1.
North American English
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North American English is the most generalized variety of the English language as spoken in the United States and Canada. Canadian spellings are based on British usage as a result of Canadas longer-standing connections with the United Kingdom. Canadians are generally tolerant of both British and American spellings, with British spellings being favoured in formal settings and in Canadian print media. Spellings in American English have been influenced by lexicographers like Noah Webster. Some terms in North American English are used almost exclusively in Canada, similarly, the accents of Newfoundland have some similarities to the accents of Scotland and Ireland. Standard Canadian English Western American English North-Central American English Northern American English Midland American English Southern American English a, Canadian English,250 Years in the Making, in The Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2nd ed. p. xi. Organizing Our Marvellous Neighbours, How to Feel Good About Canadian English, labov, William, Ash, Sharon, Boberg, Charles, The Atlas of North American English, Berlin, Mouton-de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-016746-8
2.
Cabinetry
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A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted with door hardware, many cabinets have doors and drawers or only drawers. Short cabinets often have a surface on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface. A cabinet intended for clothing storage is usually called a wardrobe or an armoire, before the advent of industrial design, cabinet makers were responsible for the conception and the production of any piece of furniture. In the last half of the 18th century, cabinet makers, such as Thomas Sheraton, Thomas Chippendale, Shaver, cabinet Constructors, and George Hepplewhite, also published books of furniture forms. These books were compendiums of their designs and those of other cabinet makers, in parallel to this evolution there came a growing demand by the rising middle class in most industrialised countries for finely made furniture. This eventually resulted in a growth in the number of traditional cabinet makers. Before 1650, fine furniture was a rarity in Western Europe, generally, people did not need it and for the most part could not afford it. They made do with simple but serviceable pieces, the arts and craft movement which started in the United Kingdom in the middle of the 19th century spurred a market for traditional cabinet making, and other craft goods. It rapidly spread to the United States and to all the countries in the British Empire and this movement exemplified the reaction to the eclectic historicism of the Victorian era and to the soulless machine-made production which was starting to become widespread. After World War II woodworking became a hobby among the middle classes. The more serious and skilled amateurs in this field now turn out pieces of furniture which rival the work of professional cabinet makers and this style of design is typified by clean horizontal and vertical lines. Compared to other designs there is an absence of ornamentation. While Scandinavian design is easy to identify, it is more about the materials than the design. This style of design is very ornate, French Provincial objects are often stained or painted, leaving the wood concealed. Corners and bevels are often decorated with gold leaf or given some kind of gilding
3.
Chest of drawers
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A chest of drawers, also called a bureau, is a piece of furniture that has multiple parallel, horizontal drawers stacked one above another. In American English a dresser is a piece of furniture, usually waist high, in British English a dresser or a Welsh dresser has shelves in the upper section for storing or displaying tableware. Chests of drawers have traditionally made and used for storing clothing, especially underwear, socks. They are usually placed in a bedroom for this purpose, but can actually be used to store anything that will fit inside, various personal sundry items are also often stored in a chest of drawers. It has a history as one of the stand-bys of a carpenters workshop. A typical chest is approximately rectangular in shape and often has short legs at the bottom corners for placement on the floor. Chests of drawers often come in 5-, 6-, and 7-drawer varieties, the chest illustrated at right would be described as a 5 over 2 chest-on-chest, the latter term deriving from the fact that at one time it would have been made as 2 separable pieces. They are commonly made of wood, similar to other kinds of furniture. The inside of the drawers can be accessed by pulling out at the front side. It is often placed so that the side faces a wall since access to the back is not necessary. The lateral sides are usually made such that they can be placed against a wall or in a corner. Although they can be plain in appearance, chests of drawers can also be made with a fancy or ornamental appearance, including finishes, traditionally, drawers would slide out on smooth wood rails. Most modern cabinets use roll-out shelf sliders, made of metal, most chests of drawers fall into one of two types, those which are about waist-high or bench-high and those which are about shoulder-high. Both types typically have a surface on top. Waist-high chests often have a mirror placed vertically on top, which is bought with the piece. While a user is getting dressed or otherwise preparing their grooming, a chifforobe is a combination of a wardrobe and a chest of drawers. In late medieval Europe the chest came into use, especially in homes of the nobility. This type, also known as a coffer was more or less a simple joined wooden box with a hinged lid and it may or may not have stood on feet
4.
