Political parties had not been anticipated when the Constitution was drafted in 1787 and ratified in 1788, even though both Hamilton and Madison played major roles. Parties were considered to be divisive and harmful to republicanism, No similar parties existed anywhere in the world. By 1790 Hamilton started building a nationwide coalition and his attempts to manage politics in the national capital to get his plans through Congress, then, brought strong responses across the country. In the process, what began as a capital faction soon assumed status as a faction and then, finally. The Federalist Party supported Hamiltons vision of a centralized government. In foreign affairs, they supported neutrality in the war between France and Great Britain, the majority of the Founding Fathers were originally Federalists. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and many others can all be considered Federalists and these Federalists felt that the Articles of Confederation had been too weak to sustain a working government and had decided that a new form of government was needed
18.
United States presidential election, 1804
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The United States presidential election of 1804 was the fifth quadrennial presidential election, held from Friday, November 2, to Wednesday, December 5,1804. Jefferson easily defeated Pinckney and George Clinton was elected vice president, Clinton went on to serve under both Jefferson and his successor, James Madison. Jeffersons 45.6 percentage point victory margin in the popular vote remains the highest victory margin in an election in which there were multiple major party candidates. Although the presidential election of 1800 was a one, Jefferson steadily gained popularity during his term. American trade boomed due to the suspension of hostilities during the French Revolutionary Wars in Europe. The caucus of Republicans in Congress selected the ticket, Jeffersons re-nomination was never in any real doubt, with the real issue being seen as who they would nominate to replace disgraced Vice President Aaron Burr. Burr would likely have been dropped from the ticket anyway since his relationship with Jefferson had soured, Governor George Clinton of New York was chosen to be Jeffersons running mate instead. Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States John Breckinridge, U. S, Senator George Clinton, Governor Gideon Granger, Postmaster General John Langdon, former U. S. Senator Levi Lincoln, U. S. Attorney General William Maclay, Senator The Federalists chose Pinckney and former United States Senator Rufus King of New York to run against Jefferson and Clinton. Minister to France Rufus King, former U. S, Senator Attacks on Jeffersons policies proved fruitless, Jeffersons victory was overwhelming. He even won most of the states in the Federalist stronghold of New England, Pinckney won only two states- Connecticut and Delaware. This was the first election where the Democratic-Republicans won in Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire and this was the last time that Massachusetts voted for the Democratic-Republicans until 1820, and the last time that New Hampshire and Rhode Island voted for the Democratic-Republicans until 1816. Our Campaigns. Source, A New Nation Votes, American Election Returns 1787-1825 Source, only 11 of the 17 states chose electors by popular vote. Those states that did choose electors by popular vote had widely varying restrictions on suffrage via property requirements, a New Nation Votes, American Election Returns 1787-1825 Presidential Election of 1804, A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress Election of 1804 in Counting the Votes
19.
Religious views of Thomas Jefferson
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The religious views of Thomas Jefferson diverged widely from the orthodox Christianity of his era. Throughout his life Jefferson was intensely interested in theology, religious studies, Jefferson was most comfortable with Deism, rational religion, and Unitarianism. He was sympathetic to and in agreement with the moral precepts of Christianity. As the principal author of the United States Declaration of Independence, still, together with James Madison, Jefferson carried on a long and successful campaign against state financial support of churches in Virginia. Also, it is Jefferson who coined the phrase wall of separation between church and state in his 1802 letter to the Danbury Baptists of Connecticut. During his 1800 campaign for the presidency, Jefferson even had to contend with critics who argued that he was unfit to hold office because of their discomfort with his religious beliefs. Jefferson used certain passages of the New Testament to compose The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth, Jefferson opposed Calvinism, Trinitarianism, and what he identified as Platonic elements in Christianity. In private letters Jefferson also described himself as subscribing to other certain philosophies, in these letters he described himself as also being an Epicurean, a 19th century materialist, a Unitarian by myself, and a sect by myself. Jefferson was raised in the Church of England at a time when it was the church in Virginia. Before the Revolution, parishes were units of government, and Jefferson served as a vestryman. Jefferson counted clergy among his friends, and he contributed financially to the Anglican Church he attended regularly, following the Revolution, the Church of England in America was disestablished. It reorganized as the Episcopal Church in America and this was the only church in the new city, with the exception of a little Catholic chapel. In January 1806, a female evangelist, Dorothy Ripley, delivered a camp meeting-style exhortation in the House to Jefferson, Vice President Aaron Burr, throughout his administration Jefferson permitted church services in executive branch buildings, which were acceptable to Jefferson because they were nondiscriminatory and voluntary. In later years, Jefferson refused to serve as a godparent for infants being baptized, despite testimony of Jeffersons church attendance, there is no evidence that he was ever confirmed or was a communicant. In 1760, at age 16, Jefferson entered the College of William & Mary in Williamsburg and he introduced the enthusiastic Jefferson to the writings of the British Empiricists, including John Locke, Francis Bacon, and Isaac Newton. Jefferson biographers say that he was influenced by deist philosophy while at William & Mary, particularly by Bolingbroke. Phrases such as Natures God, which Jefferson used in the Declaration of Independence, are typical of Deism, although they were used at the time by non-Deist thinkers. In addition, it was part of Roman thinking about natural law, most deists denied the Christian concepts of miracles and the Trinity
20.
Thomas Jefferson
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Thomas Jefferson was an American Founding Father who was the principal author of the Declaration of Independence and later served as the third President of the United States from 1801 to 1809. Previously, he was elected the second Vice President of the United States, Jefferson was primarily of English ancestry, born and educated in colonial Virginia. He graduated from the College of William & Mary and briefly practiced law and he became the United States Minister to France in May 1785, and subsequently the nations first Secretary of State in 1790–1793 under President George Washington. Jefferson and James Madison organized the Democratic-Republican Party to oppose the Federalist Party during the formation of the First Party System, as President, Jefferson pursued the nations shipping and trade interests against Barbary pirates and aggressive British trade policies. He also organized the Louisiana Purchase, almost doubling the countrys territory, as a result of peace negotiations with France, his administration reduced military forces. Jeffersons second term was beset with difficulties at home, including the trial of former Vice President Aaron Burr, American foreign trade was diminished when Jefferson implemented the Embargo Act of 1807, responding to British threats to U. S. shipping. In 1803, Jefferson began a process of Indian tribe removal to the newly organized Louisiana Territory. Jefferson mastered many disciplines, which ranged from surveying and mathematics to horticulture and he was a proven architect in the classical tradition. Jeffersons keen interest in religion and philosophy earned him the presidency of the American Philosophical Society and he shunned organized religion, but was influenced by both Christianity and deism. He was well versed in linguistics and spoke several languages and he founded the University of Virginia after retiring from public office. He was a letter writer and corresponded with many prominent and important people throughout his adult life. His only full-length book is Notes on the State of Virginia, Jefferson owned several plantations which were worked by hundreds of slaves. Most historians now believe that, after the death of his wife in 1782, he had a relationship with his slave Sally Hemings and fathered at least one of her children. Various modern scholars are more critical of Jeffersons private life, pointing out the discrepancy between his ownership of slaves and his political principles, for example. Presidential scholars, however, consistently rank Jefferson among the greatest presidents, Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13,1743, at the family home in Shadwell in the Colony of Virginia, the third of ten children. He was of English and possibly Welsh descent and was born a British subject and his father Peter Jefferson was a planter and surveyor who died when Jefferson was fourteen, his mother was Jane Randolph. Peter Jefferson moved his family to Tuckahoe Plantation in 1745 upon the death of a friend who had named him guardian of his children, the Jeffersons returned to Shadwell in 1752, where Peter died in 1757, his estate was divided between his sons Thomas and Randolph. Thomas inherited approximately 5,000 acres of land, including Monticello and he assumed full authority over his property at age 21
21.
