1.
Natural history
–
Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
Natural history
–
Tables of natural history, from
Ephraim Chambers 's 1728
Cyclopaedia.
Natural history
–
A natural history collection in a French public secondary school
Natural history
–
Blackberry from the 6th century
Vienna Dioscurides manuscript
Natural history
–
Georges Buffon is best remembered for his Histoire naturelle, a 44 volume encyclopedia describing everything known about the natural world.
2.
Museum
–
Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
Museum
–
The
Louvre Museum in
Paris (
France), one of the largest and most famous museums in the world.
Museum
–
The
Uffizi Gallery, the most visited museum in
Italy and an important museum in the world. View toward the
Palazzo Vecchio, in
Florence.
Museum
–
The
Museum Island in
Berlin.
Museum
–
The
British Museum in
London.
3.
Cleveland, Ohio
–
Cleveland is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County, the states second most populous county. The city proper has a population of 388,072, making Cleveland the 51st largest city in the United States, Greater Cleveland ranked as the 32nd largest metropolitan area in the United States, with 2,055,612 people in 2016. The city is the center of the Cleveland–Akron–Canton Combined Statistical Area, the city is located on the southern shore of Lake Erie, approximately 60 miles west of the Pennsylvania border. Clevelands economy has diversified sectors that include manufacturing, financial services, healthcare, Cleveland is also home to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Residents of Cleveland are called Clevelanders, Cleveland has many nicknames, the oldest of which in contemporary use being The Forest City. Cleaveland oversaw the plan for what would become the downtown area, centered on Public Square, before returning home. The first settler in Cleaveland was Lorenzo Carter, who built a cabin on the banks of the Cuyahoga River, the Village of Cleaveland was incorporated on December 23,1814. In spite of the swampy lowlands and harsh winters, its waterfront location proved to be an advantage. The area began rapid growth after the 1832 completion of the Ohio, growth continued with added railroad links. Cleveland incorporated as a city in 1836, in 1836, the city, then located only on the eastern banks of the Cuyahoga River, nearly erupted into open warfare with neighboring Ohio City over a bridge connecting the two. Ohio City remained an independent municipality until its annexation by Cleveland in 1854, the citys prime geographic location as a transportation hub on the Great Lakes has played an important role in its development as a commercial center. Cleveland serves as a point for iron ore shipped from Minnesota. In 1870, John D. Rockefeller founded Standard Oil in Cleveland, other manufacturers located in Cleveland produced steam-powered cars, which included White and Gaeth, as well as the electric car company Baker. Because of the significant growth, Cleveland was known as the Sixth City during this period, by 1920, due in large part to the citys economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nations fifth largest city. The city counted Progressive Era politicians such as the populist Mayor Tom L. Johnson among its leaders, many prominent Clevelanders from this era are buried in the historic Lake View Cemetery, including President James A. Garfield, and John D. Rockefeller. In commemoration of the centennial of Clevelands incorporation as a city, conceived as a way to energize a city after the Great Depression, it drew four million visitors in its first season, and seven million by the end of its second and final season in September 1937. The exposition was housed on grounds that are now used by the Great Lakes Science Center, following World War II, the city experienced a prosperous economy. In sports, the Indians won the 1948 World Series, the hockey Barons became champions of the American Hockey League, as a result, along with track and boxing champions produced, Cleveland was dubbed City of Champions in sports at this time
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
Cleveland, Ohio
4.
University Circle
–
University Circle is a neighborhood on the east side of Cleveland, Ohio. The area is known as The Circle to locals. University Circle is member of the Global Cultural Districts Network, while the population of University Circle ranks on the lower end of Clevelands 36 defined Statistical Planning Areas, it ranks near the top in importance to the citys economic sector. Neighborhood businesses and institutions provide the city more than 30,000 jobs in a variety of fields. Nearby attractions draw approximately 2.5 million visitors annually, University Circle has its own full-service police department to provide security and patrol the area. In a 2007 USA Today article entitled 10 great places to discover Italy in America, Mario Batali was quoted as saying, the article listed Clevelands Little Italy as a top ten Little Italy in America. Askmen. com ranked Clevelands Little Italy #3 out of 10 in their list of Top 10, the name University Circle began to take shape in the 1880s. Western Reserve University moved its campus from Hudson, Ohio, to Euclid Avenue in 1883, Case School of Applied Science moved from Downtown Cleveland to a site next to WRU in 1885. By the 1890s, the Western Reserve School of Design for Women moved to University Circle, the concept became more concrete when Jeptha Wade, a trustee of Western Reserve University, set aside land for the Cleveland Museum of Art to be built in the Circle. The Historical Society joined these institutions before the start of the 20th century, the Circle began to grow rapidly in the early 20th century. The Cleveland Museum of Art opened its doors in 1916, Clevelands college football scene began in University Circle through both Case and Western Reserve football teams. Van Horn Field hosted games against Ohio State, Notre Dame, famed Notre Dame coach Knute Rockne made his coaching debut against Case in University Circle in 1918. In 1920, The Alabama Crimson Tide played their first ever game in the north at Van Horn Field against Case, the arrival of University Hospitals in 1931 led to health care becoming another center of innovation in University Circle. Less than one mile away from University Hospitals, the Cleveland Clinic had been serving its patients since 1921, also in 1931 Severance Hall, home of the Cleveland Orchestra, was constructed at the corner of Euclid and East Boulevard. By 1950,34 institutions had chosen University Circle as their home, in 1967, Case School of Applied Science and Western Reserve University confederated to become Case Western Reserve University. University Circle remains Clevelands center for cultural, educational, religious, the area is currently undergoing many construction projects with many institutions expanding, and private development of residential and commercial dwellings. New housing developments in the area have increased the number of residents in the area to an estimated 15,000 as of 2013. In 2012, the Museum of Contemporary Art opened its new permanent location in University Circle at the corner of Mayfield Road, University Circle is served by multiple forms of transportation, including rapid train, bus, bus rapid transit, and circulators
University Circle
–
Wade Lagoon stretches in front of the
Cleveland Museum of Art
University Circle
–
A
HealthLine BRT vehicle drives through University Circle passing the
Allen Memorial Medical Library.
University Circle
–
Apartments and Retail in the Uptown construction project
University Circle
–
One of Little Italy's best known culinary landmarks, Presti's Bakery, sits at the corner of Mayfield and Coltman
5.
Cyrus S. Eaton
–
Cyrus Stephen Eaton, Sr. was a Canadian-American investment banker, businessman and philanthropist, with a career that spanned seventy years. For decades Eaton was one of the most powerful financiers in the American Midwest and he funded and helped organize the first Pugwash Conferences on World Peace, in 1955. Eaton was born on December 27,1883 on a farm near the village of Pugwash in Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, besides farming, his father, Joseph Howe Eaton, ran a small general store and the district post office. Cyrus uncle was Charles Aubrey Eaton, Eaton left Nova Scotia in 1899 to attend Woodstock College, a Baptist-affiliated prep school in Woodstock, Ontario. He then enrolled at McMaster University, a Baptist university in Hamilton, Ontario, in 1901 and he earned his bachelor of arts degree in 1905 with a major in philosophy. After graduating from McMaster he moved to Cleveland and went to work for the East Ohio Gas Company and this was one of many businesses associated with John D. Rockefeller. He managed to secure natural-gas franchises in Manitoba, Canada representing a group of New York investors, the syndicate was not able to complete its financing and folded. However, the Manitoba government was impressed to allow Eaton to retain the franchises. Eaton formed a new holding company, the Canada Gas & Electric Corp, after spending several years traveling, Eaton settled in Cleveland in 1913 and became active in many businesses. Eaton joined the Otis & Co. banking firm in 1916, in 1926 he set up an investment vehicle organized as Continental Shares, Inc. a closed end trust. In 1927 he formed Republic Steel, the 3rd-largest U. S. steel company and his business had a complex structure which some felt to be too highly leveraged. His 1929 wealth was an estimated $100 million, most of which was lost in the Great Depression. Eaton rebuilt his fortune in the 1940s and 1950s, becoming a director, then chairman, of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railway. He died on May 9,1979 at his home, Acadia Farm, near Cleveland, in 1920, Eaton founded the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. The Russell–Einstein Manifesto was issued in London on July 9,1955 by Bertrand Russell in the midst of the Cold War and it highlighted the dangers posed by nuclear weapons and called for world leaders to seek peaceful resolutions to international conflict. The signatories included eleven preeminent intellectuals and scientists, including Albert Einstein, a few days after the release, philanthropist Eaton offered to sponsor a conference—called for in the manifesto—in Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Eatons birthplace. This conference was to be the first of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, besides financial support for the Pugwash Conferences, Eaton gave money to support education in Nova Scotia, particularly in Pugwash and to Acadia University. He supported the establishment of a sanctuary in Nova Scotia on the Aspotogan Peninsula (his summer home was in Blandford
Cyrus S. Eaton
–
Cyrus Eaton in Leipzig, Germany (June 1960)
Cyrus S. Eaton
–
Cyrus Eaton
Cyrus S. Eaton
–
Thinkers' Lodge, Pugwash, Nova Scotia, Canada; site of the first Pugwash conference in 1957.
Cyrus S. Eaton
–
Cyrus Eaton Gravesite of his ashes, Deep Cove, Nova Scotia
6.
Anthropology
–
Anthropology is the study of various aspects of humans within past and present societies. Social anthropology and cultural anthropology study the norms and values of societies, linguistic anthropology studies how language affects social life. Biological or physical anthropology studies the development of humans. The abstract noun anthropology is first attested in reference to history and its present use first appeared in Renaissance Germany in the works of Magnus Hundt and Otto Casmann. Their New Latin anthropologia derived from the forms of the Greek words ánthrōpos and lógos. It began to be used in English, possibly via French anthropologie, various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The Société Ethnologique de Paris, the first to use Ethnology, was formed in 1839 and its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848 the Société was abandoned and these anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-human-rights activists. Anthropology and many other current fields are the results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. For them, the publication of Charles Darwins On the Origin of Species was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect, Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in agronomy and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s, there was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. When he read Darwin he became a convert to Transformisme. His definition now became the study of the group, considered as a whole, in its details. Broca, being what today would be called a neurosurgeon, had taken an interest in the pathology of speech and he wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the brain, today called Brocas area after him. The title was translated as The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples. The last two volumes were published posthumously, Waitz defined anthropology as the science of the nature of man. By nature he meant matter animated by the Divine breath, i. e. he was an animist and he stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation
Anthropology
–
Forensic anthropologists can help identify skeletonized human remains, such as these found lying in scrub in Western Australia, c. 1900–1910.
Anthropology
–
Anthropology
Anthropology
–
Excavations at the 3800-year-old
Edgewater Park Site,
Iowa
7.
Archaeology
–
Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of the humanities. In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anthropology, archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the first stone tools at Lomekwi in East Africa 3.3 million years ago up until recent decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of palaeontology, Archaeology is particularly important for learning about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to study. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until the advent of literacy in societies across the world, Archaeology has various goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lifeways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time. The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data collected to learn more about the past, in broad scope, archaeology relies on cross-disciplinary research. Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, Archaeology has been used by nation-states to create particular visions of the past. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealing with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, the science of archaeology grew out of the older multi-disciplinary study known as antiquarianism. Antiquarians studied history with attention to ancient artifacts and manuscripts. Tentative steps towards the systematization of archaeology as a science took place during the Enlightenment era in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, in Europe, philosophical interest in the remains of Greco-Roman civilization and the rediscovery of classical culture began in the late Middle Age. Antiquarians, including John Leland and William Camden, conducted surveys of the English countryside, one of the first sites to undergo archaeological excavation was Stonehenge and other megalithic monuments in England. John Aubrey was a pioneer archaeologist who recorded numerous megalithic and other monuments in southern England. He was also ahead of his time in the analysis of his findings and he attempted to chart the chronological stylistic evolution of handwriting, medieval architecture, costume, and shield-shapes. Excavations were also carried out in the ancient towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum and these excavations began in 1748 in Pompeii, while in Herculaneum they began in 1738. The discovery of entire towns, complete with utensils and even human shapes, however, prior to the development of modern techniques, excavations tended to be haphazard, the importance of concepts such as stratification and context were overlooked. The father of archaeological excavation was William Cunnington and he undertook excavations in Wiltshire from around 1798, funded by Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Cunnington made meticulous recordings of neolithic and Bronze Age barrows, one of the major achievements of 19th century archaeology was the development of stratigraphy. The idea of overlapping strata tracing back to successive periods was borrowed from the new geological and paleontological work of scholars like William Smith, James Hutton, the application of stratigraphy to archaeology first took place with the excavations of prehistorical and Bronze Age sites
Archaeology
–
Roman ruins,
Lausanne, Switzerland.
Archaeology
–
An early photograph of Stonehenge taken July 1877
Archaeology
–
Artifacts discovered at the 1808
Bush Barrow excavation by Sir
Richard Colt Hoare and
William Cunnington.
Archaeology
–
Mortimer Wheeler pioneered
systematic excavation in the early 20th century. Pictured, are his excavations at
Maiden Castle, Dorset, in October 1937.
8.