Cupboard
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A cupboard is a type of storage cabinet, often made of wood, used indoors to store household objects such as food, tableware, textiles and liquor, and protect them from dust and dirt. The term cupboard was used to describe an open-shelved side table for displaying plates, cups. These open cupboards typically had one and three display tiers, and at the time, a drawer or multiple drawers fitted to them. The word cupboard gradually came to mean a piece of furniture. The word cupboard is also used in British English to denote what North Americans would call a closet. An airing cupboard is a space, sometimes of walk-in dimensions. Shelves, usually slatted to allow for circulation of heat, are positioned above or around the heater to provide storage for clothing, typically linen, the purpose is to allow air to circulate around the stored fabrics to prevent damp forming. A shelf can also be used to remove traces of damp from dried clothing before it is put away in drawers. Other names include boiler cupboard, or hot press, a built-in cupboard is a storage space that forms part of the design of the room and is not free-standing or moveable. It is not the same as a cabinet, a linen cupboard is an enclosed recess of a room used for storing household linen, usually with shelves, or a free-standing piece of furniture for this purpose
5.
Wardrobe
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A wardrobe is a standing closet used for storing clothes. The name of wardrobe was given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with closets and lockers. From these cupboards and lockers the modern wardrobe, with its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers, throughout the chronological changes in the form of the enclosure, it more or less retained its preset function as a place to retain a king’s robe. The word has gained coinage over successive generations as an independent store for among others, preserving precious items for a ruler like gold and it is also a simple patio where clothes are hung from metal bars or tucked inside utility racks running from up to down. The word wardrobe appeared in the English language in the early 14th century and it originated from Old French words warderobe, wardereube and garderobe, in which warder meant to keep, to guard and robe meant garment. In the United States, the wardrobe in its form as an oak hanging cupboard dates back to the early 17th century. At that time it was an export product from America to England. Consequently, the item was sometimes referred to as an Oakley, during a large portion of the 18th century the tallboy was much used for storing clothes. A common feature was to base future size on the eight small men method, a considered good size double wardrobe would thus be able to hold within its capacity, eight small men. In the nineteenth century the wardrobe began to develop into its form, with a hanging cupboard at each side. Where Chippendale and his school had carved, Sheraton, Hepplewhite and their contemporaries achieved their effects by the employment of deftly contrasted. In the United Kingdom, a more affluent option is custom-fitted wardrobes, kas, kast or kasten is a massive cupboard or wardrobe of Dutch origin similar to an armoire that was popular in the Netherlands and America in the 17th & 18th century. It was fitted with shelves and drawers used to store linen, clothing and other valuables and they were status symbols and family heirlooms in the Low Countries and imported luxury goods to the American colonies. As such they were made of quality wood such as cherry, rosewood and ebony. Cabinetry Closet Encoignure This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. American kasten, the Dutch-style cupboards of New York and New Jersey, 1650–1800, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
6.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
7.
Elizabethan era
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The Elizabethan era is the epoch in English history marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Historians often depict it as the age in English history. In terms of the century, the historian John Guy argues that England was economically healthier, more expansive. This golden age represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music, the era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home and it was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland. The Elizabethan Age may be viewed especially highly when considered in light of the failings of the periods preceding Elizabeths reign, the Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end under the weight of Spanish domination of the peninsula, France was embroiled in its own religious battles due to significant Spanish intervention, that would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes. The one great rival was Spain, which England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 and this drained both the English Exchequer and economy that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths prudent guidance. English commercial and territorial expansion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of London the year following Elizabeths death, economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade, persistent theft of Spanish treasure, and the African slave trade. The Victorian era and the early 20th century idealised the Elizabethan era, the Encyclopædia Britannica maintains that he long reign of Elizabeth I, 1558–1603, was Englands Golden Age. Merry England, in love with life, expressed itself in music and literature, in architecture and this idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn, in response and reaction to this hyperbole, modern historians and biographers have tended to take a more dispassionate view of the Tudor period. Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense during the period, having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and this general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments that Golden Age advocates have stressed. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, high officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic. That would be a prelude to the recovery of England for Catholicism. In 1570, the Ridolfi plot was thwarted, in 1584, the Throckmorton Plot was discovered, after Francis Throckmorton confessed his involvement in a plot to overthrow the Queen and restore the Catholic Church in England
8.