Democratic-Republican Party
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The new party controlled the presidency and Congress, as well as most states, from 1801 to 1825, during the First Party System. It began in 1791 as one faction in Congress, and included many politicians who had opposed to the new constitution. They called themselves Republicans after their ideology Republicanism and they distrusted the Federalist commitment to republicanism. The party splintered in 1824 into the Jacksonian movement and the short-lived National Republican Party, the term Democratic-Republican is used especially by modern political scientists for the first Republican Party. It is also known as the Jeffersonian Republicans, historians typically use the title Republican Party. An Anti-Administration faction met secretly in the capital to oppose Hamiltons financial programs. Jefferson denounced the programs as leading to monarchy and subversive of republicanism, Jefferson needed to have a nationwide party to challenge the Federalists, which Hamilton was building up with allies in major cities. Foreign affairs took a role in 1794–95 as the Republicans vigorously opposed the Jay Treaty with Britain. Republicans saw France as more democratic after its revolution, while Britain represented the hated monarchy, the party denounced many of Hamiltons measures as unconstitutional, especially the national bank. The party was strongest in the South and weakest in the Northeast and it demanded states rights as expressed by the Principles of 1798 articulated in the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions that would allow states to nullify a federal law. Above all, the party stood for the primacy of the yeoman farmers, Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the supposed monarchical tendencies of the Hamiltonian Federalists. The party came to power in 1801 with the election of Jefferson in the 1800 presidential election, the Federalists—too elitist to appeal to most people—faded away, and totally collapsed after 1815. The Republicans dominated the First Party System, despite internal divisions, the party selected its presidential candidates in a caucus of members of Congress. They included Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe, by 1824, the caucus system had practically collapsed. After 1800, the party dominated Congress and most state governments outside New England, by 1824, the party was split four ways and lacked a center, as the First Party System collapsed. The emergence of the Second Party System in the 1830s realigned the old factions, one remnant followed Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren into the new Democratic Party by 1828. Another remnant led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay formed the National Republicans in 1828, the precise date of founding is disputed, but 1791 is a reasonable estimate, some time by 1792 is certain. The elections of 1792 were the first ones to be contested on anything resembling a partisan basis, in most states the congressional elections were recognized, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest
22.
Notes on the State of Virginia
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Notes on the State of Virginia is a book written by Thomas Jefferson. He completed the first version in 1781, and updated and enlarged the book in 1782 and 1783 and he expressed his beliefs in the separation of church and state, constitutional government, checks and balances, and individual liberty. He wrote extensively about slavery, the problems of miscegenation, and his belief that whites and it was the only full-length book which Jefferson published during his lifetime. He first published it anonymously in Paris in 1785, where he was serving the US government as trade representative, John Stockdale published the book in its first English edition in 1787 in London. Notes was anonymously published in Paris in a limited, private edition of two hundred copies in 1785, a French translation appeared in 1786. Its first public English-language edition, issued by John Stockdale in London and he celebrated the resources of Virginia. The text is divided into 23 chapters, which Jefferson termed Queries and this led later to charges of atheism leveled at him by his opponents in Federalist newspapers leading up to the nasty election of 1800. They quoted his European-published Notes on Virginia as proof that he was Godless, Jefferson wrote in Notes on Virginia, The legitimate powers of government extend to such acts only as are injurious to others. But it does me no injury for my neighbor to say there are twenty gods and it neither picks my pocket nor breaks my leg. That they are not to be violated but with his wrath, indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just, that his justice cannot sleep forever. Biographer Joseph J. Ellis reveals that Jefferson didnt think the work would be known in the U. S. since he did not publish it in North America and he exchanged letters with friends worried what they would think about his authorship of such a religious heresy. Jefferson did not respond at all to the mud-slinging charges and he later expressed his opposition to slavery in Manners. Numerous northern states abolished slavery altogether, several southern states, including Virginia in 1782, made manumissions easier. In the Upper South, more than 10 percent of blacks were free by 1810, in northern states, some slave-owners feared race wars could ensue upon emancipation, due not least to natural retaliation by blacks for the injustices under long slavery. Thousands of white and free people of color came as refugees to the United States in the early 1800s, in addition, uprisings such as that of Gabriel in Richmond, Virginia, were often led by literate blacks. In 1816 the American Colonization Society was founded in a collaboration by abolitionists, Jefferson said he thought Blacks were inferior to Whites in terms of beauty and reasoning intelligence. In Manners, Jefferson wrote that slavery was demoralizing to both White and Black society and that man is an imitative animal, Jefferson included discussion on the potential naval capacity of America, given its extensive natural resources. This occasioned Republican accusations that Smith had taken Jefferson out of context, Jeffersons work inspired others by his reflections on the nature of society, human rights and government
23.
Trinity Church (Manhattan)
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Trinity Church is an historic, active, well-endowed parish church in the Episcopal Diocese of New York. It is located near the intersection of Wall Street and Broadway, in the lower Manhattan section of New York City, Trinity, a traditional High church, is a very active parish around Episcopal Church and the worldwide Anglican Communion in missionary, outreach, and fellowship. The Trinity Church has been significant to New York City’s history for over 300 years, in 1696, Governor Benjamin Fletcher approved the purchase of land in Lower Manhattan by the Church of England community for construction of a new church. The parish received its charter from King William III on May 6,1697 and its land grant specified an annual rent of 60 bushels of wheat. The first rector was William Vesey, a protege of Increase Mather, the first Trinity Church building, a modest rectangular structure with a gambrel roof and small porch, was constructed in 1698, on Wall Street, facing the Hudson River. It was built because in 1696, members of the Church of England protested to obtain a “charter granting the church legal status” in New York City, according to historical records, Captain William Kidd lent the runner and tackle from his ship for hoisting the stones. Anne, Queen of Great Britain, increased the land holdings to 215 acres in 1705. Later, in 1709, William Huddleston founded Trinity School as the Charity School of the church, in 1754, Kings College was chartered by King George II of Great Britain, and instruction began with eight students in a school building near the church. Six days later, most of the volunteer firemen followed General Washington north. The Rev. Whig patriots were appointed as vestrymen, in 1787, Provoost was consecrated as the first Bishop of the newly formed Diocese of New York. Following his 1789 inauguration at Federal Hall, George Washington attended Thanksgiving service, presided over by Bishop Provoost, at St. Pauls Chapel and he continued to attend services there until the second Trinity Church was finished in 1790. St. Pauls Chapel is currently part of the Parish of Trinity Church and is the oldest public building in use in New York City. Construction on the second Trinity Church building began in 1788, it was consecrated in 1790, St. Paul’s Chapel was used while the second Trinity Church was being built. The second Trinity Church was built facing Wall Street, it was 200 feet tall, Building a bigger church was beneficial because the population of New York City was expanding. The church was torn down after being weakened by severe snows during the winter of 1838–39, the second Trinity Church was politically significant because President Washington and members of his government often worshiped there. Additional notable parishioners included John Jay and Alexander Hamilton, the third and current Trinity Church began construction in 1839 and was finished in 1846. When the Episcopal Bishop of New York consecrated Trinity Church on Ascension Day 1846, its soaring Neo-Gothic spire, surmounted by a gilded cross, Trinity was a welcoming beacon for ships sailing into New York Harbor. In 1843, Trinity Churchs expanding parish was divided due to the burgeoning cityscape, the newly formed parish would build Grace Church, to the north on Broadway at 10th street, while the original parish would re-build Trinity Church, the structure that stands today
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Church of St. Luke in the Fields
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The church was constructed in 1821-22 and has been attributed to both John Heath, the building contractor, and James N. Wells. The church is affiliated with the St. Lukes School, a school located on the same block. Both are located within the Greenwich Village Historic District, designated in 1969, the church was founded in 1820 on farmland donated by Trinity Church, to accommodate the expansion of New York City northward into Greenwich Village. The original church building was reminiscent of an English village church, with a tower at one end. It was part of a laid out by Clement Clarke Moore – who would serve as the churchs first pastor – which included adjoining stone row houses. Schlueter also had the church sanctuary redesigned in high Medieval style, the church building was damaged by fire twice, in 1886 and on March 6,1981. After the latter fire, which gutted the building, it was reconstructed by Hugh Hardy of Hardy Holzman Pfeiffer Associates, the reconstruction was completed in 1985. In 2000, the received a Village Award from the Greenwich Village Society for Historic Preservation. For many years, the church distributed bread to the poor after the 10am service on Saturdays and this Leake Dole of Bread was provided for in the will of John Leake. Starting in the 1980s, the HIV/AIDS epidemic deeply affected the Village community, the AIDS Project of St. Lukes was founded in 1987, providing Saturday dinner and weekend teas to tens of thousands of afflicted persons. One of the ministering to AIDS patients then was former actress Molly McGreevey. St. Lukes is actively involved with the gay and lesbian community, every year, the church also holds a Festive Choral Evensong after the Pride March. The choir of the church performs several concerts yearly, with a series of three concerts each spring season. In the past these concerts have included such as the New York premiere of Telemanns St. Matthew Passion. The choir has several recordings. In addition to the choir, the church is known for its vigorous congregational singing, mr. David Shuler is the organist and choirmaster of the church. Gwen Gould, former director of the School at St. Lukes was also the founder of the West Village Chorale. Until 2010, most of the Chorales concerts were performed at the Church and they have currently moved to Judson Memorial Church at Washington Square Park
25.