Astronomy
–
Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It applies mathematics, physics, and chemistry, in an effort to explain the origin of those objects and phenomena and their evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, galaxies, and comets, while the phenomena include supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, more generally, all astronomical phenomena that originate outside Earths atmosphere are within the purview of astronomy. A related but distinct subject, physical cosmology, is concerned with the study of the Universe as a whole, Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences. The early civilizations in recorded history, such as the Babylonians, Greeks, Indians, Egyptians, Nubians, Iranians, Chinese, during the 20th century, the field of professional astronomy split into observational and theoretical branches. Observational astronomy is focused on acquiring data from observations of astronomical objects, theoretical astronomy is oriented toward the development of computer or analytical models to describe astronomical objects and phenomena. The two fields complement each other, with theoretical astronomy seeking to explain the results and observations being used to confirm theoretical results. Astronomy is one of the few sciences where amateurs can play an active role, especially in the discovery. Amateur astronomers have made and contributed to many important astronomical discoveries, Astronomy means law of the stars. Astronomy should not be confused with astrology, the system which claims that human affairs are correlated with the positions of celestial objects. Although the two share a common origin, they are now entirely distinct. Generally, either the term astronomy or astrophysics may be used to refer to this subject, however, since most modern astronomical research deals with subjects related to physics, modern astronomy could actually be called astrophysics. Few fields, such as astrometry, are purely astronomy rather than also astrophysics, some titles of the leading scientific journals in this field includeThe Astronomical Journal, The Astrophysical Journal and Astronomy and Astrophysics. In early times, astronomy only comprised the observation and predictions of the motions of objects visible to the naked eye, in some locations, early cultures assembled massive artifacts that possibly had some astronomical purpose. Before tools such as the telescope were invented, early study of the stars was conducted using the naked eye, most of early astronomy actually consisted of mapping the positions of the stars and planets, a science now referred to as astrometry. From these observations, early ideas about the motions of the planets were formed, and the nature of the Sun, Moon, the Earth was believed to be the center of the Universe with the Sun, the Moon and the stars rotating around it. This is known as the model of the Universe, or the Ptolemaic system. The Babylonians discovered that lunar eclipses recurred in a cycle known as a saros
Astronomy
–
A
star -forming region in the
Large Magellanic Cloud, an
irregular galaxy.
Astronomy
–
A giant
Hubble mosaic of the
Crab Nebula, a
supernova remnant
Astronomy
–
19th century
Sydney Observatory,
Australia (1873)
Astronomy
–
19th century
Quito Astronomical Observatory is located 12 minutes south of the
Equator in
Quito,
Ecuador.
9.
Botany
–
Botany, also called plant science, plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who specialises in this field, the term botany comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη meaning pasture, grass, or fodder, βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν, to feed or to graze. Nowadays, botanists study approximately 410,000 species of plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants of medical importance and they were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden and these gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, in the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with inputs from most other areas of science, dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which are the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botany originated as herbalism, the study and use of plants for their medicinal properties, many records of the Holocene period date early botanical knowledge as far back as 10,000 years ago. This early unrecorded knowledge of plants was discovered in ancient sites of human occupation within Tennessee, the early recorded history of botany includes many ancient writings and plant classifications. Examples of early works have been found in ancient texts from India dating back to before 1100 BC, in archaic Avestan writings. His major works, Enquiry into Plants and On the Causes of Plants, constitute the most important contributions to science until the Middle Ages. De Materia Medica was widely read for more than 1,500 years, important contributions from the medieval Muslim world include Ibn Wahshiyyas Nabatean Agriculture, Abū Ḥanīfa Dīnawarīs the Book of Plants, and Ibn Bassals The Classification of Soils. In the early 13th century, Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati, and Ibn al-Baitar wrote on botany in a systematic and scientific manner and these gardens continued the practical value of earlier physic gardens, often associated with monasteries, in which plants were cultivated for medical use. They supported the growth of botany as an academic subject, lectures were given about the plants grown in the gardens and their medical uses demonstrated. Botanical gardens came much later to northern Europe, the first in England was the University of Oxford Botanic Garden in 1621, throughout this period, botany remained firmly subordinate to medicine. German physician Leonhart Fuchs was one of the three German fathers of botany, along with theologian Otto Brunfels and physician Hieronymus Bock, Fuchs and Brunfels broke away from the tradition of copying earlier works to make original observations of their own. Bock created his own system of plant classification, physician Valerius Cordus authored a botanically and pharmacologically important herbal Historia Plantarum in 1544 and a pharmacopoeia of lasting importance, the Dispensatorium in 1546. Naturalist Conrad von Gesner and herbalist John Gerard published herbals covering the medicinal uses of plants, naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi was considered the father of natural history, which included the study of plants
Botany
–
The fruit of
Myristica fragrans, a species native to
Indonesia, is the source of two valuable spices, the red aril (
mace) enclosing the dark brown
nutmeg.
Botany
–
The
Linnaean Garden of Linnaeus' residence in Uppsala, Sweden, was planted according to his Systema sexuale.
Botany
–
Micropropagation of transgenic plants
Botany
–
Biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher
10.
Geology
–
Geology is an earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Geology can also refer generally to the study of the features of any terrestrial planet. Geology gives insight into the history of the Earth by providing the evidence for plate tectonics, the evolutionary history of life. Geology also plays a role in engineering and is a major academic discipline. The majority of data comes from research on solid Earth materials. These typically fall into one of two categories, rock and unconsolidated material, the majority of research in geology is associated with the study of rock, as rock provides the primary record of the majority of the geologic history of the Earth. There are three types of rock, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. The rock cycle is an important concept in geology which illustrates the relationships between three types of rock, and magma. When a rock crystallizes from melt, it is an igneous rock, the sedimentary rock can then be subsequently turned into a metamorphic rock due to heat and pressure and is then weathered, eroded, deposited, and lithified, ultimately becoming a sedimentary rock. Sedimentary rock may also be re-eroded and redeposited, and metamorphic rock may also undergo additional metamorphism, all three types of rocks may be re-melted, when this happens, a new magma is formed, from which an igneous rock may once again crystallize. Geologists also study unlithified material which typically comes from more recent deposits and these materials are superficial deposits which lie above the bedrock. Because of this, the study of material is often known as Quaternary geology. This includes the study of sediment and soils, including studies in geomorphology, sedimentology and this theory is supported by several types of observations, including seafloor spreading, and the global distribution of mountain terrain and seismicity. This coupling between rigid plates moving on the surface of the Earth and the mantle is called plate tectonics. The development of plate tectonics provided a basis for many observations of the solid Earth. Long linear regions of geologic features could be explained as plate boundaries, mid-ocean ridges, high regions on the seafloor where hydrothermal vents and volcanoes exist, were explained as divergent boundaries, where two plates move apart. Arcs of volcanoes and earthquakes were explained as convergent boundaries, where one plate subducts under another, transform boundaries, such as the San Andreas Fault system, resulted in widespread powerful earthquakes. Plate tectonics also provided a mechanism for Alfred Wegeners theory of continental drift and they also provided a driving force for crustal deformation, and a new setting for the observations of structural geology
Geology
–
On this diagram, subducting
slabs are in blue, and continental margins and a few plate boundaries are in red. The blue blob in the cutaway section is the seismically imaged
Farallon Plate, which is subducting beneath North America. The remnants of this plate on the Surface of the Earth are the
Juan de Fuca Plate and Explorer plate in the Northwestern USA / Southwestern Canada, and the
Cocos Plate on the west coast of Mexico.
Geology
–
This schematic diagram of the rock cycle shows the relationship between magma and sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rock
Geology
Geology
–
Geologic cross-section of
Kittatinny Mountain. This cross-section shows metamorphic rocks, overlain by younger sediments deposited after the metamorphic event. These rock units were later folded and faulted during the uplift of the mountain.
11.
Paleontology
–
Paleontology or palaeontology is the scientific study of life that existed prior to, and sometimes including, the start of the Holocene Epoch. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms evolution and interactions with each other, paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC. The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuviers work on comparative anatomy, and developed rapidly in the 19th century. The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός, palaios, i. e. old, ancient, ὄν, on, i. e. being, creature and λόγος, logos, i. e. speech, thought, study. Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology, but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of modern humans. It now uses techniques drawn from a range of sciences, including biochemistry, mathematics. The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics, molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged, but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend. The simplest definition is the study of ancient life, paleontology is one of the historical sciences, along with archaeology, geology, astronomy, cosmology, philology and history itself. This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past, hence it has three main elements, description of the phenomena, developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change, and applying those theories to specific facts. Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by an accident during other research. Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its source of evidence is fossils. In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences, including biology, osteology, ecology, chemistry, techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked, for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was. As knowledge has increased, paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions, vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates, from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals. Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of such as molluscs, arthropods. Paleobotany focuses on the study of plants, but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae. Palynology, the study of pollen and spores produced by plants and protists. Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms, regardless of the group to which they belong, one example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria, which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems. This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere, together, these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells, from which all multicellular organisms are built
Paleontology
Paleontology
–
A palaeontologist at work at
John Day Fossil Beds National Monument
Paleontology
–
The preparation of the fossilised bones of
Europasaurus holgeri
12.
Zoology
–
The term is derived from Ancient Greek ζῷον, zōion, i. e. animal and λόγος, logos, i. e. knowledge, study. The history of zoology traces the study of the kingdom from ancient to modern times. This ancient work was developed in the Middle Ages by Muslim physicians. During the Renaissance and early period, zoological thought was revolutionized in Europe by a renewed interest in empiricism. Microscopy revealed the unknown world of microorganisms, laying the groundwork for cell theory. The growing importance of natural theology, partly a response to the rise of mechanical philosophy, over the 18th and 19th centuries, zoology became an increasingly professional scientific discipline. Naturalists began to reject essentialism and consider the importance of extinction, cell theory provided a new perspective on the fundamental basis of life. These developments, as well as the results from embryology and paleontology, were synthesized in Charles Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection. In 1859, Darwin placed the theory of evolution on a new footing, by his discovery of a process by which organic evolution can occur. Darwin gave new direction to morphology and physiology, by uniting them in a biological theory. The end of the 19th century saw the fall of spontaneous generation, cell biology studies the structural and physiological properties of cells, including their behavior, interactions, and environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for single-celled organisms such as bacteria as well as the cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences, the similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems and it focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are related, and can be categorized under structural studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the function as a whole. The theme of structure to function is central to biology, for example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of physiology to non-human species
Zoology
–
Conrad Gesner (1516–1565). His
Historiae animalium is considered the beginning of modern zoology.
Zoology
–
Animal anatomical engraving from Handbuch der Anatomie der Tiere für Künstler.
Zoology
–
Kelp gull chicks peck at red spot on mother's beak to stimulate the regurgitating reflex.
Zoology
–
Subdisciplines
13.
Donald Johanson
–
Donald Carl Johanson is an American paleoanthropologist. He is known for discovering - with Yves Coppens and Maurice Taieb - the fossil of a female hominin australopithecine known as Lucy in the Afar Triangle region of Hadar, Johanson was born in Chicago, Illinois to Swedish parents, and is the nephew of wrestler Ivar Johansson. He earned a degree from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1966. At the time of the discovery of Lucy, he was a professor of anthropology at Case Western Reserve University. In 1981, he established the Institute of Human Origins in Berkeley, Johanson holds an honorary doctorate from Case Western Reserve University, and was awarded an Honorary Doctorate by Westfield State College in 2008. Forty percent of the skeleton was recovered, and was later described as the first known member of Australopithecus afarensis. Johanson was astonished to find so much of her skeleton all at once, pamela Alderman, a member of the expedition, suggested she be named Lucy after the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds which was played repeatedly during the night of the discovery. A bipedal hominin, Lucy stood about three and a half tall, her bipedalism supported Raymond Darts theory that australopithecines walked upright. Johanson and his team concluded from Lucys rib that she ate a plant-based diet and they did not immediately see Lucy as a separate species, but considered her an older member of Australopithecus africanus. The discovery, however, of several more skulls of similar morphology persuaded most palaeontologists to classify her as a species called afarensis. Johanson and Maitland A. Edey won a 1982 U. S. National Book Award in Science for the first popular book about this work, Lucy, The Beginnings of Humankind. AL333, commonly referred to as the First Family, is a collection of prehistoric hominin teeth, generally thought to be members of the species Australopithecus afarensis, the fossils are estimated to be about 3.2 million years old. In 1991, the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry awarded Johanson their highest honor, Johanson accepted the Emperor Has No Clothes award at the Freedom From Religion Foundation 37th annual convention on October 24,2014. Lucys Child, The Discovery of a Human Ancestor, ecce Homo, Writings in Honour of Third Millennium Man. Lucys Legacy, The Quest for Human Origins, - Academy of Achievement In Search of Human Origins - PBS Lucys Legacy, The Quest for Human Origins - Video NPR. Human Origins - May 9,1997 interview with Johanson, Lucys Relative - December 1,2006 interview with Johanson. Lucys Legacy - March 6,2009 interview with Johanson, Origins of Modern Humans, Multiregional or Out of Africa
Donald Johanson
–
Donald Johanson
14.