Middle English
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This stage of the development of the English language roughly followed the High to the Late Middle Ages. Middle English developed out of Late Old English, seeing many dramatic changes in its grammar, pronunciation and this largely forms the basis for Modern English spelling, although pronunciation has changed considerably since that time. Middle English was succeeded in England by the era of Early Modern English, by that time, a variant of the Northumbrian dialect was developing into the Scots language. During the Middle English period many Old English grammatical features were simplified or disappeared, noun, adjective and verb inflections were simplified, a process that included the reduction of most grammatical case distinctions. Middle English also saw an adoption of Norman French vocabulary, especially in areas such as politics, law. Everyday English vocabulary remained mostly Germanic, with Old Norse influence becoming apparent, significant changes in pronunciation took place, especially for long vowels and diphthongs, which in the later Middle English period began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift. Little survives of early Middle English literature, most likely due to the Norman domination, poets wrote both in the vernacular and courtly English. It is popularly believed that William Shakespeare wrote in Middle English, the latter part of the 11th century was a period of transition from Late Old English to Early Middle English. The influence of Old Norse certainly helped move English from a synthetic language towards a more analytic or isolating word order and it was, after all, a salutary influence. The gain was greater than the loss, there was a gain in directness, in clarity, and in strength. The change to Old English from Old Norse was substantive, pervasive and it is most important to recognise that in many words the English and Scandinavian language differed chiefly in their inflectional elements. The body of the word was so nearly the same in the two languages only the endings would put obstacles in the way of mutual understanding. In the mixed population which existed in the Danelaw these endings must have led to confusion, tending gradually to become obscured. This blending of peoples and languages resulted in simplifying English grammar. There are also many Norman-derived terms relating to the cultures that arose in the 12th century. Sometimes, and particularly later, words were taken from Latin, giving such sets as kingly, later French borrowings came from standard rather than Norman French, this leads to such cognate pairs as warden, guardian. The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not, of course, change the language immediately, the general population would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English came to an end, Middle English had no standard language, Early Middle English has a largely Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, but a greatly simplified inflectional system
9.
Toilet (room)
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A toilet, in this sense, is a small room used for privately accessing the sanitation fixture for urination and defecation. Toilet rooms usually include a sink with soap for handwashing, as this is important for personal hygiene and this room is commonly known as a bathroom in American English, a loo in British English, and by many other names across the English-speaking world. Toilet originally referred to personal grooming and came by metonymy to be used for the rooms used for bathing, dressing. It was then used for the similarly private rooms used for urination and defecation. By metonymy, it came to refer directly to the fixtures in such rooms. At present, the word refers primarily to such fixtures and using toilet to refer to the room or activity is somewhat blunt and it is, however, a useful term since it is quickly understood by English-speakers across the world, whereas more polite terms vary by region. Lavatory was common in the 19th century and is broadly understood, although it is taken as quite formal in American English. The contraction lav is commonly used in British English, in American English, the most common term for a private toilet is bathroom, regardless of whether a bathtub or shower is present. Other terms are used, some as part of a regional dialect. Some forms of jargon have their own terms for toilets, including lavatory on commercial airplanes, head on ships, larger houses often have a secondary room with a toilet and sink for use by guests. These are typically known as powder rooms or half baths in North America, the main item in the room is the sanitation fixture itself, the toilet. This may be the sort, which is plumbed into a cistern operated by a ballcock. Or it may be a dry model, which does not need water, the toilet room may also include a plunger, a rubber or plastic tool mounted on a handle, which is used to removing blockages from the toilet drain. Toilets often have a mirror above the sink for grooming, checking ones appearance and/or makeup. Some toilets have a cupboard where cleaning supplies and personal hygiene products may be kept, methods of anal cleansing vary between cultures. If the norm is to use paper, then typically the room will have a toilet roll holder, if instead, people are used to cleaning themselves with water, then the room may include a bidet shower or a bidet. Toilets such as the Washlet, popular in Japan, provide an automatic washing function, the room may also include a plunger, a rubber or plastic tool mounted on a handle, which is used to removing blockages from the toilet drain. If it is a toilet, then the room usually also includes a toilet brush for cleaning the bowl
10.