Hudson Street (Manhattan)
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Hudson Street is a north-south oriented street in the New York City borough of Manhattan running from Tribeca to the south, through Hudson Square and Greenwich Village, to the Meatpacking District. Hudson Street has two distinct one-way traffic patterns that meet at Abingdon Square, at the intersection with Eighth Avenue. The southern portion of Hudson Street carries northbound traffic and begins at the intersection of West Broadway, at Abingdon Square, the traffic is directed onto Eighth Avenue. Meanwhile, the section of Hudson Street north of Abingdon Square runs from 14th Street to Eighth Avenue, at 14th Street, southbound traffic from Ninth Avenue splits off into this street. Just below 14th Street, it is one of the streets in the Meatpacking District. At Abingdon Square, traffic on Hudson Street goes into Bleecker Street, the former New York Mercantile Exchange building is located at the corner of Hudson and Harrison Street in TriBeCa. Other notable buildings on this stretch of Hudson Street include The Church of St, the street is also home to the U. S. headquarters of the Pearson-owned Penguin Group. The uptown M20 bus runs on the northbound Hudson Street between Harrison Street and Hudson Streets end, and continues along Eighth Avenue, the Christopher Street PATH subway station is located on Christopher Street just west of Hudson Street. At St. Johns Park near Canal Street, Hudson Street is one of the access routes leading to. In December 2007 a bike lane was striped in the roadway, writer and activist Jane Jacobs lived at 555 Hudson Street, above a candy shop. Jacobs fought and won in her battle against Robert Moses and his efforts to build the Lower Manhattan Expressway and her book The Death and Life of Great American Cities was written from this apartment and described the day-to-day activities from outside her window. Golfer Tiger Woods moved onto Hudson Street in late August 2010, writer John Cheever lived in a boarding house on Hudson Street in the 1930s. Hudson Street was a television show running on ABC from March 16,1978 through April 20,1978. This short-lived series followed the poorly equipped Adult Emergency Service hospital set on Hudson Street, the cast of MTVs 2001 series The Real World, Back to New York lived in a four-story loft apartment on 632 Hudson Street. The Northern Irish electronic duo Agnelli and Nelson released an album entitled Hudson Street in 2000, in the 1982 film Annie, the orphanage Annie comes from is the Hudson St. Notes New York Songlines, Hudson Street, a walking tour
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Episcopal Diocese of New York
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Established in 1787 after the success of the American Revolution resulted in the dis-establishment of the Anglican Church, it is one of the nine original dioceses of the Episcopal Church. It is one of ten dioceses, plus the Convocation of Episcopal Churches in Europe, the diocesan offices are located in Manhattan near the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine on Amsterdam Avenue. The Diocesan bishop is Andrew M. L. Dietsche, 16th Bishop of New York, assisted by Allen K. Shin, Suffragan Bishop, anglicanism in New York can be traced to the acquisition of the territory from the Dutch in the latter part of the 17th century. In 1664, Charles II granted title to New Netherland to his brother, the Duke of York, British rule over New York was firmly established by 1674. Initially, when it was a province under the direct control of the Roman Catholic James II. In 1683, the New York Charter of Liberties and Privileges guaranteed religious tolerance, after the Glorious Revolution, the British monarchy, especially William III and Anne, actively promoted the growth of the Church of England within the province. In 1693, the Church of England became the church of New York. Between 1693 and 1694 Trinity Church in lower Manhattan and St. Peter’s Church, with royal patronage and the assistance of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, the church grew in the province through to the period of the American Revolution. During this time, the parishes in New York were under the direction of the Bishop of London, as the church grew in New York, and through the American colonies, the Church of England began to see the need to establish an episcopate in the Americas. This plan caused fear among a number of colonists and is said to have contributed to the American Revolution. During the Revolution, many considered the church as harboring loyalties to the British Empire, as it was the established church in the empire. After the Revolution, the church was disestablished in southern colonies, a number of prominent clergymen were imprisoned, including Samuel Seabury, the rector of St. Peter’s, Westchester, who later became the first Bishop of Connecticut. In 1789, the Episcopal Church was formally separated from the Church of England so that clergy would not be required to take an oath to the Crown, the selection of Provoost served to mollify the anti-Anglican sentiments, which rose during the Revolution. Before long, his patriotism cost him his parish. Narrowly escaped capture and death at the hands of the British. ”His Revolutionary credentials established, from 1792 to 1795, Provoost served as the 3rd Presiding Bishop of the church. In the 1830s and 1840s, the Oxford Movement caused controversies and divisions within the diocese, as it did elsewhere within the church, in New York, these divisions crystallized over a dispute over the ordination of Arthur Carey. Carey, a graduate of the General Theological Seminary, was influenced by the Tracts for the Times. Benjamin Onderdonk and other presbyters conducted an examination of Carey, which found him fit for ordination
27.