Lucy (Australopithecus)
–
Lucy is the common name of AL 288-1, several hundred pieces of bone fossils representing 40 percent of the skeleton of a female of the hominin species Australopithecus afarensis. In Ethiopia, the assembly is known as Dinkinesh, which means you are marvelous in the Amharic language. Lucy was discovered in 1974 in Africa, near the village Hadar in the Awash Valley of the Afar Triangle in Ethiopia, the Lucy specimen is an early australopithecine and is dated to about 3.2 million years ago. A2016 study proposes that Australopithecus afarensis was also to a large extent tree-dwelling, after public announcement of the discovery, Lucy captured much public interest, becoming a household name at the time. Lucy became famous worldwide, and the story of her discovery, there was discussion of the risks of damage to the unique fossils, and other museums preferred to display casts of the fossil assembly. The original fossils were returned to Ethiopia in 2013, and subsequent exhibitions have used casts, taieb formed the International Afar Research Expedition and invited three prominent international scientists to conduct research expeditions into the region. An expedition was mounted with four American and seven French participants. In November 1971, near the end of the first field season, Johanson noticed a fossil of the end of a shinbone. The lower end of a femur was found near it, and when he fitted them together and this fossil was later dated at more than three million years old – much older than other hominin fossils known at the time. The site lay about 2.5 kilometres from the site where Lucy subsequently was found, the team returned for the second field season the following year and found hominin jaws. Then, on the morning of 24 November 1974, near the Awash River, Johanson abandoned a plan to update his field notes, by Johansons later accounts, both he and Tom Gray spent two hours on the increasingly hot and arid plain, surveying the dusty terrain. On a hunch, Johanson decided to look at the bottom of a gully that had been checked at least twice before by other workers. At first view nothing was visible, but as they turned to leave a fossil caught Johansons eye. Near it lay a fragment from the back of a small skull and they noticed part of a femur a few feet away. As they explored further, they found more and more bones on the slope, including vertebrae, part of a pelvis, ribs and they marked the spot and returned to camp, excited at finding so many pieces apparently from one individual hominin. In the afternoon, all members of the returned to the gully to section off the site and prepare it for careful excavation and collection. Johanson assessed it as based on the one complete pelvic bone and sacrum. Lucy was 1.1 m tall, weighed 29 kg, Lucy the pre-human hominid and fossil hominin, captured much public notice, she became almost a household name at the time
Lucy (Australopithecus)
–
Lucy
Lucy (Australopithecus)
–
Side view of Lucy replica
Lucy (Australopithecus)
–
Cast of Lucy in Mexico
Lucy (Australopithecus)
–
Lucy skeleton reconstruction.
Cleveland Museum of Natural History
15.
Hominidae
–
Several revisions in classifying the great apes have caused the use of the term hominid to vary over time. Its original meaning referred only to humans and their closest non-extant relatives and that restrictive meaning has now been largely assumed by the term hominin, which comprises all members of the human clade after the split from the chimpanzees. The current, 21st-century meaning of hominid includes all the great apes including humans, the most recent common ancestor of all Hominidae lived roughly 14 million years ago, when the ancestors of the orangutans speciated from the ancestral line of the other three genera. Those ancestors of the family Hominidae had already speciated from the family Hylobatidae, in the early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, there were many species of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa, the variety suggests a long history of prior diversification. Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the most recent of these far-flung Miocene apes is Oreopithecus, from the fossil-rich coal beds in northern Italy and dated to 9 million years ago. Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the split off from the line leading to the humans. Human DNA is approximately 98. 4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms, the earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Orrorin tugenensis, followed by Ardipithecus, with species Ar. kadabba and Ar. ramidus. The classification of the apes has been revised several times in the last few decades. The original meaning of the referred to only humans and their closest relatives—what is now the modern meaning of the term hominin. And the meaning of the taxon Hominidae changed gradually, leading to a different usage of hominid that today all the great apes including humans. A hominid is a member of the family Hominidae, the apes, orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees. A hominine is a member of the subfamily Homininae, gorillas, chimpanzees, a hominin is a member of the tribe Hominini, Chimpanzees and humans. A homininan is a member of the subtribe Hominina of the tribe Hominini, a human is a member of the genus Homo, of which Homo sapiens is the only extant species, and within that Homo sapiens sapiens is the only surviving subspecies. For each clade it is indicated approximately when newer extant clades emerged, some texts will refer to Homonini as the Hominina branch. Many scientists, including paleoanthropologists, continue to use the term hominid to mean humans, as mentioned, Hominidae was originally the name given to the family of humans and their close relatives, with the other great apes all being placed in a separate family, the Pongidae. However, that eventually made Pongidae paraphyletic because at least one great ape species proved to be more closely related to humans than to other great apes. Most taxonomists today encourage monophyletic groups—this would require, in this case, thus, many biologists now assign Pongo to the family Hominidae
Hominidae
Hominidae
–
Sumatran orangutan (Pongo abelii)
Hominidae
–
A reconstruction of a female
Australopithecus afarensis (
National Museum of Natural History)
Hominidae
–
Humans are one of the four
extant hominid genera.
16.
Australopithecus afarensis
–
Australopithecus afarensis is an extinct hominin that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. A. afarensis was slenderly built, like the younger Australopithecus africanus, a. afarensis is thought to be more closely related to the genus Homo, whether as a direct ancestor or a close relative of an unknown ancestor, than any other known primate from the same time. Some researchers include A. afarensis in the genus Praeanthropus, the most famous fossil is the partial skeleton named Lucy found by Donald Johanson and colleagues, who, in celebration of their find, repeatedly played the Beatles song Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds. Australopithecus afarensis fossils have only been discovered within Eastern Africa, despite Laetoli being the type locality for A. Other localities bearing A. afarensis remains include Omo, Maka, Fejej, and Belohdelie in Ethiopia, compared to the modern and extinct great apes, A. afarensis has reduced canines and molars, although they are still relatively larger than in modern humans. A. afarensis also has a small brain size and a prognathic face. Considerable debate surrounds the locomotor behaviour of A. afarensis, some studies suggest that A. afarensis was almost exclusively bipedal, while others propose that the creatures were partly arboreal. The anatomy of the hands, feet, and shoulder joints in many ways favour the latter interpretation, in particular, the morphology of the scapula appears to be ape-like and very different from modern humans. The curvature of the finger and toe bones approaches that of modern-day apes, alternatively, the loss of an abductable great toe and therefore the ability to grasp with the foot suggests A. afarensis was no longer adapted to climbing. A number of traits in the A. afarensis skeleton strongly reflect bipedalism, in overall anatomy, the pelvis is far more human-like than ape-like. The iliac blades are short and wide, the sacrum is wide and positioned directly behind the hip joint, importantly, the femur also angles in toward the knee from the hip. This trait would have allowed the foot to have closer to the midline of the body. The feet also feature adducted big toes, making it difficult if not impossible to grasp branches with the hindlimbs. The loss of a grasping hindlimb also increases the risk of an infant being dropped or falling, without the second set of grasping limbs, the infant cannot maintain as strong a grip, and likely had to be held with help from the mother. The problem of holding the infant would be multiplied if the mother also had to climb trees, bones of the foot also indicate bipedality. The upright gait would have much more efficient than the bent knee and hip walking. Yet, this can be questioned, as finds of Australopithecus foot bones indicate the Laetoli footprints may not have made by Australopithecus. Many scientists also doubt the suggestion of bipedalism, and argue that even if Australopithecus really did walk on two legs, it did not walk in the way as humans
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus afarensis
–
A. afarensis, forensic facial reconstruction
Australopithecus afarensis
–
Lucy skeleton reconstruction, Cleveland Natural History Museum
Australopithecus afarensis
–
Stamps of Uzbekistan, 2002
17.
Planetarium
–
A planetarium is a theatre built primarily for presenting educational and entertaining shows about astronomy and the night sky, or for training in celestial navigation. Whatever technologies are used, the objective is normally to link together to provide an accurate relative motion of the sky. Typical systems can be set to display the sky at any point in time, past or present, planetaria range in size from the Hayden Planetariums 21-meter dome seating 423 people, to three-meter inflatable portable domes where children sit on the floor. Such portable planetaria serve education programs outside of the permanent installations of museums, the term planetarium is sometimes used generically to describe other devices which illustrate the solar system, such as a computer simulation or an orrery. Planetarium software refers to an application that renders a three-dimensional image of the sky onto a two-dimensional computer screen. The term planetarian is used to describe a member of the staff of a planetarium. The ancient Greek polymath Archimedes is attributed with creating a primitive device that could predict the movements of the Sun and the Moon. The discovery of the Antikythera mechanism proved that such devices already existed during antiquity, campanus of Novara described a planetary equatorium in his Theorica Planetarum, and included instructions on how to build one. The Globe of Gottorf built around 1650 had constellations painted on the inside and these devices would today usually be referred to as orreries. In fact, many planetaria today have what are called projection orreries, the small size of typical 18th century orreries limited their impact, and towards the end of that century a number of educators attempted some larger scale simulations of the heavens. The efforts of Adam Walker and his sons are noteworthy in their attempts to fuse theatrical illusions with educational aspirations, walkers Eidouranion was the heart of his public lectures or theatrical presentations. Every Planet and Satellite seems suspended in space, without any support and these devices most probably sacrificed astronomical accuracy for crowd-pleasing spectacle and sensational and awe-provoking imagery. The oldest, still working planetarium can be found in the Dutch town Franeker and it was built by Eise Eisinga in the living room of his house. It took Eisinga seven years to build his planetarium, which was completed in 1781 and this was displayed at the Deutsches Museum in 1924, construction work having been interrupted by the war. The planets travelled along overhead rails, powered by electric motors,180 stars were projected onto the wall by electric bulbs. Atwoods work at the Chicago Academy of Sciences and by the ideas of Walther Bauersfeld, in August 1923, the first Zeiss planetarium projected images of the night sky onto the white plaster lining of a 16 m hemispherical concrete dome, erected on the roof of the Zeiss works. The first official public showing was at the Deutsches Museum in Munich on October 21,1923, when Germany was divided into East and West Germany after the war, the Zeiss firm was also split. Part remained in its headquarters at Jena, in East Germany
Planetarium
–
Inside a planetarium projection hall. (
Belgrade Planetarium,
Serbia)
Planetarium
–
Inside the same hall during projection. (
Belgrade Planetarium,
Serbia)
Planetarium
–
A planetarium under construction in
Nishapur, near the
Mausoleum of Omar Khayyam.
Planetarium
–
The
Eise Eisinga Planetarium
18.
Measuring instrument
–
A measuring instrument is a device for measuring a physical quantity. In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering, measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical quantities of objects and events. Established standard objects and events are used as units, and the process of measurement gives a number relating the item under study, measuring instruments, and formal test methods which define the instruments use, are the means by which these relations of numbers are obtained. All measuring instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error, scientists, engineers and other humans use a vast range of instruments to perform their measurements. These instruments may range from simple objects such as rulers and stopwatches to electron microscopes, virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of modern measuring instruments. In the past, a common time measuring instrument was the sundial, today, the usual measuring instruments for time are clocks and watches. For highly accurate measurement of time a clock is used. Stop watches are used to measure time in some sports. Energy is measured by an energy meter, examples of energy meters include, An electricity meter measures energy directly in kilowatt hours. A gas meter measures energy indirectly by recording the volume of gas used and this figure can then be converted to a measure of energy by multiplying it by the calorific value of the gas. A physical system that exchanges energy may be described by the amount of energy exchanged per time-interval, for the ranges of power-values see, Orders of magnitude. Action describes energy summed up over the time a process lasts and its dimension is the same as that of an angular momentum. A phototube provides a measurement which permits the calculation of the quantized action of light. This includes basic quantities found in classical- and continuum mechanics, dumpy level Laser line level Spirit level Gyroscope Ballistic pendulum, indirectly by calculation and or gauging Considerations related to electric charge dominate electricity and electronics. Electrical charges interact via a field and that field is called electric if the charge doesnt move. If the charge moves, thus realizing an electric current, especially in a neutral conductor. Electricity can be given a quality — a potential, and electricity has a substance-like property, the electric charge. Energy in elementary electrodynamics is calculated by multiplying the potential by the amount of charge found at that potential, potential times charge, electrometer is often used to reconfirm the phenomenon of contact electricity leading to triboelectric sequences
Measuring instrument
–
Captain Nemo and Professor Aronnax contemplating measuring instruments in
Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea
Measuring instrument
–
A
Love Meter and
Strength tester machine at a
Framingham, Massachusetts rest stop.
Measuring instrument
–
Watch, a time measurement device
Measuring instrument
–
A
measuring cup, a common instrument used to measure volume.
19.
Compass
–
A compass is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows direction relative to the geographic cardinal directions, or points. Usually, a called a compass rose shows the directions north, south, east. When the compass is used, the rose can be aligned with the geographic directions, so, for example. Frequently, in addition to the rose or sometimes instead of it, North corresponds to zero degrees, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90 degrees, south is 180, and west is 270. These numbers allow the compass to show azimuths or bearings, which are stated in this notation. The magnetic compass was first invented as a device for divination as early as the Chinese Han Dynasty, the first usage of a compass recorded in Western Europe and the Islamic world occurred around the early 13th century. The magnetic compass is the most familiar compass type and it functions as a pointer to magnetic north, the local magnetic meridian, because the magnetized needle at its heart aligns itself with the horizontal component of the Earths magnetic field. The needle is mounted on a pivot point, in better compasses a jewel bearing. When the compass is level, the needle turns until, after a few seconds to allow oscillations to die out. In navigation, directions on maps are usually expressed with reference to geographical or true north, the direction toward the Geographical North Pole, the rotation axis of the Earth. Depending on where the compass is located on the surface of the Earth the angle between north and magnetic north, called magnetic declination can vary widely with geographic location. The local magnetic declination is given on most maps, to allow the map to be oriented with a parallel to true north. The location of the Earths magnetic poles slowly change with time, the effect of this means a map with the latest declination information should be used. Some magnetic compasses include means to compensate for the magnetic declination. The first compasses in ancient Han dynasty China were made of lodestone, the compass was later used for navigation during the Song Dynasty of the 11th century. Later compasses were made of iron needles, magnetized by striking them with a lodestone, dry compasses began to appear around 1300 in Medieval Europe and the Islamic world. This was supplanted in the early 20th century by the magnetic compass. Modern compasses usually use a needle or dial inside a capsule completely filled with a liquid
Compass
–
A simple dry magnetic portable compass
Compass
–
A
smartphone that can be used as a compass because of the
magnetometer inside
Compass
–
A military compass that was used during
World War I
Compass
–
Model of a
Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) south-indicating ladle or sinan. It is theorized [
by whom?] that the south-pointing spoons of the Han dynasty were magnetized lodestones.