Biblical criticism
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Biblical criticism is the scholarly study and investigation of biblical writings that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings. It will vary depending on whether the focus is on the Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament. It also plays an important role in the quest for a historical Jesus and it also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a range of scholarly disciplines including archaeology, anthropology, folklore, linguistics, Oral Tradition studies. Biblical criticism, defined as the treatment of biblical texts as natural rather than supernatural artifacts, a division is still sometimes made between historical criticism and literary criticism. Literary criticism asks what audience the authors wrote for, their purpose. In the 18th century Jean Astruc, a French physician, set out to refute these critics, borrowing methods of textual criticism already in use to investigate Greek and Roman texts, he discovered what he believed were two distinct documents within Genesis. These, he felt, were the original written by Moses, much as the four Gospel writers had produced four separate but complementary accounts of the life. Later generations, he believed, had conflated these original documents to produce the book of Genesis, producing the inconsistencies and contradictions noted by Hobbes. The implications of higher criticism were not welcomed by many religious scholars, quite rightly employed in the case of the Sacred Books. For the fact is that truth is presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts. Reimaruss conclusions appealed to the rationalism of 18th century intellectuals, but were deeply troubling to contemporary believers, baron dHolbach - Ecce Homo -The History of Jesus of Nazareth, a Critical Inquiry, the first Life of Jesus described as a mere historical man, published anonymously in Amsterdam. George Houston translated the work into English—published in Edinburgh,1799, London,1813, the questions they addressed were, What was Jesus’s key message. How was that message related to Judaism, does that message speak to our reality today. The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1948 revitalised interest in the possible contribution archaeology could make to the understanding of the New Testament, contemporary New Testament criticism continues to follow the synthesising trend set during the latter half of the 20th century. The critical methods and perspectives now to be found are numerous, Textual criticism refers to the examination of the text itself to identify its provenance or to trace its history. It takes as its basis the fact that errors crept into texts as generations of scribes reproduced each others manuscripts. For example, Josephus employed scribes to copy his Antiquities of the Jews, as the scribes copied the Antiquities, they made mistakes
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Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
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Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
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34th Street (Manhattan)
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34th Street is a major crosstown street in the New York City borough of Manhattan, connecting the Lincoln Tunnel and Queens-Midtown Tunnel. Like many of New York Citys major crosstown streets, it has its own bus routes, in April 2010, the New York City Department of Transportation proposed to add bus rapid transit along the 34th Street corridor. The street was eventually kept in two-way operation, the street was designated by the Commissioners Plan of 1811 that established the Manhattan street grid as one of 15 east-west streets that would be 100 feet in width. On the West Side, 34th Street is in the Hells Kitchen neighborhood, on Tenth Avenue is a McDonalds with a drive-thru and a small parking lot, a rarity in Manhattan. On Ninth is B&H Photo Video, a retailer of photographic and electronic equipment. Above Penn Station sits Madison Square Garden, which calls itself the worlds most famous arena, the grand stairs of the James Farley Post Office are built on the scale of the former Penn Station. The architecture of the post office gives a flavor of what the area was like in the height of the railroad era, 34th Street is a major shopping street. Though it endured a decline in the 1970s, it rebounded late in the 20th century with new stores, a giant video board and light display at 34th and Broadway is like a mini Times Square. Between Seventh Avenue and Broadway, one will find Macys, the department store immortalized in the Christmas movie Miracle on 34th Street. It claims to be the worlds largest store, the annual Macys Thanksgiving Day Parade ends on 34th Street. A block south of 34th, at Sixth Avenue and 33rd Street, is the Manhattan Mall, branches of large chain stores also operate between 8th and 5th Avenues. East of Herald Square and the shopping district, the influence of the East Side. On Fifth Avenue one finds the Empire State Building, the second tallest building in the city, it stands on a rare ledge of solid Manhattan schist dominating the skyline. Slightly north, at 38th Street and 5th Avenue is Lord & Taylor, New York City Buss M34 and M34A buses run crosstown across 34th Street. org New York Songlines, 34th Street, a virtual walking tour
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Ninth Avenue (Manhattan)
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Ninth Avenue, known as Columbus Avenue between West 59th and 110th Streets, is a southbound thoroughfare on the West Side of Manhattan in New York City. Traffic runs downtown along the stretch from Chelsea to the Upper West Side. A one-block stretch of Ninth Avenue between 15th and 16th Streets is also signed as Oreo Way, the first Oreo cookies were manufactured in 1912 at the former Nabisco headquarters on that block. The buildings are separated in mid-block by the narrowest of access alleys, the repeated designs of three or four commercial speculative builders, using the same features and detailing, add to the avenues architectural unity. There are several generously scaled pre-World War I apartment buildings and the former Endicott Hotel, as well as a commercial block from the office of McKim, Mead. Between 77th and 81st Streets, Columbus Avenue borders the American Museum of Natural History, Ninth Avenue reappears in the Inwood neighborhood as a short two-way street in two segments interrupted by the New York City Subways 207th Street Yard. The addresses along this stretch from 201st Street to Broadway are continuous with the lower portion of Ninth Avenue. The Ninth Avenue Elevated was a train that ran above Ninth Avenue beginning in the nineteenth century. The lease for the line was assumed by the Interborough Rapid Transit Company on April 1,1903. The line ran until it was closed and dismantled in 1940 following the purchase of the IRT by the City of New York, Ninth Avenue and Columbus Avenue were converted to carry one-way traffic southbound in two stages. South of its intersection with Broadway the avenue was converted on November 6,1948, the rest to 110th Street was converted on December 6,1951. Former president Bill Clinton initiated a project to revitalize the 9th Avenue corridor centered on the Hells Kitchen area, several street fairs are held every year, including the Ninth Avenue Food Festival in May. Ninth Avenue is the setting of Saul Steinbergs View of the World from 9th Avenue, in the TV show Seinfeld, the street set on which most of the street scenes were filmed was based on Columbus Avenue. In the play Zoo Story by Edward Albee, Jerry claims to live between Columbus Avenue and Central Park, New York City portal Notes New York Songlines, Ninth Avenue, a virtual walking tour
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Poetry
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Poetry has a long history, dating back to the Sumerian Epic of Gilgamesh. Early poems evolved from folk songs such as the Chinese Shijing, or from a need to retell oral epics, as with the Sanskrit Vedas, Zoroastrian Gathas, and the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Ancient attempts to define poetry, such as Aristotles Poetics, focused on the uses of speech in rhetoric, drama, song and comedy. Later attempts concentrated on such as repetition, verse form and rhyme. From the mid-20th century, poetry has sometimes been more generally regarded as a creative act employing language. Poetry uses forms and conventions to suggest differential interpretation to words, devices such as assonance, alliteration, onomatopoeia and rhythm are sometimes used to achieve musical or incantatory effects. The use of ambiguity, symbolism, irony and other elements of poetic diction often leaves a poem open to multiple interpretations. Similarly figures of such as metaphor, simile and metonymy create a resonance between otherwise disparate images—a layering of meanings, forming connections previously not perceived. Kindred forms of resonance may exist, between verses, in their patterns of rhyme or rhythm. Some poetry types are specific to cultures and genres and respond to characteristics of the language in which the poet writes. Much modern poetry reflects a critique of poetic tradition, playing with and testing, among other things, in todays increasingly globalized world, poets often adapt forms, styles and techniques from diverse cultures and languages. Some scholars believe that the art of poetry may predate literacy, others, however, suggest that poetry did not necessarily predate writing. The oldest surviving poem, the Epic of Gilgamesh, comes from the 3rd millennium BCE in Sumer. An example of Egyptian epic poetry is The Story of Sinuhe, other forms of poetry developed directly from folk songs. The earliest entries in the oldest extant collection of Chinese poetry, the efforts of ancient thinkers to determine what makes poetry distinctive as a form, and what distinguishes good poetry from bad, resulted in poetics—the study of the aesthetics of poetry. Some ancient societies, such as Chinas through her Shijing, developed canons of poetic works that had ritual as well as aesthetic importance, Classical thinkers employed classification as a way to define and assess the quality of poetry. Later aestheticians identified three major genres, epic poetry, lyric poetry, and dramatic poetry, treating comedy and tragedy as subgenres of dramatic poetry, Aristotles work was influential throughout the Middle East during the Islamic Golden Age, as well as in Europe during the Renaissance. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability and this romantic approach views form as a key element of successful poetry because form is abstract and distinct from the underlying notional logic
33.
Trinity Church (Newport, Rhode Island)
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Trinity Church, on Queen Anne Square in Newport, Rhode Island, is a historic parish church in the Episcopal Diocese of Rhode Island. Founded in 1698, it is the oldest Episcopal parish in the state, the current Georgian building was designed by architect Richard Munday and constructed in 1725–26. It is a National Historic Landmark, the Newport, Rhode Island congregation began to gather about 1698. The first church structure was built in 1700, the churchs design is very similar to that of Old North Church in Boston. Trinity, however, was entirely of wood. It is believed to be the church building with its three-tiered wineglass pulpit remaining in its original position in the center of the aisle. The building was enlarged in 1764, but otherwise retains its character with box pews. In 1731, Dean George Berkeley donated the first organ, whose wooden case, decorated with the Crown of England, the first organist was Charles Theodore Pachelbel, son of the famous German Baroque composer Johann Pachelbel. The church was used as a church by the British Army in 1776–1778. Local oral tradition reports that George Washington attended services there in 1781, the Chevalier de Ternay, the French admiral who died in December 1780, is buried in the churchyard. Also interred here is Dr. Sylvester Gardiner, who in 1753 purchased a tract of Maine wilderness where he founded what is now the city of Gardiner. Many members of the Vanderbilt family attended the church when summering in Newport, historical architect, Norman Isham, restored several parts of the church in the 1920s. The church has seen in several films, including Amistad, Moonrise Kingdom. The burial service for former Rhode Island Senator Claiborne Pell was held at the church in January 2009, the current Rector is The Reverend Canon Anne Marie Richards. Semper Eadem, A History of Trinity Church in Newport, 1698-2000, official website Historic American Buildings Survey No. RI-102, Trinity Church,141 Spring Street, Newport, Newport County, RI,19 photos,9 data pages
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Trinity Church Cemetery
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Trinity Church Cemetery consists of three separate burial grounds associated with Trinity Church in New York City, New York, US. The first was established in the Churchyard located at 74 Trinity Place at Wall Street, a third burial place is the Churchyard of St. Pauls Chapel. A no longer extant Trinity Church Cemetery was the Old Saint Johns Burying Ground for St. Johns Chapel and it was in use from 1806–52 with over 10,000 burials, mostly poor and young. In 1897, it was turned into St. Johns Park, the park was later renamed Hudson Park, and is now James J. Walker Park. The burial grounds have been the resting place for many historic figures since the Churchyard cemetery opened in 1697. A non-denominational cemetery, it is listed in the United States National Register of Historic Places and is the remaining active cemetery in Manhattan. There are two plaques at the Church of the Intercession cemetery commemorating the Battle of Fort Washington. Trinity Church Cemetery, along with Broadway, marks the center of the Heritage Rose District of NYC, general Philip Schuyler John Sloss Hobart, U. S. senator William Hogan, U. S. S. representative Thomas Jackson Oakley, U. S. S. Navy commodore, second captain of the USS Constitution John Watts, U. S. real estate businessman William Backhouse Astor, Jr. Koch, Mayor of New York City James Monroe, Trinity Tombstone & Churchyard Gallery Trinity Church Cemetery and Mausoleum records at Trinity Wall Street Archives
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Hudson Valley
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The Hudson Valley comprises the valley of the Hudson River and its adjacent communities in the U. S. state of New York, from the cities of Albany and Troy southward to Yonkers in Westchester County. In the Hudson Highlands, the river enters a cut during previous ice ages. To the west lie the extensive Appalachian highlands, in the Tappan Zee region, the west side of the river has high cliffs produced by an erosion-resistant diabase, these cliffs range from 400–800 feet in height. The Hudson Valley is one section of the larger Ridge-and-Valley province. The northern portions of the Hudson Valley fall within the Eastern Great Lakes, during the last ice age, the valley was filled by a large glacier that pushed south as far as Long Island. Near the end of the last ice age, the Great Lakes drained south down the Hudson River, Lake Ontario is the remnant of that Lake. Large sand deposits remain from where Lake Iroquois drained into the Hudson, the first Dutch settlement was in the 1610s with the establishment of Fort Nassau, a trading post south of modern-day Albany, with the purpose of exchanging European goods for beaver pelts. Fort Nassau was later replaced by Fort Orange, during the French and Indian War in the 1750s, the northern end of the valley became the bulwark of the British defense against French invasion from Canada via Lake Champlain. The valley became one of the regions of conflict during the American Revolution. Part of the strategy of the British was to sever the colonies in two by maintaining control of the river. In 1797, the capital of New York was established permanently at Albany. Following the building of the Erie Canal, the became an important industrial center. The canal opened the Hudson Valley and New York City to commerce with the Midwest, however, in the mid 20th century, many of the industrial towns went into decline. The area is associated with the Hudson River School, a group of American Romantic painters who worked from about 1830 to 1870, a similar 30-mile stretch of the east bank in Dutchess and Columbia counties has been designated a National Historic Landmark. Tourism became an industry as early as 1810, as elite visitors frequented the mineral water at Ballston Spa. With convenient steamboat connections in New York City, and numerous hotels in romantic settings. Early guidebooks providing suggestions on their itinerary, middle-class people who read James Fenimore Coopers novels, or saw the paintings of the Hudson River School, were especially attracted. Hudson Valley Tech Valley is a name for the eastern part of New York State, including the Hudson Valley
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Manhattan
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Manhattan is the most densely populated borough of New York City, its economic and administrative center, and the citys historical birthplace. The borough is coextensive with New York County, founded on November 1,1683, Manhattan is often described as the cultural and financial capital of the world and hosts the United Nations Headquarters. Many multinational media conglomerates are based in the borough and it is historically documented to have been purchased by Dutch colonists from Native Americans in 1626 for 60 guilders which equals US$1062 today. New York County is the United States second-smallest county by land area, on business days, the influx of commuters increases that number to over 3.9 million, or more than 170,000 people per square mile. Manhattan has the third-largest population of New York Citys five boroughs, after Brooklyn and Queens, the City of New York was founded at the southern tip of Manhattan, and the borough houses New York City Hall, the seat of the citys government. The name Manhattan derives from the word Manna-hata, as written in the 1609 logbook of Robert Juet, a 1610 map depicts the name as Manna-hata, twice, on both the west and east sides of the Mauritius River. The word Manhattan has been translated as island of hills from the Lenape language. The United States Postal Service prefers that mail addressed to Manhattan use New York, NY rather than Manhattan, the area that is now Manhattan was long inhabited by the Lenape Native Americans. In 1524, Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano – sailing in service of King Francis I of France – was the first European to visit the area that would become New York City. It was not until the voyage of Henry Hudson, an Englishman who worked for the Dutch East India Company, a permanent European presence in New Netherland began in 1624 with the founding of a Dutch fur trading settlement on Governors Island. In 1625, construction was started on the citadel of Fort Amsterdam on Manhattan Island, later called New Amsterdam, the 1625 establishment of Fort Amsterdam at the southern tip of Manhattan Island is recognized as the birth of New York City. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 to US$23, variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars, as Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. Sixty guilders in 1626 was valued at approximately $1,000 in 2006, based on the price of silver, Straight Dope author Cecil Adams calculated an equivalent of $72 in 1992. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant was appointed as the last Dutch Director General of the colony, New Amsterdam was formally incorporated as a city on February 2,1653. In 1664, the English conquered New Netherland and renamed it New York after the English Duke of York and Albany, the Dutch Republic regained it in August 1673 with a fleet of 21 ships, renaming the city New Orange. Manhattan was at the heart of the New York Campaign, a series of battles in the early American Revolutionary War. The Continental Army was forced to abandon Manhattan after the Battle of Fort Washington on November 16,1776. The city, greatly damaged by the Great Fire of New York during the campaign, became the British political, British occupation lasted until November 25,1783, when George Washington returned to Manhattan, as the last British forces left the city
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Chelsea, Manhattan