20.
Astrolabe
–
An astrolabe is an elaborate inclinometer, historically used by astronomers and navigators, to measure the inclined position in the sky of a celestial body, day or night. It can thus be used to identify stars or planets, to determine local latitude given local time and vice versa, to survey and it was used in classical antiquity, the Islamic Golden Age, the European Middle Ages and the Renaissance for all these purposes. While the astrolabe is effective for determining latitude on land or calm seas, the mariners astrolabe was developed to solve that problem. OED gives the translation star-taker for the English word astrolabe and traces it, through medieval Latin, to the Greek word astrolabos from astron star, in the medieval Islamic world the word asturlab was given various etymologies. In Arabic texts, the word is translated as akhdh al-kawakib which corresponds to an interpretation of the Greek word, al-Biruni quotes and criticizes the medieval scientist Hamzah al-Isfahani who had stated, asturlab is an arabization of this Persian phrase. In medieval Islamic sources, there is also a fictional and popular etymology of the words as lines of lab, in this popular etymology, Lab is a certain son of Idris. This etymology is mentioned by a 10th-century scientist named al-Qummi but rejected by al-Khwarizmi, Lab in Arabic also means sun and black stony places. An early astrolabe was invented in the Hellenistic world by Apollonius of Perga, a marriage of the planisphere and dioptra, the astrolabe was effectively an analog calculator capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. Theon of Alexandria wrote a treatise on the astrolabe. Some historians attribute the invention to Hypatia, the daughter of Theon of Alexandria, noting that Synesius. Astrolabes continued in use in the Greek-speaking world throughout the Byzantine period, about 550 AD the Christian philosopher John Philoponus wrote a treatise on the astrolabe in Greek, which is the earliest extant Greek treatise on the instrument. In addition, Severus Sebokht, a bishop who lived in Mesopotamia, Astrolabes were further developed in the medieval Islamic world, where Muslim astronomers introduced angular scales to the astrolabe, adding circles indicating azimuths on the horizon. It was widely used throughout the Muslim world, chiefly as an aid to navigation and as a way of finding the Qibla, the first person credited with building the astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly the 8th-century mathematician Muhammad al-Fazari. The mathematical background was established by the Muslim astronomer Albatenius in his treatise Kitab az-Zij, the earliest surviving dated astrolabe is dated AH315. In the Islamic world, astrolabes were used to find the times of sunrise and the rising of fixed stars, to help schedule morning prayers. In the 10th century, al-Sufi first described over 1,000 different uses of an astrolabe, in areas as diverse as astronomy, astrology, navigation, surveying, timekeeping, prayer, Salat, Qibla, etc. The spherical astrolabe, a variation of both the astrolabe and the sphere, was invented during the Middle Ages by astronomers and inventors in the Islamic world. The earliest description of the spherical astrolabe dates back to Al-Nayrizi, in the 12th century, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī invented the linear astrolabe, sometimes called the staff of al-Tusi, which was a simple wooden rod with graduated markings but without sights
Astrolabe
–
A modern astrolabe, made in
Tabriz, Iran in 2013.
Astrolabe
–
Astrolabe quadrant, England, 1388
Astrolabe
–
A 16th-century astrolabe, showing a tulip rete and
rule
Astrolabe
–
A treatise explaining the importance of the astrolabe by
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Persian scientist.
21.
Mineralogy
–
Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts. Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, the German Renaissance specialist Georgius Agricola wrote works such as De re metallica and De Natura Fossilium which began the scientific approach to the subject. Systematic scientific studies of minerals and rocks developed in post-Renaissance Europe, the modern study of mineralogy was founded on the principles of crystallography and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the invention of the microscope in the 17th century. Nicholas Steno first observed the law of constancy of interfacial angles in quartz crystals in 1669 and this was later generalized and established experimentally by Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de lIslee in 1783. In 1814, Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced a classification of minerals based on their chemistry rather than their crystal structure, james D. Dana published his first edition of A System of Mineralogy in 1837, and in a later edition introduced a chemical classification that is still the standard. It, however, retains a focus on the structures commonly encountered in rock-forming minerals. An initial step in identifying a mineral is to examine its physical properties and these can be classified into density, measures of mechanical cohesion, macroscopic visual properties, magnetic and electric properties, radioactivity and solubility in hydrogen chloride. If the mineral is crystallized, it will also have a distinctive crystal habit that reflects the crystal structure or internal arrangement of atoms. It is also affected by crystal defects and twinning. Many crystals are polymorphic, having more than one crystal structure depending on factors such as pressure and temperature. ”Examples of polymorphs are calcite and aragonite - two minerals with identical chemical composition, distinguished by their crystallography, calcite is rhombohedral and aragonite is orthorhombic. The crystal structure is the arrangement of atoms in a crystal and it is represented by a lattice of points which repeats a basic pattern, called a unit cell, in three dimensions. The lattice can be characterized by its symmetries and by the dimensions of the unit cell and these dimensions are represented by three Miller indices. The lattice remains unchanged by certain symmetry operations about any point in the lattice, reflection, rotation, inversion, and rotary inversion. Together, they make up an object called a crystallographic point group or crystal class. There are 32 possible crystal classes, in addition, there are operations that displace all the points, translation, screw axis, and glide plane. In combination with the point symmetries, they form 230 possible space groups, most geology departments have X-ray powder diffraction equipment to analyze the crystal structures of minerals. X-rays have wavelengths that are the order of magnitude as the distances between atoms. In a sample that is ground to a powder, the X-rays sample a random distribution of all crystal orientations, powder diffraction can distinguish between minerals that may appear the same in a hand sample, for example quartz and its polymorphs tridymite and cristobalite
Mineralogy
–
Page from Treatise on mineralogy by
Friedrich Mohs (1825).
Mineralogy
–
Mineralogy is a mixture of
chemistry,
materials science,
physics and
geology.
Mineralogy
–
Left side of the
Moon Mineralogy Mapper, a
spectrometer that mapped the lunar surface.
Mineralogy
–
The
perovskite crystal structure. The most abundant mineral in the Earth,
bridgmanite, has this structure. Its chemical formula is (Mg,Fe)SiO 3; the red spheres are oxygen, the blue spheres silicon and the green spheres magnesium or iron.
22.
Stegosaurus
–
Stegosaurus is a genus of armored dinosaur. Several species have been classified in the upper Morrison Formation of the western U. S, the remains of over 80 individual animals of this genus have been found. Stegosaurus would have lived alongside such as Apatosaurus, Diplodocus, Brachiosaurus, Allosaurus, and Ceratosaurus. These were a large, heavily built, herbivorous quadrupeds with rounded backs, short limbs, long hind limbs. Due to their combination of broad, upright plates and tail tipped with spikes. The function of this array of plates and spikes has been the subject of speculation among scientists. Stegosaurus had a relatively low brain-to-body mass ratio and it had a short neck and a small head, meaning it most likely ate low-lying bushes and shrubs. One species, Stegosaurus ungulatus, is the largest known of all the stegosaurians, Stegosaurus remains were first identified during the Bone Wars by Othniel Charles Marsh. The name Stegosaurus means roof lizard or covered lizard, in reference to its bony plates, although large individuals could grow up to 9 m in length, the various species of Stegosaurus were dwarfed by contemporaries, the giant sauropods. Some form of armor appears to have been necessary, as Stegosaurus species coexisted with large predatory theropod dinosaurs, most of the information known about Stegosaurus comes from the remains of mature animals, more recently, though, juvenile remains of Stegosaurus have been found. One subadult specimen, discovered in 1994 in Wyoming, is 4.6 m long and 2 m high and it is on display in the University of Wyoming Geological Museum. The long and narrow skull was small in proportion to the body and it had a small antorbital fenestra, the hole between the nose and eye common to most archosaurs, including modern birds, though lost in extant crocodylians. The skulls low position suggests that Stegosaurus may have been a browser of low-growing vegetation and this interpretation is supported by the absence of front teeth and their likely replacement by a horny beak or rhamphotheca. The lower jaw of Stegosaurus had an upward extension that would have completely hidden the teeth when viewed from the side. Other researchers have interpreted these ridges as modified versions of similar structures in other ornithischians which might have supported fleshy cheeks, stegosaurian teeth were small, triangular, and flat, wear facets show that they did grind their food. The jaws of Stegosaurus had flat downward and upward extensions that would have hidden the teeth when viewed from the side. The presence of a beak extended along much of the jaws may have precluded the presence of cheeks in these species, such an extensive beak was probably unique to Stegosaurus and some other advanced stegosaurids among ornithischians, which usually had beaks restricted to the jaw tips. Despite the animals size, the braincase of Stegosaurus was small
Stegosaurus
Stegosaurus
–
Restoration of S. armatus
Stegosaurus
–
S. stenops specimen nicknamed "
Sophie ",
Natural History Museum, London
Stegosaurus
–
Articulated holotype of S. stenops (USNM 4934), known as the "road kill" specimen
23.
Devonian
–
The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic, spanning 60 million years from the end of the Silurian,419.2 million years ago, to the beginning of the Carboniferous,358.9 Mya. It is named after Devon, England, where rocks from this period were first studied, the first significant adaptive radiation of life on dry land occurred during the Devonian. Free-sporing vascular plants began to spread across dry land, forming extensive forests which covered the continents, by the middle of the Devonian, several groups of plants had evolved leaves and true roots, and by the end of the period the first seed-bearing plants appeared. Various terrestrial arthropods also became well-established, Fish reached substantial diversity during this time, leading the Devonian to often be dubbed the Age of Fish. The first ray-finned and lobe-finned bony fish appeared, while the placodermi began dominating almost every aquatic environment. The ancestors of all four-limbed vertebrates began adapting to walking on land, as their strong pectoral, in the oceans, primitive sharks became more numerous than in the Silurian and Late Ordovician. The first ammonites, species of molluscs, appeared, trilobites, the mollusk-like brachiopods and the great coral reefs, were still common. The Late Devonian extinction which started about 375 million years ago severely affected marine life, killing off all placodermi, and all trilobites, save for a few species of the order Proetida. The palaeogeography was dominated by the supercontinent of Gondwana to the south, the continent of Siberia to the north, while the rock beds that define the start and end of the Devonian period are well identified, the exact dates are uncertain. According to the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the Devonian extends from the end of the Silurian 419.2 Mya, another common term is Age of the Fishes, referring to the evolution of several major groups of fish that took place during the period. Older literature on the Anglo-Welsh basin divides it into the Downtonian, Dittonian, Breconian and Farlovian stages, in the Late Devonian, by contrast, arid conditions were less prevalent across the world and temperate climates were more common. The Devonian Period is formally broken into Early, Middle and Late subdivisions, the rocks corresponding to those epochs are referred to as belonging to the Lower, Middle and Upper parts of the Devonian System. Early Devonian The Early Devonian lasted from 419.2 ±2.8 to 393.3 ±2.5 and began with the Lochkovian stage, which lasted until the Pragian. It spanned from 410.8 ±2.8 to 407.6 ±2.5, and was followed by the Emsian, which lasted until the Middle Devonian began,393. 3±2.7 million years ago. Middle Devonian The Middle Devonian comprised two subdivisions, first the Eifelian, which gave way to the Givetian 387. 7±2.7 million years ago. Late Devonian Finally, the Late Devonian started with the Frasnian,382.7 ±2.8 to 372.2 ±2.5, during which the first forests took shape on land. The first tetrapods appeared in the record in the ensuing Famennian subdivision. This lasted until the end of the Devonian,358. 9±2.5 million years ago, the Devonian was a relatively warm period, and probably lacked any glaciers
Devonian
–
The rocks of Lummaton Quarry in
Torquay in Devon played an early role in defining the Devonian period.
Devonian
–
Dunkleosteus, one of the largest armoured fish to ever roam the planet, lived during the late Devonian
Devonian
–
Enrolled phacopid
trilobite from the Devonian of Ohio
Devonian
–
The common tabulate coral
Aulopora from the Middle Devonian of Ohio – view of colony origin encrusting a
brachiopod valve
24.
Arthrodire
–
Greek for jointed neck, the arthrodires had movable joint between armor surrounding the head and body. The mouth is interesting because as the jaw moved down. Lacking distinct teeth, like all placoderms, they used the edges of a bony plate as a biting surface. The eye sockets are protected by a ring, a feature shared by birds. Early arthrodires, such as the genus Arctolepis, were well-armoured fishes with flattened bodies, the largest member of this group, Dunkleosteus, was a true superpredator of the latest Devonian period, reaching 1 to as much as 6 m in length. In contrast, the long-nosed Rolfosteus measured just 15 cm, a common misconception is the arthrodires were sluggish bottom-dwellers that were outcompeted by more advanced fish. Leading to this misconception is that the body plan remained relatively conserved during the Devonian period. Below is a cladogram from Dupret et al, the Rise of Fishes,500 Million Years of Evolution. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera, archived from the original on 2004-10-14
Arthrodire
–
Arthrodira Temporal range:
Devonian
Arthrodire
–
Heterosteus ingens from the Middle Devonian of Estonia
Arthrodire
–
Acanthothoraci *
Arthrodire
–
Basal antiarchs
25.
Placoderm
–
Placodermi is an extinct class of armoured prehistoric fish, known from fossils, which lived from the Silurian to the end of the Devonian Period. Their head and thorax were covered by articulated armoured plates and the rest of the body was scaled or naked, placoderms were among the first jawed fish, their jaws likely evolved from the first of their gill arches. Placoderms are paraphyletic, and consist of several distinct outgroups or sister taxa to all living jawed vertebrates and this is illustrated by a 419-million-year-old fossil, Entelognathus, from China, which is the only known placoderm with a type of bony jaw like that found in modern bony fishes. This includes a bone, which is found in humans. The jaws in other placoderms were simplified and consisted of a single bone, placoderms were also the first fish to develop pelvic fins, the precursor to hindlimbs in tetrapods, as well as true teeth. 380-million-year-old fossils of three genera, Incistoscutum, Materpiscis and Austroptyctodus, represent the oldest known examples of live birth. The first identifiable placoderms appear in the record during the late Llandovery epoch of the early Silurian. The vast majority of placoderms were predators, many of which lived at or near the substrate, many, primarily the Arthrodira, were active, nektonic predators that dwelled in the middle to upper portions of the water column. A study of the arthrodire Compagopiscis published in 2012 concluded that placoderms likely possessed true teeth contrary to early studies. The teeth had well defined pulp cavities and were made of bone and dentine. However the tooth and jaw development were not as integrated as in modern gnathostomes. These teeth were likely homologous to the teeth of other gnathostomes, some paleontologists regard it as the worlds first vertebrate superpredator, preying upon other predators. Some placoderms were herbivorous, such as the Middle to Late Devonian arthrodire Holonema, the fossil, named Materpiscis attenboroughi, had eggs which were fertilised internally, the mother providing nourishment to the embryo and giving birth to live young. Specimens of the arthrodire Incisoscutum ritchei, also from the Gogo Formation, have been found with embryos inside them indicating this group also had live bearing ability, the males reproduced by inserting a long clasper into the female. The placoderm claspers are not homologous with the claspers in cartilaginous fishes, the similarities between the structures has been revealed to be an example of convergent evolution. Because they were not attached to the fins, as are the claspers in fish like sharks, they were much more flexible. At that time, they were differentiated into antiarchs and arthrodires as well as other. Earlier fossils of basal Placodermi have not yet been discovered, the Silurian fossil record of the placoderms is both literally and figuratively fragmented
Placoderm
Placoderm
–
Dunkleosteus, among the first of the vertebrate apex predators, was a giant armoured placoderm predator.
Placoderm
–
Dunkleosteus
Placoderm
–
Coccosteus
26.
Dunkleosteus
–
Dunkleosteus is an extinct genus of arthrodire placoderm fish that existed during the Late Devonian period, about 358–382 million years ago. Some of the species, such as D. terrelli, D. marsaisi, the largest species, D. terrelli, measuring up to 6 m long and 1 t in weight, was a hypercarnivorous apex predator. Few other placoderms, save, perhaps, its contemporary Titanichthys, Dunkleosteus is a pachyosteomorph arthrodire originally placed in the family Dinichthyidae, a family composed mostly of large, carnivorous arthrodires like Gorgonichthys. Anderson suggests, because of its jaw structure, Dunkleosteus should be placed outside the family Dinichthyidae, perhaps close to the base of the clade Pachyosteomorpha. Carr and Hlavin resurrect Dunkleosteidae and place Dunkleosteus, Eastmanosteus, New studies have revealed several features in both its food and biomechanics, as well as its ecology and physiology. Placodermi first appeared in the Silurian, and the group became extinct during the transition from the Devonian to the Carboniferous, the class persisted in the fossil record for at least 70 million years, in comparison to the 400-million-year-long history of sharks. Numerous fossils of species have been found in North America, Poland, Belgium. The name Dunkleosteus combines the Greek osteus, meaning bone, and Dunkle, due to its heavily armoured exterior, Dunkleosteus was probably a relatively slow but powerful swimmer. It is thought to have dwelt in diverse zones of inshore waters, fossilization tends to have preserved only the especially armoured frontal sections of specimens, thus it is uncertain what exactly the hind sections of this ancient fish were like. Therefore, the reconstructions of the hindquarters are often based on smaller arthrodires, such as Coccosteus, the most famous specimens of Dunkleosteus are displayed at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. Others are displayed at the American Museum of Natural History and in the Queensland Museum in Brisbane, instead of teeth, Dunkleosteus possessed two pairs of sharp bony plates which formed a beak-like structure. Dunkleosteus, together with most other placoderms, may have also been among the first vertebrates to internalize egg fertilization, frequently, fossils of Dunkleosteus are found with boluses of fish bones, semidigested and partially eaten remains of other fish. As a result, the record indicates it may have routinely regurgitated prey bones rather than digest them. Morphological studies on the jaws of juveniles of D. This pattern is in direct contrast to the common in tetrapods in which the jaws of juveniles are more gracile than in adults. At least 10 different species of Dunkleosteus have been described so far, the type species, D. terrelli, is the largest, best-known species of the genus. D. terrellis fossil remains are found in Upper Frasnian to Upper Famennian Late Devonian strata of the United States, D. belgicus is known from fragments described from the Famennian of Belgium. The median dorsal plate is characteristic of the genus, but, D. denisoni is known from a small median dorsal plate, typical in appearance for Dunkleosteus, but much smaller than normal
Dunkleosteus
Dunkleosteus
–
Life restoration of D. terrelli
Dunkleosteus
–
A skull diagram of Dunkleosteus
Dunkleosteus
–
D. marsaisi fossil
27.
Monkey
–
Monkeys are haplorhine primates, a group generally possessing tails and consisting of about 260 known living species. There are two lineages of monkeys, New World Monkeys and catarrhines. Apes emerged within the catarrhines with the Old World monkeys as a sister group, however, traditionally apes are not considered monkeys, rendering this grouping paraphyletic. The equivalent monophyletic clade are the simians, many monkey species are tree-dwelling, although there are species that live primarily on the ground, such as baboons. Most species are active during the day. Monkeys are generally considered to be intelligent, particularly Old World monkeys, lemurs, lorises, and galagos are not monkeys, instead they are strepsirrhine primates. Like monkeys, tarsiers are haplorhine primates, however, they are not monkeys. There are two types of monkey, New World monkeys from South and Central America and Old World monkeys from Africa. Hominoid apes, which all lack tails, are also catarrhines but are not considered monkeys, Simians and tarsiers emerged within haplorrhines some 60 million years ago. New World monkeys and catarrhine monkeys emerged within the simians some 35 millions years ago, Old World monkeys and Hominoidea emerged within the catarrhine monkeys some 25 millions years ago. Extinct basal simians such as Aegyptopithecus or Parapithecus are also considered monkeys by primatologists, according to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word monkey may originate in a German version of the Reynard the Fox fable, published circa 1580. In this version of the fable, a character named Moneke is the son of Martin the Ape, colloquially, the terms monkey and ape are widely used interchangeably. Also, a few species have the word ape in their common name. Monkeys thus constituted a grade on the path to humans and were distinguished from apes, scientific classifications are now more often based on monophyletic groups, that is groups consisting of all the descendants of a common ancestor. The New World monkeys and the Old World monkeys are each monophyletic groups, thus the term monkey no longer refers to a recognized scientific taxon. The smallest accepted taxon which contains all the monkeys is the infraorder Simiiformes, however this also contains the hominoids, so that monkeys are, in terms of currently recognized taxa, non-hominoid simians. Colloquially and pop-culturally, the term is ambiguous and sometimes monkey includes non-human hominoids, in addition, frequent arguments are made for a monophyletic usage of the word monkey from the perspective that usage should reflect cladistics. A group of monkeys may be referred to as a tribe or a troop
Monkey
–
Macaque monkey
Bonnet macaque
Monkey
–
Monkeys often
groom socially.
Monkey
–
Goeldi's marmoset (Callimico goeldii)
Monkey
–
Common squirrel monkey
28.
Hamann-Todd Collection
–
The museum was established in 1920 by Cyrus S. Eaton to perform research, education and development of collections in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, astronomy, botany, geology, paleontology, wildlife biology, donald Johanson was the curator of the museum when he discovered Lucy, the skeletal remains of the ancient hominid Australopithecus afarensis. The current Curator and Head of the Physical Anthropology Department is Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Museum collections total more than four million specimens and include specimens of paleontology, zoology, archaeology, mineralogy, ornithology, and a variety of other scientific subjects. A beloved full-scale model of a Stegosaurus on the lawn delights Cleveland children, some of the more important specimens include, An extensive collection of Late Devonian fossil fish from the Cleveland Shale, including several mounted skulls of the arthrodire placoderm Dunkleosteus. Nine hundred monkey and ape skeletons, and more than 3,100 human skeletons, the only specimen of the small tyrannosaur Nanotyrannus lancensis. The holotype of the Haplocanthosaurus sauropod, the most complete mount of a Coelophysis bauri. Mounted taxidermy remains of Balto the sled dog, an extensive mineralogy collection that includes a moon rock and the Jeptha Wade gem collection. Replica skeletons of Triceratops and Jane, a juvenile tyrannosaurid, a cast of an Australopithecus afarensis skeleton, an early hominid affectionately dubbed Lucy. A new T-rex skeleton that is now on display, the Museums Allosaurus has been remounted and is on display. A collection of 30,000 plant fossils acquired from the University of Cincinnati by former curator of paleobotany, a Foucault Pendulum underneath in which the Bicentennial Education Time Capsule was buried in 1996 and will be opened in 2046 The museum has made many discoveries over the years. Recently, in Vertebrate Paleontology, both the remains of a Titanicthis in Ohio and a new ceratopsian, Albertaceratops nesmoi, have been made, both are expected to go on display eventually. The Hamann-Todd Collection is a collection of more than 3100 human skeletons, the collection was originally housed at Western Reserve University Medical School in a new medical building that was built for that purpose. The first floor of this contained the Hamann Museum of Comparative Anthropology. However, due to the costs of storing the bones, the collection was transferred to the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, in 1893, Carl August Hamann initiated the collection. Its administration was taken over by T. Wingate Todd after Hamann was named dean of Case Westerns medical school in 1912, Todd managed to assemble the great majority of the human skeletons in the collection, over 3000, before his death in 1938. The Ralph Perkins II Wildlife Center and Woods Garden presented by Key Bank, which includes live animals and plants native to Ohio, opened on September 3,2016
Hamann-Todd Collection
–
Cleveland Museum of Natural History
Hamann-Todd Collection
–
The museum's cast of
Lucy
29.
Tyrannosauridae
–
Tyrannosauridae is a family of coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs which comprises two subfamilies containing up to eleven genera, including the eponymous Tyrannosaurus. The exact number of genera is controversial, with some experts recognizing as few as three, all of these animals lived near the end of the Cretaceous Period and their fossils have been found only in North America and Asia. Although descended from ancestors, tyrannosaurids were almost always the largest predators in their respective ecosystems. The largest species was Tyrannosaurus rex, one of the largest known land predators, tyrannosaurids were bipedal carnivores with massive skulls filled with large teeth. Despite their large size, their legs were long and proportioned for fast movement, in contrast, their arms were very small, bearing only two functional digits. Unlike most other groups of dinosaurs, very complete remains have been discovered for most known tyrannosaurids and this has allowed a variety of research into their biology. Scientific studies have focused on their ontogeny, biomechanics and ecology, soft tissue, both fossilized and intact, has been reported from one specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex. The tyrannosaurids were all large animals, with all capable of weighing at least 1 metric ton. A single specimen of Alioramus of an estimated at between 5 and 6 metres long has been discovered, although it is considered by some experts to be a juvenile. Albertosaurus, Gorgosaurus and Daspletosaurus all measured between 8 and 10 metres long, while Tarbosaurus reached lengths of 12 metres from snout to tail, the massive Tyrannosaurus reached 12.3 metres in the largest specimen, FMNH PR2081. Tyrannosaurid skull anatomy is well understood as complete skulls are known for all genera but Alioramus, Tyrannosaurus, Tarbosaurus, and Daspletosaurus had skulls which exceeded 1 metre in length, The largest discovered Tyrannosaurus skull measures up to 1.45 metres long. Adult tyrannosaurids had tall, massive skulls, with many bones fused and reinforced for strength, at the same time, hollow chambers within many skull bones and large openings between those bones helped to reduce skull weight. Many features of tyrannosaurid skulls were found in their immediate ancestors, including tall premaxillae. Behind these fenestrae, tyrannosaurids had a characteristically tall nuchal crest, the nuchal crest was especially well-developed in Tyrannosaurus, Tarbosaurus and Alioramus. The skull was perched at the end of a thick, S-shaped neck, tyrannosaurids are known for their proportionately very small two-fingered forelimbs, although remnants of a vestigial third digit are sometimes found. Tarbosaurus had the shortest forelimbs compared to its size, while Daspletosaurus had the longest. Tyrannosaurids walked exclusively on their hindlimbs, so their leg bones were massive, in contrast to the forelimbs, the hindlimbs were longer compared to body size than almost any other theropods. Juveniles and even some adults, like more basal tyrannosauroids, had longer tibiae than femora
Tyrannosauridae
Tyrannosauridae
–
Tyrannosaurid (T. rex) and
allosauroid (
Allosaurus fragilis) skulls. Note the forward facing eye sockets of the former.
Tyrannosauridae
–
Mounted cast of a Gorgosaurus skeleton at the
Royal Tyrrell Museum
Tyrannosauridae
–
Deinodon teeth, the earliest known tyrannosaurid remains
30.