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Chelsea is a neighborhood on the West Side of the borough of Manhattan in New York City. Chelsea is divided between Manhattan Community Board 4 and Manhattan Community Board 5 and it contains the Chelsea Historic District and its extension, which were designated by the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission in 1970 and 1981 respectively. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977, the area has a large LGBTQ population. Chelsea is also known as one of the centers of the art world. Chelsea takes its name from the estate and Georgian-style house of retired British Major Thomas Clarke, the land was bounded by what would become 21st and 24th Streets, from the Hudson River to Eighth Avenue. Clarke chose the name Chelsea after the Royal Hospital Chelsea, a retirement home for soldiers in London, England. Clarke passed the estate on to his daughter, Charity, who, with her husband Benjamin Moore, added land on the south of the estate, the house was the birthplace of their son, Clement Clarke Moore, who in turn inherited the property. Moore is generally credited with writing A Visit From St. Nicholas and was the author of the first Greek and Hebrew lexicons printed in the United States. Covenants in the deeds of sale specified what could be built on the land – stables, manufacturing, in 1847 the Hudson River Railroad laid its freight tracks up a right-of-way between Tenth and Eleventh Avenues, separating Chelsea from the Hudson River waterfront. By the time of the Civil War, the area west of Ninth Avenue and below 20th Street was the location of numerous distilleries making turpentine and camphene, a lamp fuel. In addition, the huge Manhattan Gas Works complex, which converted coal into gas, was located at Ninth and 18th Street. As well as the piers, warehouses and factories, the area west of Tenth Avenue also included lumberyards and breweries. The social problems of the areas workers provoked John Lovejoy Elliot to form the Hudson Guild in 1897, one of the first settlement houses – private organizations designed to provide social services. A theater district had formed in the area by 1869, and soon West 23rd Street was the center of American theater, led by Pikes Opera House, Chelsea was an early center for the motion picture industry before World War I. Some of Mary Pickfords first pictures were made on the top floors of a building at 221 West 26th Street, while other studios were located on 23rd. London Terrace was one of the worlds largest apartment blocks when it opened in 1930, with a pool, solarium, gymnasium. The massive 23-story Art Deco Walker Building, which spans the block between 17th and 18th Streets just off of Seventh Avenue, was built in the early 1930s. It typifies the real activity of the district, as it has been converted in 2012 to residential apartments on the top 16 floors
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Houston Street
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The streets name is pronounced HOW-stən, unlike the city of Houston in Texas, which is pronounced HYOO-stən. This is because the street was named for William Houstoun, whereas the city was named for Sam Houston, at its east end, Houston Street meets FDR Drive in an interchange at East River Park. West of FDR Drive it intersects with Avenue D, further west, other streets, including First Avenue, the Bowery, Lafayette Street and Broadway, intersect Houston Street. The Broadway intersection is the point between East Houston Street and West Houston Street. Sixth Avenue intersects Houston Street at a curve in the road in Greenwich Village, East of Sixth Avenue, Houston street is bidirectional and separated by a median, west of Sixth, the street is narrower and unidirectional westbound. West Houston Street terminates at an intersection with West Street near Pier 40 on the Hudson River, Houston Street is named for William Houstoun, who was a delegate from State of Georgia to the Continental Congress from 1784 through 1786 and to the Constitutional Convention in 1787. The street was christened by Nicholas Bayard III, whose daughter, the couple met while Houstoun, a member of an ancient and aristocratic Scottish family, was serving in the Congress. In those years, the Texas hero Sam Houston, for whom the street is sometimes said to have been named, was an unknown teenager in Tennessee. Also mistaken is the explanation that the name derives from the Dutch words huis for house and it later came to be regarded as the Villages southern boundary. In 1891, Nikola Tesla established his Houston Street laboratory, much of Teslas research was lost in an 1895 fire. The street, originally narrow, was widened from Sixth Avenue to Essex Street in the early 1930s during construction of the Independent Subway Systems Sixth Avenue Line. The street widening involved demolition of buildings on both sides of the street, resulting in small, empty lots. Although some of these lots have been redeveloped, many of them are now used by vendors, a reconstruction project has been rebuilding parts of the street since 2005, it is nearly complete as of 2014. As of 2010, Houston Street is served by the M21 New York City Bus route from the FDR Drive to Washington Street, the bus route itself had replaced an earlier streetcar line, which is now the M9 from Avenues A to C. Additionally, there is a station at Seventh Avenue, for the Houston Street, the Bleecker Street station has station entrances on the north side of Houston Street, due to its connection with the Broadway – Lafayette Street station as part of a larger station complex. Exit 5 on the FDR Drive is on Houston Street, the street also connects directly with West Street and the West Side Highway, however, by then, Houston Street is westbound-only. The New York Times, October 17,2004, forgotten New York - Street Scenes. Media related to Houston Street at Wikimedia Commons
39.
Seven Years' War
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The Seven Years War was a war fought between 1754 and 1763, the main conflict occurring in the seven-year period from 1756 to 1763. It involved every European great power of the time except the Ottoman Empire and spanned five continents, affecting Europe, the Americas, West Africa, India, and the Philippines. The conflict split Europe into two coalitions, led by the Kingdom of Great Britain on one side and the Kingdom of France on the other. Meanwhile, in India, the Mughal Empire, with the support of the French, faced with this sudden turn of events, Britain aligned herself with Prussia, in a series of political manoeuvres known as the Diplomatic Revolution. Conflict between Great Britain and France broke out in 1754–1756 when the British attacked disputed French positions in North America, meanwhile, rising power Prussia was struggling with Austria for dominance within and outside the Holy Roman Empire in central Europe. In 1756, the major powers switched partners, realizing that war was imminent, Prussia preemptively struck Saxony and quickly overran it. The result caused uproar across Europe, because of Austrias alliance with France to recapture Silesia, which had been lost in a previous war, Prussia formed an alliance with Britain. Reluctantly, by following the diet, most of the states of the empire joined Austrias cause. The Anglo-Prussian alliance was joined by smaller German states, Sweden, seeking to re-gain Pomerania joined the coalition, seeing its chance when virtually all of Europe opposed Prussia. Spain, bound by the Pacte de Famille, intervened on behalf of France, the Russian Empire was originally aligned with Austria, fearing Prussias ambition on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but switched sides upon the succession of Tsar Peter III in 1762. Naples, Sicily, and Savoy, although sided with the Franco-Spanish alliance, like Sweden, Russia concluded a separate peace with Prussia. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris between France, Spain and Great Britain and the Treaty of Hubertusburg between Saxony, Austria and Prussia, in 1763. The Native American tribes were excluded from the settlement, a subsequent conflict, Prussia emerged as a new European great power. Although Austria failed to retrieve the territory of Silesia from Prussia its military prowess was noted by the other powers. The involvement of Portugal, Spain and Sweden did not return them to their status as great powers. France was deprived of many of its colonies and had saddled itself with heavy war debts that its inefficient financial system could barely handle. Spain lost Florida but gained French Louisiana and regained control of its colonies, e. g. Cuba and the Philippines, France and Spain avenged their defeat in 1778 when the American Revolutionary War broke out, with hopes of destroying Britains dominance once and for all. The Seven Years War was perhaps the first true world war, having taken place almost 160 years before World War I and it was characterized in Europe by sieges and the arson of towns as well as open battles with heavy losses
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Royal Hospital Chelsea
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The Royal Hospital Chelsea is a retirement home and nursing home for some 300 veterans of the British Army. It is a 66-acre site located on Royal Hospital Road in Chelsea and it is an independent charity and relies partly upon donations to cover day-to-day running costs to provide care and accommodation for veterans. They must not, however, have any dependent spouse or family, King Charles II founded the Royal Hospital in 1682 as a retreat for veterans. The provision of a rather than the payment of pensions was inspired by Les Invalides in Paris. The site for the Royal Hospital was an area of Chelsea which held an incomplete building Chelsey College, the Royal Hospital opened its doors to the Chelsea Pensioners in 1692 for the relief and succour of veterans. Some of the first soldiers admitted included those injured at the Battle of Sedgemoor, Wren expanded his original design to add two additional quadrangles to the east and west of the central court, these were known respectively as the Light Horse Court and the College Court. Due to mismanagement by Lord Ranelagh, the Hospital Treasurer, the building was not completed until 1692 and it was replaced by a modern infirmary which was located to the east of the main building and opened by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother in 1961. The 1960s infirmary was demolished to make way for the Margaret Thatcher Infirmary which was designed by Sir Quinlan Terry and was completed in 2008, the Mace was designed by Charles Webb and Aubrey Bowden and was made by Master Goldsmith