Nanotyrannus lancensis
–
Nanotyrannus is a potentially dubious genus of tyrannosaurid dinosaur. It is known only from two specimens, which are potentially juvenile specimens of the contemporary genus Tyrannosaurus rex and their initial research indicated that the skull bones were fused, and that it therefore represented an adult specimen. In light of this, Bakker and colleagues assigned the skull to a new genus, the specimen is estimated to have been around 5.2 metres long when it died. In 2001, a more complete juvenile tyrannosaur, belonging to the species as the original Nanotyrannus specimen, was uncovered. This discovery prompted a conference on tyrannosaurs focused on the issues of Nanotyrannus validity, on the other hand, some, such as Peter Larson, continued to support the hypothesis that Nanotyrannus lancensis was a separate but closely related species. Also in 2015, Assistant Professor Holly Woodward Ballard of Oklahoma State University used histology to examine a thin slice of Janes femur, counting the rings within Janes bone material showed that Jane was 11 years old, and bone histology suggests that Jane was immature and still growing. The actual scientific study of Jane may determine whether Nanotyrannus lancensis is a species or if it represents a juvenile T. rex. In late 2011, news reports about a 2006 discovery of a new, the specimens were studied by Robert Bakker and Pete Larson on-site, who identified the ceratopsian as Triceratops and the tyrannosaurid as Nanotyrannus. The specimen, nicknamed Bloody Mary, allegedly has arms almost 3 feet in length, with the bones of the said to be one. The primary difference that some scientists have used to argue for Nanotyrannus lancensiss validity concerns the number of teeth, the exact implications of this difference in tooth count have not been universally accepted, however. Lancensis is simply a juvenile T. rex, another difference cited by those who support the validity of N. lancensis is the presence of a small foramen, or pit, in the quadratojugal, a bone in the back corner of the skull. Both the holotype and the Jane specimen have this feature, suggesting it is not a deformity, and it is not known in any adult tyrannosaurid specimens. It is possible that this is again an individual variant, or that it was a feature lost as the animals grew, however, most of the differences claimed to support Nanotyrannus turned out to be individually or ontogenetically variable features. The foramen at the quadratojugal is also problematic for the validity of Nanotyrannus and this could be accounted for by changes in the skull shape as T. rex grows. Limb proportion analysis published in 2016 suggested that Nanotyrannus specimens have differing levels of cursoriality, however, paleontologist Manabu Sakomoto has commented that this conclusion is likely impacted by low sample size, and the discrepancy does not necessarily reflect taxonomic distinction. Timeline of tyrannosaur research TEDx talk by Jack Horner on shape-shifting dinosaur skulls, Jane juvenile tyrannosaur on Cleveland Museum of Natural History
Nanotyrannus lancensis
Nanotyrannus lancensis
–
"Jane" specimen in the
Burpee Museum
Nanotyrannus lancensis
–
Replica of the skull of "Jane",
Burpee Museum of Natural History. The specimen shows the small foramen in the quadratojugal
Nanotyrannus lancensis
–
Restoration
31.
Holotype
–
A holotype is a single physical example of an organism, known to have been used when the species was formally described. It is either the single such physical example or one of several such, under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a holotype is one of several kinds of name-bearing types. In the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants and ICZN the definitions of types are similar in intent but not identical in terminology or underlying concept. For example, the holotype for the butterfly Lycaeides idas longinus is a specimen of that species. An isotype is a duplicate of the holotype and is made for plants. A holotype is not necessarily typical of that taxon, although ideally it should be, sometimes just a fragment of an organism is the holotype, particularly in the case of a fossil. For example, the holotype of Pelorosaurus humerocristatus, a herbivorous dinosaur from the early Jurassic period, is a fossil leg bone stored at the Natural History Museum in London. Even if a specimen is subsequently found, the holotype is not superseded. Under the ICN, an additional and clarifying type could be designated, an epitype under Article 9.8, a conserved type is sometimes used to correct a problem with a name which has been misapplied, this specimen replaces the original holotype. In the absence of a holotype, another type may be selected, out of a range of different kinds of type, depending on the case, a lectotype or a neotype. For example, in both the ICN and the ICZN a neotype is a type that was appointed in the absence of the original holotype. This made the name Parasuchus hislopi a nomen dubium, texan paleontologist Sankar Chatterjee proposed that a new type specimen, a complete skeleton, be designated. The International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature considered the case and agreed to replace the type specimen with the proposed neotype. Type Allotype Paratype Type species Genetypes- genetic sequence data from type specimens, BOA Photographs of type specimens of Neotropical Rhopalocera
Holotype
–
A holotype with red type label affixed
Holotype
–
Holotype of
Marocaster coronatus -
MHNT
Holotype
–
Modern holotype label
32.
Haplocanthosaurus
–
Haplocanthosaurus is a genus of sauropod dinosaur. Two species, H. delfsi and H. priscus, are known from incomplete fossil skeletons and it lived during the late Jurassic period,155 to 152 million years ago. The type species is H. priscus, and the referred species H. delfsi was discovered by a college student named Edwin Delfs in Colorado. Haplocanthosaurus specimens have been found in the very lowest layer of the Morrison Formation, along with Hesperosaurus, Brontosaurus yahnahpin, Haplocanthosaurus was one of the smallest sauropods of the Morrison. While some Morrison sauropods could reach lengths of over 20 meters, Haplocanthosaurus was smaller, reaching a length of 14.8 meters. There are four specimens of Haplocanthosaurus, one of H. delfsi. Of these, the type of H. delfsi is the one complete enough to mount. The mounted specimen of H. delfsi now stands in the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, albeit with a completely speculative replica skull, present in stratigraphic zones 1,2, and 4. If the specimen of Morosaurus agilis is included, Haplocanthosaurus is also known from fragments of a skull, recently described specimens from a different region of the Morrison Formation were assigned to Haplocanthosaurus in 2014. The study describing them noted that Haplocanthosaurus is known for certain from at least four specimens, assigned to H. priscus, H. utterbacki, H. delfsi, up to seven additional specimens have been assigned to Haplocanthosaurus. Haplocanthosaurus is known from many elements, mostly of vertebra, in the last few caudals and the most cranial dorsals, the lateral edge of the prezygapophyseal lamina becomes widened and roughened. Hatcher interpreted this as forming the attachment area for the muscles from which the blade was suspended. The dorsoventrally elongate oval outlines are characteristic of Haplocanthosaurus with only Camarasaurus also possessing them, the parapophyses remaining as oval facets on the craniolateral margin, and the sacral spines 1-3 fused are also found in both Haplocanthosaurus and Camarasaurus. Also, the area around the periphery of each face is flattened, creating a ‘bevelled’ appearance. Haplocanthosaurus is distinguished by dorsal vertebra lacking cranial centrodiapophyseal laminae, Haplocanthosaurus priscus was originally named Haplocanthus priscus by John Bell Hatcher in 1903. Soon after his description, Hatcher came to believe the name Haplocanthus had already been used for a genus of acanthodian fish. Hatcher re-classified his sauropod later in 1903, giving it the new name Haplocanthosaurus, however, the name was not technically preoccupied at all, since there was a variation in spelling, the fish was named Haplacanthus, not Haplocanthus. While Haplocanthus technically remained the name for this dinosaur, Hatchers mistake was not noticed until many years after the name Haplocanthosaurus had become fixed in scientific literature
Haplocanthosaurus
Haplocanthosaurus
–
Restoration of H. delfsi
Haplocanthosaurus
–
H. priscus
sacrum
Haplocanthosaurus
–
Quarry map showing holotype of H. priscus
33.
Sauropoda
–
Sauropoda, or the sauropods, are an infraorder of saurischian dinosaurs. They had very long necks, long tails, small heads and they are notable for the enormous sizes attained by some species, and the group includes the largest animals to have ever lived on land. Well-known genera include Brachiosaurus, Diplodocus, Apatosaurus and Brontosaurus, sauropods first appeared in the late Triassic Period, where they somewhat resembled the closely related group Prosauropoda. By the Late Jurassic, sauropods had become widespread, by the Late Cretaceous, those groups had mainly been replaced by the titanosaurs, which had a near-global distribution. However, as all other non-avian dinosaurs alive at the time. Fossilised remains of sauropods have been found on every continent, including Antarctica, the name Sauropoda was coined by O. C. Marsh in 1878, and is derived from Greek, meaning lizard foot, sauropods are one of the most recognizable groups of dinosaurs, and have become a fixture in popular culture due to their large sizes. Complete sauropod fossil finds are rare, many species, especially the largest, are known only from isolated and disarticulated bones. Many near-complete specimens lack heads, tail tips and limbs, sauropods were herbivorous, usually quite long-necked quadrupeds, often with spatulate teeth. They had tiny heads, massive bodies, and most had long tails and their hind legs were thick, straight, and powerful, ending in club-like feet with five toes, though only the inner three bore claws. Their forelimbs were more slender and ended in pillar-like hands built for supporting weight. Many illustrations of sauropods in the flesh miss these facts, inaccurately depicting sauropods with hooves capping the claw-less digits of the feet, the proximal caudal vertebrae are extremely diagnostic for sauropods. The sauropods most defining characteristic was their size, even the dwarf sauropods were counted among the largest animals in their ecosystem. Their only real competitors in terms of size are the rorquals, but, unlike whales, sauropods were primarily land-based animals. Their body structure did not vary as much as other dinosaurs, perhaps due to size constraints, but they displayed ample variety. Some, like the diplodocids, possessed tremendously long tails, which they may have been able to crack like a whip as a signal or to deter or injure predators, or to make sonic booms. Supersaurus, at 33 to 34 metres long, was the longest sauropod known from reasonably complete remains, the holotype vertebra of Amphicoelias fragillimus may have come from an animal 58 metres long, its vertebral column would have been substantially longer than that of the blue whale. However, a research published in 2015 speculated that the estimates of A. fragillimus may have been highly exaggerated
Sauropoda
Sauropoda
–
Reconstruction of
Ampelosaurus
Sauropoda
–
Some sauropods, such as
Alamosaurus sanjuanensis, formed herds segregated by age.
Sauropoda
–
Cast of Toni, a juvenile diplodocid
34.
Coelophysis
–
It was a small, slenderly-built, ground-dwelling, bipedal carnivore, that could grow up to 3 m long. Coelophysis is one of the earliest known dinosaur genera, scattered material representing similar animals has been found worldwide in some Late Triassic and Early Jurassic formations. The type species C. bauri, originally given to the genus Coelurus by Edward Drinker Cope in 1887, was described by the latter in 1889, the names Longosaurus and Rioarribasaurus are synonymous with Coelophysis. Another dinosaur genus, Megapnosaurus, has also considered to be a synonym. This primitive theropod is notable for being one of the most specimen-rich dinosaur genera, Paul estimated the weight of the gracile form at 15 kg, and the weight of the robust form at 20 kg. Coelophysis was a bipedal, carnivorous, theropod dinosaur that was a fast, despite being an early dinosaur, the evolution of the theropod body form had already advanced greatly from creatures like Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor. Coelophysis also preserves the ancestral condition of possessing four digits on the hand and it had only three functional digits, the fourth embedded in the flesh of the hand. Coelophysis had narrow hips, forelimbs adapted for grasping, and narrow feet and its neck and tail were long and slender. The pelvis and hindlimbs of C. bauri are also variations on the theropod body plan. It has the open acetabulum and straight ankle hinge that define the Dinosauria, the hindlimb ended in a three-toed foot, with a raised hallux. The tail had a structure within its interlocking prezygapophysis of its vertebrae. Coelophysis had a narrow head, with large, forward-facing eyes that afforded it stereoscopic vision. The study found that the vision of Coelophysis was superior to most lizards vision, the eyes of Coelophysis appear to be the closest to those of eagles and hawks, with a high power of accommodation. The data also suggested poor night vision, which would mean this dinosaur had a rather than a split pupil. Coelophysis had a snout with large fenestrae which helped to reduce skull weight. The neck had a pronounced sigmoid curve, the braincase is known in Coelophysis bauri but little data could be derived because the skull was crushed. Unlike some other theropods, the ornamentation of Coelophysis was not located at the top of its skull. Low, laterally raised bony ridges were present on the margin of the nasal and lacrimal bones in the skull
Coelophysis
Coelophysis
–
Size of C. bauri compared to a human
Coelophysis
–
C. bauri profile
Coelophysis
–
Two Ghost Ranch specimens preserved together, AMNH
35.
Balto
–
Balto was named after the Sami explorer Samuel Balto. Balto died of old age at age 14, in January 1925 doctors realized that a potentially deadly diphtheria epidemic was poised to sweep through Nomes young people. The only serum that could stop the outbreak was in Seattle, the engine of the only aircraft that could quickly deliver the medicine was frozen and would not start. After considering all of the alternatives, officials decided to move the medicine via multiple dog sled teams, the serum was transported by train from Seattle to Nenana, where the first musher embarked as part of a relay aimed at delivering the needed serum to Nome. More than 20 mushers took part, facing a blizzard with −23 °F temperatures, katie Pryor interviewed each musher after he had finished. News coverage of the event was worldwide, on February 2,1925, the Norwegian Gunnar Kaasen drove his team, led by Balto, into Nome. The longest and most hazardous stretch of the run was covered by another Norwegian, Leonhard Seppala. They came from Nome towards the end of the run and picked up the serum from musher Henry Ivanoff, the serum was later passed to Kaasen. Balto proved himself on the Iditarod trail, saving his team in the Topkok River, Balto was also able to stay on the trail in near whiteout conditions, Kaasen stated he could barely see his hand in front of his face. Baltos team did their leg of the run almost entirely in the dark, the final team and its sledder were asleep when Balto and Kaasen made it to the final stop, so Kaasen decided to continue on. At Nome, everybody wanted to thank Kaasen at first, Togo was the star dog for Leonhard Seppala even before the great 1925 Serum Run. Instead of celebrating the triumph together as one team, many became jealous of the publicity Balto received, especially from President Calvin Coolidge. Seppala favored Togo, but the public loved the story behind Balto. Balto was not welcomed at the ceremony in New York in which Seppala, after the missions success, Balto and Kaasen became celebrities. A statue of Balto, sculpted by Frederick Roth, was erected in New York Citys Central Park on December 17,1925, Balto himself was present for the monuments unveiling. The statue is located on the path leading north from the Tisch Childrens Zoo. When Kaasen wished to return home to Alaska, his dogs were sold to the highest bidder by the company who sponsored his tour, the dogs ended up chained in a small area in a novelty museum and freak show in Los Angeles. While visiting Los Angeles, George Kimble, a prize fighter turned businessman from Cleveland, was shocked to discover the dogs were unhealthy
Balto
–
Balto with
Gunnar Kaasen
Balto
–
Statue of Balto in
Central Park (
New York City)
Balto
–
Balto at the
Cleveland Museum of Natural History.
36.
Sled dog
–
Sled dogs were important for transportation in arctic areas, hauling supplies in areas that were inaccessible by other methods. They were used with varying success in the explorations of both poles, as well as during the Alaskan gold rush, Sled dog teams delivered mail to rural communities in Alaska and northern Canada. Sled dogs today are used by some rural communities, especially in areas of Alaska and Canada. They are used for recreational purposes, and are raced in events known as dog sled races such as the Iditarod, Sled dogs probably evolved in Mongolia between 35,000 and 30,000 years ago. Scientists believe that humans migrated north of the Arctic Circle with their dogs, and using them to pull sleds 3,000 years ago, Sled dogs have been used in Canada, Lapland, Greenland, Siberia, Chukotka, Norway, Finland, and Alaska. Historical references of the dogs and dog harnesses that were used by Native American cultures date back to before European contact, the use of dogs as draft animals was widespread in North America. There were two kinds of sled dogs, one kind is kept by coastal cultures, and the other kind is kept by interior cultures such as the Athabascan Indians. These interior dogs formed the basis of the Alaskan Husky, Russian traders following the Yukon River inland in the mid-1800s acquired sled dogs from the interior villages along the river. The dogs of this area were reputed to be stronger and better at hauling heavy loads than the native Russian sled dogs, the Alaskan Gold Rush brought renewed interest in the use of sled dogs as transportation. Most gold camps were only by dogsled in the winter. This, along with the use in the exploration of the poles, led to the late 1800s. Sled dogs were used to deliver the mail in Alaska during the late 1800s, Malamutes were the favored breed, with teams averaging eight to ten dogs. Dogs were capable of delivering mail in conditions that would stop boats, trains, each team hauled between 230 and 320 kilograms of mail. The mail was stored in waterproofed bags to protect it from the snow, by 1901, dog trails had been established along the entirety of the Yukon River. Mail delivery by dog sled came to an end in 1963 when the last mail carrier to use a dog sled, Chester Noongwook of Savoonga and he was honored by the US Postal Service in a ceremony on St. Lawrence Island in the Bering Sea. Airplanes took over Alaskan mail delivery in the 1920s and 1930s, in 1924, Carl Ben Eielson flew the first Alaskan airmail delivery. Dogsleds were used to patrol western Alaska during World War II, highways and trucking in the 40s and 50s, and the snowmobile in the 50s and 60s, contributed to the decline of the working sled dog. Recreational mushing came into place to maintain the tradition of dog mushing, the desire for larger, stronger, load-pulling dogs changed to one for faster dogs with high endurance used in racing, which caused the dogs to become lighter than they were historically
Sled dog
–
A sled dog team
Sled dog
–
Driver View with Team on Wonder Lake
Sled dog
–
Sled dogs white huskies hiking in Inuvik, Canada.
Sled dog
–
Sled dog (Husky)
37.
Moon rock
–
Moon rock or lunar rock is rock that is found on the Earths moon, or lunar material collected during the course of human exploration of the Moon. During the six Apollo landing missions,2,415 samples weighing 380.96 kilograms were collected, three Luna spacecraft returned with 326 grams of samples. Since 1980, over 120 lunar meteorites representing about 60 different meteorite fall events have been collected on Earth, with a mass of over 48 kilograms. Rocks from the Moon have been measured by radiometric dating techniques and they range in age from about 3.16 billion years old for the basaltic samples derived from the lunar maria, up to about 4.44 billion years old for rocks derived from the highlands. Based on the age dating technique of crater counting, the youngest basaltic eruptions are believed to have occurred about 1.2 billion years ago, in contrast, the oldest ages of rocks from the Earth are between 3.8 and 4.28 billion years old. Almost all lunar rocks are depleted in volatiles and are lacking in hydrated minerals common in Earth rocks. In some regards, lunar rocks are related to Earths rocks in their isotopic composition of the element oxygen. The Apollo moon rocks were collected using a variety of tools, including hammers, rakes, scoops, tongs, most were photographed prior to collection to record the condition in which they were found. They were placed inside sample bags and then a Special Environmental Sample Container for return to the Earth to protect them from contamination, in contrast to the Earth, large portions of the lunar crust appear to be composed of rocks with high concentrations of the mineral anorthite. The mare basalts have relatively high iron values, furthermore, some of the mare basalts have very high levels of titanium. The main repository for the Apollo Moon rocks is the Lunar Sample Laboratory Facility at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, for safe keeping, there is also a smaller collection stored at White Sands Test Facility in Las Cruces, New Mexico. Most of the rocks are stored in nitrogen to keep free of moisture. They are only handled indirectly, using special tools, Moon rocks collected during the course of lunar exploration are currently considered priceless. In 2002, a safe, containing samples of lunar. The samples were recovered, in 2003, during the court case, naturally transported Moon rocks, although expensive, are widely sold and traded among private collectors. In 1970, US president Richard Nixon gave presentation samples of Moon rock brought back by Apollo 11 as gifts to 135 countries and 50 US states. Composed of many fragments, of sizes, and many shapes, probably from all parts of the Moon, perhaps billions of years old. This rock was later labeled sample 70017, president Nixon ordered the distribution of fragments of the rock to 135 foreign heads of state and the 50 U. S. states
Moon rock
–
Olivine basalt collected by
Apollo 15.
Moon rock
–
Genesis Rock returned by the Apollo 15 mission.
Moon rock
–
Honduras plaque
Moon rock
–
Processing facility in Lunar Sample Building at
JSC
38.
Jeptha Wade
–
Jeptha Homer Wade was an American industrialist, philanthropist, and one of the founding members of Western Union Telegraph. Wade was born in Romulus, New York, the youngest of nine children of Jeptha and he made the first Daguerreotypes west of New York, was a portrait painter, and moved to Adrian, Michigan in 1840 before developing an interest in the telegraph. In 1847, he was subcontractor for J. J, speed and constructed a telegraph line from Detroit to Jackson, Michigan, where Wade and his son operated the telegraph office. He also connected Detroit, Michigan to Buffalo, New York Cleveland to Cincinnati, Wade moved to Cleveland, Ohio in 1856 and built a mansion on Euclid Avenue along Millionaires Row. He and his family commissioned the Cleveland firm of Hubbell & Benes to design several residences, commercial. In 1856 he helped Hiram Sibley consolidate most of the industry by forming Western Union through a series of acquisitions. In 1861, Jeptha Wade joined forces with Benjamin Franklin Ficklin, the companys formation completed the linkage between the east and west coast of the United States by telegraph. Wade became president of Western Union in 1866, a year later he resigned because of ill-health and sold his interests to Jay Gould, and William Orton succeeded to the presidency of Western Union. He was nominated by the Democratic Party for Representative of Ohios 18th congressional district in 1864, Wade used his vast wealth to benefit the city of Cleveland. In 1882, he donated 63 acres of land east of the city for the purpose of creating Wade Park, which was named in his honor. Wade Park is Clevelands cultural center surrounded by the Cleveland Museum of Art, the Cleveland Museum of Natural History, the Western Reserve Historical Society, Wade also was heavily involved with the establishment of Hathaway Brown School, a private academy for young girls and women. He also co-founded the Case School of Applied Technology, which became part of Case Western Reserve University. In addition, Wade served as the first President of the Board of Trustees for Lake View Cemetery on Cleveland’s east side, Wade married Rebecca Louiza Facer in 1832, who bore his first son, Randall Palmer Wade, later that year. Rebecca Wade died November 30,1836 at the age of 24 and he remarried in 1837 to Susan Maranda Fleming, with whom they adopted 4 more children. All are buried in Lake View Cemetery, Cleveland, wades grandchildren included Jeptha Homer Wade II, son of Randall Palmer Wade and Anna Rebecca McGaw Wade. He established the familys Mill Pond Plantation in Thomasville, Georgia in 1906 and he bequeathed to the Cleveland Museum of Natural History a large gem collection that is now part of the Jeptha Homer Wade II Gallery of Gems and Jewels. He graduated from Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1946 and Harvard Law School in 1950 and he was an advocate for nuclear arms control, president of the Lawyers Alliance for Nuclear Arms Control. The large tract of old-growth forest will be conserved for research on the ecology of longleaf pine forests
Jeptha Wade
–
Jeptha Homer Wade
39.
Gemstone
–
A gemstone is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However, certain rocks or organic materials that are not minerals are used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their luster or other properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity is another characteristic that lends value to a gemstone, apart from jewelry, from earliest antiquity engraved gems and hardstone carvings, such as cups, were major luxury art forms. A gem maker is called a lapidary or gemcutter, a worker is a diamantaire. The carvings of Carl Fabergé are significant works in this tradition, the traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the ancient Greeks, begins with a distinction between precious and semi-precious, similar distinctions are made in other cultures. In modern usage the precious stones are diamond, ruby, sapphire, other stones are classified by their color, translucency and hardness. Another unscientific term for semi-precious gemstones used in art history and archaeology is hardstone, in modern times gemstones are identified by gemologists, who describe gems and their characteristics using technical terminology specific to the field of gemology. The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its chemical composition, for example, diamonds are made of carbon and rubies of aluminium oxide. Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic, another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in. For example, diamonds, which have a crystal system, are often found as octahedrons. Gemstones are classified into different groups, species, and varieties, for example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the Emerald, aquamarine, red beryl, goshenite, heliodor, and morganite, gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction and they may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum. Material or flaws within a stone may be present as inclusions, gemstones may also be classified in terms of their water. This is a grading of the gems luster, transparency. Very transparent gems are considered first water, while second or third water gems are those of a lesser transparency, there is no universally accepted grading system for gemstones. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America in the early 1950s, historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye
Gemstone
–
A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. The biggest pebble here is 40 mm long (1.6 inches).
Gemstone
–
Group of precious and semiprecious stones —both uncut and faceted— including (clockwise from top left)
diamond, uncut synthetic
sapphire,
ruby, uncut
emerald, and
amethyst crystal cluster.
Gemstone
–
Spanish emerald and gold pendant at
Victoria and Albert Museum
Gemstone
–
Enamelled gold, amethyst and pearl pendant, about 1880, Pasquale Novissimo (1844–1914), V&A Museum number M.36-1928
40.
University of Cincinnati
–
The University of Cincinnati is a comprehensive public research university in Cincinnati, in the U. S. state of Ohio, and a part of the University System of Ohio. In the 2010 survey by Times Higher Education, the university was ranked in the top 100 universities in North America, beginning with the 2011 edition of the U. S. This includes being the number 3 ranked university in the nation in the Up-and-Coming National Universities section of the 2014 edition, in 2014, U. S. News & World Report ranked UC in the top 200 of universities worldwide. The university garners roughly $400 million per annum in research funding, ranking 22nd among public universities in the United States. The school offers over 100 bachelors degrees, over 300 degree-granting programs, with an economic impact of over $3.5 billion per year, it is the largest single employer in Greater Cincinnati. In 1819, Cincinnati College and the Medical College of Ohio were founded in Cincinnati, local benefactor Dr. Daniel Drake founded and funded the Medical College of Ohio. William Lytle of the Lytle family donated the land, funded the Cincinnati College and Law College, the college survived only six years before financial difficulties forced it to close. In 1835, Daniel Drake reestablished the institution, which joined with the Cincinnati Law School. In 1858, Charles McMicken died of pneumonia and in his will he allocated most of his estate to the City of Cincinnati to found a university, the universitys board of rectors changed the institutions name to the University of Cincinnati. By 1893, the University expanded beyond its primary location on Clifton Avenue, as the university expanded, the rectors merged the institution with Cincinnati Law School, establishing the University of Cincinnati College of Law. In 1896, the Ohio Medical College joined Miami Medical College to form the Ohio-Miami Medical Department of the University of Cincinnati in 1909. As political movements for temperance and suffrage grew, the university established Teachers College in 1905, the Queen City College of Pharmacy, acquired from Wilmington College, became the present James L. Winkle College of Pharmacy. In 1962, the Cincinnati College-Conservatory of Music was acquired by the university, the Ohio legislature in Columbus declared the university a municipally-sponsored, state-affiliated institution in 1968. During this time, the University of Cincinnati was the second oldest and second-largest municipal university in the United States, by an act of the legislature, the University of Cincinnati became a state institution in 1977. In 1989, President Joseph A. Steger released a Master Plan for a stronger academy, over this time, the university invested nearly $2 billion in campus construction, renovation, and expansion ranging from the student union to a new recreation center to the medical school. It included renovation and construction of buildings, a campus forest. Upon her inauguration in 2005, President Nancy L. Zimpher developed the UC|21 plan, in addition, it includes putting liberal arts education at the center, increasing research funding, and expanding involvement in the city. In 2009, Gregory H. Williams was named the 27th president of the University of Cincinnati and his presidency expanded the accreditation and property of the institution to regions throughout Ohio to compete with private and specialized state institutions, such as Ohio State University
University of Cincinnati
–
Second home of the University of Cincinnati, 1874
University of Cincinnati
–
University of Cincinnati
University of Cincinnati
–
University of Cincinnati, Ohio, ca. 1904
University of Cincinnati
–
MainStreet looking past the Steger Student Life Center towards the student union and McMicken Hall
41.