Norman Bassant. The bowl of the Mace is decorated with acorns and is surmounted by the St Edwards Crown, in March 2009, the first women in the Hospitals 317-year history were admitted as In-Pensioners. Winifred Phillips and Dorothy Hughes were the first, Phillips trained as a nurse and later joined the Auxiliary Territorial Service in 1948 before enlisting in the Womens Royal Army Corps in 1949 while serving in Egypt. After 22 years service she retired with the rank of Warrant Officer Class 2, Hughes had joined the British Army in 1941 aged 18, later working as part of 450 Heavy Anti Aircraft Battery in the London Division. In 1945 the Battery was deployed near Dover to defend against V1 flying bomb attacks and she retired with the rank of Sergeant. Chelsea Pensioners are entitled to come and go from the Royal Hospital as they please, however, within the hospital, and in the surrounding area, pensioners are encouraged to wear a blue uniform. If they travel farther from the Royal Hospital they should wear the distinctive scarlet coats instead of the blue uniform, the scarlet coats are also worn for ceremonial occasions, accompanied by tricorne hats. In uniform, the pensioners wear their ribbons and the insignia of rank they reached while serving in the military. They may also wear other insignia they earned during their service and many now wear parachute jump wings. The Royal Hospital Founders Day takes place close to 29 May each year – the birthday of Charles II, on Founders Day, in-pensioners of the Royal Hospital are reviewed by a member of the British Royal Family. The 76 statue of King Charles II which stands in the court of the Hospital was cast in copper alloy by Grinling Gibbons
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London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
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Government of New York City
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The government of New York City, headquartered at New York City Hall in Lower Manhattan, is organized under the New York City Charter and provides for a strong mayor-council system. The mayor is elected to a term and is responsible for the administration of city government. The New York City Council is a body consisting of 51 members, each elected from a geographic district. All elected officials are limited to a two consecutive-term limit, the court system consists of two city courts and three state courts. New York City government employs 325,000 people, more than any city in the United States and more than any U. S. state. However, each county retains its own district attorney to prosecute crimes, three main public-library systems represent the citys five boroughs, namely Brooklyn Public Library, New York Public Library, and Queens Public Library. The executive branch of New York City consists of the Mayor, the Mayor also appoints several deputy mayors to head major offices within the executive branch of the city government. The City Record is the journal published each weekday containing legal notices produced by city agencies. The mayor is elected by popular vote for a four-year term. Along with the mayor, the Public Advocate and the Comptroller are the only three directly elected officials in New York City. The Public Advocate is a member of the Council, the Public Advocate stands first in line of succession to the mayoralty. The Comptroller stands second, after the Public Advocate, in the line to succeed a mayor who has become unable to serve, legislative power in the City of New York is vested in the New York City Council. The New York State Constitution empowers local governments to local laws in addition to ordinances, resolutions, rules. The Council is a body consisting of 51 Council members. The Speaker of the Council, selected by the 51 Council members, is considered the second most powerful post in New York Citys government after the Mayor. Bills passed by a majority are sent to the mayor. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a majority vote. The codified local laws of New York City are contained in the New York City Administrative Code, the Council has several committees with oversight of various functions of the city government
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Grid plan
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The grid plan, grid street plan or gridiron plan is a type of city plan in which streets run at right angles to each other, forming a grid. In the context of the culture of ancient Rome, the grid method of land measurement was called centuriation. The grid plan dates from antiquity and originated in multiple cultures, by 2600 BC, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, major cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, were built with blocks divided by a grid of straight streets, running north-south and east-west. Each block was subdivided by small lanes, the cities and monasteries of Gandhara, dating from the 1st millennium BC to the 11th century AD, also had grid-based designs. Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan since 1959, was founded on the grid-plan of the nearby ruined city of Sirkap. A workers village at Giza, Egypt, housed a rotating labor force and was out in blocks of long galleries separated by streets in a formal grid. Many pyramid-cult cities used a common orientation, an axis from the royal palace. Hammurabi was a king of the Babylonian Empire who made Babylon one of the greatest cities in antiquity and he rebuilt Babylon, building and restoring temples, city walls and public buildings, and building canals for irrigation. The streets of Babylon were wide and straight, intersected approximately at right angles, the tradition of grid plans is continuous in China from the 15th century BC onward in the traditional urban planning of various ancient Chinese states. Guidelines put into form in the Kaogongji during the Spring and Autumn period stated. Three gates on each side of the lead into the nine main streets that crisscross the city. Teotihuacan, near modern-day Mexico City, is the largest ancient grid-plan site in the Americas, the citys grid covered eight square miles. Perhaps the most well-known grid system is spread through the colonies of the Roman Empire. The archetypal Roman Grid was introduced to Italy first by the Greeks, with such information transferred by way of trade, although the idea of the grid was present in Hellenic societal and city planning, it was not pervasive prior to the 5th century BC. However, it slowly gained primacy through the work of Hippodamus of Miletus, the concept of a grid as the ideal method of town planning had become widely accepted by the time of Alexander the Great. His conquests were a step in the propagation of the grid plan throughout colonies, some as far-flung as Taxila in Pakistan, that would later be mirrored by the expansion of the Roman Empire. The Greek grid had its streets aligned roughly in relation to the points and generally looked to take advantage of visual cues based on the hilly landscape typical of Greece. The Etruscan people, whose territories in Italy encompassed what would eventually become Rome and it was based on Greek Ionic ideas, and it was here that the main east-west and north-south axes of a town could first be seen in Italy
44.
Commissioners' Plan of 1811
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It has been called the single most important document in New York Citys development, and the plan has been described as encompassing the republican predilection for control and balance. It was described by the Commission that created it as combining beauty, order, the legislature appointed a commission with sweeping powers in 1807, and their plan was presented in 1811. The Commissioners were Gouverneur Morris, a Founding Father of the United States, the lawyer John Rutherfurd, a former United States Senator, and their chief surveyor was John Randel Jr. who was 20 years old when he began the job. The Commissioners Plan is arguably the most famous use of the plan or gridiron and is considered by many historians to have been far-reaching. The gridiron as a concept for the layout of a town or city is not new, hippodamus went on to spread the grid to Pireaus, Rhodes and other cities in Greece. Most Muslim cities, for instance, are not built according to a strict gridiron, although there may be fractured grids within them, in France, England, and Wales, castra evolved into bastides, agricultural communities under a centralized monarchy. The gridiron idea spread with the Renaissance, although in cities, for instance London. In what would become the United States, the gridiron now predominates, by the time of the passage of the federal Land Ordinance of 1785, the grid plan was firmly established. Cities such as Anchorage, Alaska, Erie, Pennsylvania, Miami, Florida, there was significant variation in the size of the grids used. Carson City, Nevada, may have the smallest at 180-foot square and 60-foot streets, while Salt Lake City, the most popular appears to be the 300-foot square block with streets that are 60 feet to 80 feet wide. This size grid can be found in Anchorage, Bismarck, North Dakota, Missoula, Montana, Mobile, Alabama, Phoenix, Arizona, New Amsterdam, however, had not been laid out in a grid pattern by the Dutch. The streets of lower Manhattan were more organic, and incorporated Native American trails, cow paths, in all, the gridiron is the most pervasive city design on earth, and can be found in Italy and Greece, in Mexico, Central America, Mespoptamia, China Japan. They also began to lay assessments on property owners to pay for the cost of keeping the streets in repair, the first efforts at putting a grid onto Manhattan in some form came from private developers. In the early 1750s, Trinity Church laid out a small neighborhood around the new Kings College – which would later become Columbia University – in rectangular blocks. However, because the required landfill in the Hudson River, which wouldnt happen until much later. The second instance came when the powerful De Lancey family decided to break up part of their vast estate in the 1760s, and laid out of grid of streets centered on De Lancey Square. As royalists, their holdings were confiscated after the American Revolution, at about the same time as the Bayards, Petrus Stuyvesant, the great-grandson of Peter Stuyvesant, intended to lay out a small grid of streets, nine by four, to create a village on his estate. The orientation of the streets was to be true north-south and east-west, not shifted, the only street to actually be laid was the grids central east-west axis, Stuyvesant Street, which remains the one street in Manhattan oriented closely to true east and west