Paleobotany
–
Paleobotany includes the study of terrestrial plant fossils, as well as the study of prehistoric marine photoautotrophs, such as photosynthetic algae, seaweeds or kelp. A closely related field is palynology, which is the study of fossilized and extant spores, Paleobotany has also become important to the field of archaeology, primarily for the use of phytoliths in relative dating and in paleoethnobotany. Macroscopic remains of vascular plants are first found in the fossil record during the Silurian Period of the Paleozoic era. An important early land plant fossil locality is the Rhynie Chert, the Rhynie chert is an Early Devonian sinter deposit composed primarily of silica. It is exceptional due to its preservation of different clades of plants, from mosses and lycopods to more unusual. Many fossil animals, including arthropods and arachnids, are found in the Rhynie Chert. Plant-derived macrofossils become abundant in the Late Devonian and include tree trunks, fronds, angiosperms evolved during the Mesozoic, and flowering plant pollen and leaves first appear during the Early Cretaceous, approximately 130 million years ago. A plant fossil is any preserved part of a plant that has long since died, such fossils may be prehistoric impressions that are many millions of years old, or bits of charcoal that are only a few hundred years old. Prehistoric plants are various groups of plants that lived before recorded history, plant fossils can be preserved in a variety of ways, each of which can give different types of information about the original parent plant. These modes of preservation are discussed in the pages on fossils. These are the most commonly found type of plant fossil and they provide good morphological detail, especially of dorsiventral plant parts such as leaves. If the cuticle is preserved, they can also yield fine anatomical detail of the epidermis, little other detail of cellular anatomy is normally preserved. These provide fine detail of the anatomy of the plant tissue. Morphological detail can also be determined by serial sectioning, but this is time consuming and difficult. These only tend to preserve the more robust plant parts such as seeds or woody stems and they can provide information about the three-dimensional form of the plant, and in the case of casts of tree stumps can provide evidence of the density of the original vegetation. However, they rarely preserve any fine morphological detail or cell anatomy, a subset of such fossils are pith casts, where the centre of a stem is either hollow or has delicate pith. After death, sediment enters and forms a cast of the cavity of the stem. The best known examples of pith casts are in the Carboniferous Sphenophyta and these can provide very fine, three-dimensional morphological detail, and have proved especially important in the study of reproductive structures that can be severely distorted in adpressions
Paleobotany
–
A leaf fossil of the
European beech (Fagus sylvatica) from the
late Pliocene of France, approximately 3 million years ago
Paleobotany
–
An unpolished hand sample of the Lower Devonian Rhynie Chert from Scotland
Paleobotany
–
Ginkgoites huttonii, Middle Jurassic, Yorkshire, UK. Leaves preserved as compressions. Specimen in Munich Palaeontological Museum, Germany.
42.
Foucault Pendulum
–
The Foucault pendulum, or Foucaults pendulum, named after the French physicist Léon Foucault, is a simple device conceived as an experiment to demonstrate the rotation of the Earth. While it had long known that the Earth rotates, the introduction of the Foucault pendulum in 1851 was the first simple proof of the rotation in an easy-to-see experiment. Today, Foucault pendulums are popular displays in museums and universities. The first public exhibition of a Foucault pendulum took place in February 1851 in the Meridian of the Paris Observatory. A few weeks later, Foucault made his most famous pendulum when he suspended a 28-kg brass-coated lead bob with a 67-m-long wire from the dome of the Panthéon, Paris. The plane of the pendulums swing rotated clockwise approximately 11. 3° per hour, the original bob used in 1851 at the Panthéon was moved in 1855 to the Conservatoire des Arts et Métiers in Paris. A second temporary installation was made for the 50th anniversary in 1902, during museum reconstruction in the 1990s, the original pendulum was temporarily displayed at the Panthéon, but was later returned to the Musée des Arts et Métiers before it reopened in 2000. On April 6,2010, the cable suspending the bob in the Musée des Arts et Métiers snapped, causing damage to the pendulum. An exact copy of the pendulum had been swinging permanently since 1995 under the dome of the Panthéon. The pendulum has since been reinstalled, so, relative to Earth, the plane of oscillation of a pendulum at the North Pole undergoes a full clockwise rotation during one day, a pendulum at the South Pole rotates counterclockwise. When a Foucault pendulum is suspended at the equator, the plane of oscillation remains fixed relative to Earth, for example, a Foucault pendulum at 30° south latitude, viewed from above by an earthbound observer, rotates counterclockwise 360° in two days. To demonstrate rotation directly rather than indirectly via the swinging pendulum, the instrument could be observed either with a microscope viewing a tenth of a degree scale or by a long pointer. At least three copies of a Foucault gyro were made in convenient travelling and demonstration boxes and copies survive in the UK, France. A Foucault pendulum requires care to set up because imprecise construction can cause additional veering which masks the terrestrial effect, a pendulum day is the time needed for the plane of a freely suspended Foucault pendulum to complete an apparent rotation about the local vertical. This is one day divided by the sine of the latitude. From the perspective of a frame moving in tandem with Earth, but not sharing its rotation. If the plane of swing was north-south at the outset, it is east-west one sidereal day later and this implies that there has been exchange of momentum, the Earth and the pendulum bob have exchanged momentum. The Earth is so much more massive than the pendulum bob that the Earths change of momentum is unnoticeable, nonetheless, since the pendulum bobs plane of swing has shifted, the conservation laws imply that an exchange must have occurred
Foucault Pendulum
–
Foucault's Pendulum in the
Panthéon, Paris
Foucault Pendulum
–
An excerpt from the illustrated supplement of the magazine "Le Petit Parisien" dated November 2, 1902, on the fiftieth anniversary of the experiment of Leon Foucault demonstrating the rotation of the earth.
Foucault Pendulum
–
Foucault's Pendulum at the
Ranchi Science Centre.
Foucault Pendulum
–
A Foucault pendulum installed at the
California Academy of Sciences. The Earth's rotation causes the trajectory of the pendulum to change over time, knocking down pins at different positions as time elapses and the Earth rotates
43.
Albertaceratops nesmoi
–
Albertaceratops was a genus of centrosaurine horned dinosaur from the middle Campanian-age Upper Cretaceous Oldman Formation of Alberta, Canada. Albertaceratops is unusual in combining long brow horns with an otherwise centrosaurine skull, over its nose was a bony ridge, and on its frill were two large outwardly-projecting hooks. Its size has been estimated at 5.8 metres and 3,500 kilograms, albertaceratops is known from a single complete skull found in August 2001 and skull and postcranial fragments. A phylogenetic analysis carried out by its describer, Michael J. Ryan, additional specimens were reported from a bonebed in the Judith River Formation of Montana, which is equivalent to the Oldman Formation and differentiated only by the Canada–US border. However, further study showed these remains to come from a chasmosaurine, both ceratopsids lived during the same time period, about 77.5 million years ago. The specific name, A. nesmoi, is derived from the name of Cecil Nesmo, a living in Manyberries, Alberta. The rancher was thus honored in recognition of his efforts to aid fossil hunters, a phylogenetic analysis carried out by its describer, Michael J. Ryan, found it to be the most basal centrosaurine. The following phylogenetic tree is from Ryan et al, timeline of ceratopsian research Drawing of the skull, by Julius T. Csotonyi An article about Cecil Nesmo from the Calgary Sun
Albertaceratops nesmoi
Albertaceratops nesmoi
–
Basal Pachycephalosaurs
Albertaceratops nesmoi
–
Ceratopsinae
44.
Western Reserve University
–
Case Western Reserve University is a private doctorate-granting university in Cleveland, Ohio. The university was created in 1967 by the federation of Case Institute of Technology, time magazine described the merger as the creation of Clevelands Big-Leaguer university. In U. S. News & World Reports 2015 rankings, in 2016, the inaugural edition of The Wall Street Journal/Times Higher Education ranked Case Western Reserve as 32nd among all universities and 29th among private institutions. The University is associated with 16 Nobel laureates and it is also a leading institution for research in electrochemistry and electrochemical engineering. Currently, the Editor for the Journal of the Electrochemical Society is a Case professor, Case Western Reserve is a member of the Association of American Universities. Severance Hall, home of the Cleveland Orchestra, is also on the Case Western Reserve University campus and this experiment proved the non-existence of the luminiferous ether and was later understood as convincing evidence in support of special relativity as proposed by Albert Einstein in 1905. Michelson became the first American to win a Nobel Prize in science, the commemorative Michelson-Morley Memorial Fountain as well as an Ohio Historical Marker are located on campus, near where the actual experiment was performed. Case Western Reserve University was created in 1967, when Western Reserve University and Case Institute of Technology, institutions that had been neighbors for 81 years, formally federated. Western Reserve College was founded in 1826 in Hudson, Ohio, the nearby city of Cleveland, located about 26 miles to its northwest, had only begun to grow. Western Reserve College, or Reserve as it was called, was the first college in northern Ohio. By 1875, a number of schools had been established nearby. In 1882, with funding from Amasa Stone, Western Reserve College moved to Cleveland, in 1877, Leonard Case Jr. began laying the groundwork for the Case School of Applied Science by secretly donating valuable pieces of Cleveland real estate to a trust. He asked his confidential advisor, Henry Gilbert Abbey, to administer the trust, the Case School of Applied Science was issued a charter by the state of Ohio in 1882, four months after Cases death. For the first four years of the existence, it was located in the Case familys home on Rockwell Street in downtown Cleveland. Classes were held in the house, while the chemistry. The school moved to University Circle in 1885, over time, the Case School of Applied Science grew to encompass a broader vision, adopting the name Case Institute of Technology in 1947 to reflect the institutions growing stature. The institutions already shared buildings and staff when necessary and worked together often, One such example was seen in 1887, when Case physicist Albert Michelson and Reserve chemist Edward Morley collaborated on the famous Michelson–Morley experiment. There had been discussion of a merger of the two institutions as early as 1890, but those talks dissolved quickly
Western Reserve University
–
Case alumnus
Herbert Henry Dow, founder of
Dow Chemical.
Western Reserve University
–
Case Western Reserve University
Western Reserve University
–
John J.R. Macleod, 1923 Nobel Prize winner for discovering
Insulin and Western Reserve University Professor of Physiology.
Western Reserve University
–
Haydn Hall on the campus of Case Western Reserve University (Flora Stone Mather Quadrangle) in Cleveland.
45.
The Plain Dealer
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The Plain Dealer is the major daily newspaper of Cleveland, Ohio, United States. It has the largest circulation of any Ohio newspaper and was a top 20 newspaper for Sunday circulation in the United States as of March 2013, as of December 2015, The Plain Dealer had more than 250,000 daily readers and 790,000 readers on Sunday. The Plain Dealers media market, the Cleveland-Akron DMA, is one of the Top 20 markets in the United States, with a population of 3.8 million people, it is the fourth-largest market in the Midwest, and Ohios largest media market. In April 2013 The Plain Dealer announced it would reduce home delivery to four days a week and this went into effect on August 5,2013. A daily version of The Plain Dealer is available electronically as well as in print at stores, newsracks and newsstands. The newspaper was established in 1842, less than 50 years after Moses Cleaveland landed on the banks of the Cuyahoga River in The Flats, the Plain Dealer Publishing Company is under the direction of Virginia Wang. The paper employs over 700 people, the newspaper was sold on March 1,1967, to S. I. Newhouses newspaper chain, and has been under the control of the Newhouse family ever since. W. On December 18,2005, The Plain Dealer ceased publication of its weekly Sunday Magazine and it also assured readers that the stories that would formerly have appeared in the Sunday Magazine would be integrated into other areas of the paper. On the morning of Wednesday, July 31,2013, nearly a third of the staff was eliminated through layoffs. Previously, in December 2012, under an agreement with the Newspaper Guild, the July round of layoffs led to accusations by the Guild that management had misled the union by cutting more employees than had been agreed upon. On August 5,2013, the Northeast Ohio Media Group launched, Northeast Ohio Media Group operates cleveland. com and Sun Newspapers and is responsible for all multimedia ad sales and marketing for The Plain Dealer, Sun News and cleveland. com. It also provides content to The Plain Dealer, cleveland. com, the Plain Dealer Publishing Company provides content and publishes in print seven days a week. The company also provides production, distribution, finance, information technology, accounting and other services for the Plain Dealer Publishing Co. 1953 Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning,2003 Editor & Publisher Editor of the Year Award 12-time Ohio News Photographers Association Award recipient.50 and the Sunday/Thanksgiving Day edition is $2.25 at newsstands/newsracks. The full subscription weekly price is $4.65 and these prices only apply to The Plain Dealers home delivery area, which are the Northeast Ohio counties of Cuyahoga, Lake, Geauga, Portage, Erie, Ottawa, Summit, Ashtabula, Medina and Lorain. The Plain Dealer is available all over the state at select newsstands, including in the capital, Columbus. The newspaper reported daily readership of 543,110 and Sunday readership of 858,376 as of October,2013. Effective August 5,2013, home delivery was reduced to four days a week, an edition on Wednesday, Friday, and Sunday
The Plain Dealer
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Front page of the Cleveland Plain Dealer dated August 7, 1945 featuring the
atomic bombing of Hiroshima,
Japan.
The Plain Dealer
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On October 8, 1922, The Plain Dealer, published an article written
Royal S. Copeland telling Clevelanders to "Eat Candy as a Part of Your Daily Meal and Enjoy the Best of Health."
46.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