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20th Street (Manhattan)
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The New York City borough of Manhattan contains 228 numbered east–west streets, the majority of them created by the Commissioners Plan of 1811. These streets do not run exactly east–west, because the plan is aligned with the Hudson River, rather than with the cardinal direction. Thus, the grids west is approximately 29 degrees north of true west, the grid covers the length of the island from 14th Street north. All numbered streets carry an East or West prefix, which changes from one to the other at Broadway below 8th Street, the numbered streets carry crosstown traffic. In general, but with exceptions, even-numbered streets are one-way eastbound. Most wider streets, and a few of the narrow ones, some streets in that area that do continue farther west change direction before reaching the Hudson River. 220th Street is the highest numbered street on Manhattan Island, but Marble Hill is also within the borough of Manhattan, the numbering system continues in the Bronx, up to 263rd Street. The lowest numbered street in Manhattan is East First Street, which runs through Alphabet City near East Houston Street, there is also a First Place in Battery Park City. East 1st Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue A, peretz Square, a small triangular sliver park where Houston Street, First Street and First Avenue meet marks the spot where the grid takes hold. East 2nd Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue C, the East end of East 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 7th Streets is Avenue D, with East 6th Street continuing further Eastward and connecting to FDR Drive. The west end of these streets is the Bowery and Third Avenue, except for 3rd Street and 4th Street, great Jones Street connects East 3rd to West 3rd. For 4th Street, see 4th Street, East 5th Street goes west to Cooper Square, but is interrupted between Avenues B and C by The Earth School, Public School 364, and between First Avenue and Avenue A by the Village View Apartments. West 8th Street is an important local shopping street, 8th Street between Avenue A and Third Avenue is called St Marks Place, but it is counted in the length below. M8 bus route operates eastbound on 8th Street and westbound on 9th Street between Avenue A and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street begins at the FDR Drive and Avenue C. West of Sixth Avenue, it turns southward about 40 degrees to join the Greenwich Village street grid, because West 4th Street turns northward at Sixth Avenue, it intersects 10th, 11th and 12th and 13th Streets in the West Village. The M8 bus operates on 10th Street in both directions between Avenue D and Avenue A, and eastbound between West Street and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street has an eastbound bike lane from West Street to the East River. In 2009, the section of 10th Street between Avenue A and the East River had bicycle markings and sharrows installed, but it still has no dedicated bike lane. West 10th Street was previously named Amos Street for Charles Chistopher Amos, the end of West 10th Street toward the Hudson River was once the home of Newgate Prison, New York Citys first prison and the United States second
46.
21st Street (Manhattan)
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The New York City borough of Manhattan contains 228 numbered east–west streets, the majority of them created by the Commissioners Plan of 1811. These streets do not run exactly east–west, because the plan is aligned with the Hudson River, rather than with the cardinal direction. Thus, the grids west is approximately 29 degrees north of true west, the grid covers the length of the island from 14th Street north. All numbered streets carry an East or West prefix, which changes from one to the other at Broadway below 8th Street, the numbered streets carry crosstown traffic. In general, but with exceptions, even-numbered streets are one-way eastbound. Most wider streets, and a few of the narrow ones, some streets in that area that do continue farther west change direction before reaching the Hudson River. 220th Street is the highest numbered street on Manhattan Island, but Marble Hill is also within the borough of Manhattan, the numbering system continues in the Bronx, up to 263rd Street. The lowest numbered street in Manhattan is East First Street, which runs through Alphabet City near East Houston Street, there is also a First Place in Battery Park City. East 1st Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue A, peretz Square, a small triangular sliver park where Houston Street, First Street and First Avenue meet marks the spot where the grid takes hold. East 2nd Street begins just north of East Houston Street at Avenue C, the East end of East 3rd, 4th, 5th, and 7th Streets is Avenue D, with East 6th Street continuing further Eastward and connecting to FDR Drive. The west end of these streets is the Bowery and Third Avenue, except for 3rd Street and 4th Street, great Jones Street connects East 3rd to West 3rd. For 4th Street, see 4th Street, East 5th Street goes west to Cooper Square, but is interrupted between Avenues B and C by The Earth School, Public School 364, and between First Avenue and Avenue A by the Village View Apartments. West 8th Street is an important local shopping street, 8th Street between Avenue A and Third Avenue is called St Marks Place, but it is counted in the length below. M8 bus route operates eastbound on 8th Street and westbound on 9th Street between Avenue A and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street begins at the FDR Drive and Avenue C. West of Sixth Avenue, it turns southward about 40 degrees to join the Greenwich Village street grid, because West 4th Street turns northward at Sixth Avenue, it intersects 10th, 11th and 12th and 13th Streets in the West Village. The M8 bus operates on 10th Street in both directions between Avenue D and Avenue A, and eastbound between West Street and Sixth Avenue, 10th Street has an eastbound bike lane from West Street to the East River. In 2009, the section of 10th Street between Avenue A and the East River had bicycle markings and sharrows installed, but it still has no dedicated bike lane. West 10th Street was previously named Amos Street for Charles Chistopher Amos, the end of West 10th Street toward the Hudson River was once the home of Newgate Prison, New York Citys first prison and the United States second
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Tenth Avenue (Manhattan)
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Tenth Avenue, known as Amsterdam Avenue between 59th Street and 193rd Street, is a north-south thoroughfare on the West Side of Manhattan in New York City. It carries uptown traffic as far as West 110th Street – also known as Cathedral Parkway, Tenth Avenue begins a block below Gansevoort Street and Eleventh Avenue in the West Village / Meatpacking District. For the southernmost stretch, Tenth Avenue runs southbound, north of 14th Street, Tenth Avenue runs uptown for 45 blocks as a one-way street until its intersection with West 59th Street, where it becomes Amsterdam Avenue but continues without interruption. Amsterdam Avenue continues as a one-way street northbound until Cathedral Parkway, Tenth Avenue runs through the Chelsea and Hells Kitchen neighborhoods on the west side of the borough, and then as Amsterdam Avenue, through the Upper West Side, Harlem and Washington Heights. Much of these areas were working class or poor for much of the 20th century, the street has long been noted for its commercial traffic, and had grade-level railroad lines through the early 20th century. In the 19th century, when the West Side Line ran along the Avenue, the lines were later elevated above street level. Amsterdam Avenue was intended to recall the Dutch roots of Manhattans earliest colonization in the 17th century. According to Sanna Feirsteins Naming New York, What is now Amsterdam Avenue was laid out in the 1811 Commissioners Plan as 10th Avenue and opened from 59th Street to Fort George Avenue in 1816. The name was changed in 1890 in a bid on the part of Upper West Side landowners to confer a measure of old-world cachet to their real estate investments in an area that had yet to catch on. The new avenue name supported the claim that this section would become the New City. Tenth Avenue and Amsterdam Avenue were converted to carry one-way traffic northbound in two stages, south of its intersection with Broadway the avenue was converted on November 6,1948. The rest to 110th Street was converted on December 6,1951, Amsterdam Avenue continues to carry two-way traffic north of 110th Street. During the real boom of the late 20th century, Amsterdam Avenue from roughly 59th Street to 96th Street became one of the citys most expensive residential districts. The M11 bus runs northbound along the avenue, north of 72nd Street, the M7 bus also runs northbound on the avenue, north of 110th Street, the M11 bus runs in both directions along Amsterdam Avenue. As part of the 7 Subway Extension, the 7 <7> was extended to 34th Street in 2015, an intermediate stop, Tenth Avenue, was originally planned but it was dropped from the official plans in 2008. The 1 train serves two stations along the Inwood portion of Tenth Avenue, 207th Street, and 215th Street, a protected bike lane was installed in 2016 from 72nd Street to 110th Street. The Rodgers & Hart play On Your Toes included the dance number Slaughter on Tenth Avenue, performed by Ray Bolger. It was later performed on stage, film and television and it has been performed by the New York City Ballet, and was featured in the film version of On Your Toes, danced by Eddie Albert and Vera Zorina
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "article name needed". New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
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