Indian English
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Indian English is any of the forms of English characteristic of India. English is a lingua franca of India, though English is one of the two official languages of the Union Government of India, only a few hundred thousand Indians have English as their first language. Among women, the percentages were 83 percent speaking no English,17 percent speaking at least some English. The number of English-medium school students in India increased from over 15 million in 2008–09 to 29 million by 2013–14, in December 2015, the Supreme Court of India ruled that English is the only court language. India ranks 22 out of 72 countries in the 2016 EF English Proficiency Index published by the EF Education First, the index gives the country a score of 57.30 indicating moderate proficiency. India ranks 4th out of 19 Asian countries included in the index, among Asian countries, Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines received higher scores than India. Indian English generally uses the Indian numbering system, idiomatic forms derived from Indian literary languages and vernaculars have been absorbed into Indian English. Nevertheless, there remains general homogeneity in phonetics, vocabulary, English language public instruction began in India in the 1830s during the rule of the East India Company. In 1835, English replaced Persian as the language of the Company. Lord Macaulay played a role in introducing English and western concepts to education in India. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, primary-, middle-, and high-schools were opened in districts of British India. In 1857, just before the end of Company rule, universities modelled on the University of London and using English as the medium of instruction were established in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. During subsequent Crown Rule in India, or the British Raj, lasting from 1858 to 1947 and this was driven in part by the gradually increasing hiring of Indians in the civil services. At the time of Indias independence in 1947, English was the only lingua franca in the country. After Indian Independence in 1947, Hindi was declared the first official language, due to protests from Tamil Nadu and other non-Hindi-speaking states, it was decided to temporarily retain English for official purposes until at least 1965. By the end of period, however, opposition from non-Hindi states was still too strong to have Hindi declared the sole language. With this in mind, the English Language Amendment Bill declared English to be an associate language until such time as all non-Hindi States had agreed to its being dropped and this hasnt yet occurred, and it is still widely used
11.
Pail closet
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A pail closet or pail privy was a room used for the disposal of human excreta, under the pail system of waste removal. The closet was a small outhouse which contained a seat, underneath which a portable receptacle was placed and this bucket, into which the user would defecate, was removed and emptied by the local authority on a regular basis. The contents would either be incinerated or composted into fertiliser, the pail closet was an evolution of the midden closet, an impractical and unsanitary amenity considered a nuisance to public health. The pail system was popular in France and England, particularly in the historic Lancashire town of Rochdale, the pail closet was not without its own problems, if the pail was not emptied on a regular basis, it overflowed and became unhygienic. Some manufacturers lined the pail with absorbent materials, and other designs used mixtures of dry earth or ash to disguise the smell, improved water supplies and sewerage systems in England led directly to the replacement of the pail closet during the early 20th century. Municipal collection of pail toilets continued in Australia into the half of the twentieth century. In the western world, it has now been almost completely replaced by the flush toilet, pail closets were used to dispose of human excreta, dirty water, and general household waste such as kitchen refuse and sweepings. The pail closet system was one of methods of waste disposal in common use in the 19th century, others of which were the privy midden system, the pail system. By 1869, Manchester had a population of about 354,000 people who were served by about 10,000 water closets and 38,000 middensteads. An investigation of the condition of the sewer network revealed that it was choked up with an accumulation of solid filth. Such problems forced the city authorities to consider methods of dealing with human excretion. Manchester was one city and by 1877 its authorities had replaced about 40,000 middens with pail and midden closets. The soil surrounding the old middens was cleared out, connections with drains and sewers removed, the midden closet was a development of the privy, which had evolved from the primitive fosse ditch. Midden closets were used in the latter part of the 19th century but were rapidly falling out of favour. A Mr Redgrave, in a speech to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1876, the 1868 Rivers Pollution Commission reported two years later, privies and ashpits are continually to be seen full to overflowing and as filthy as can be. These middens are cleaned out whenever notice is given that they need it, probably once half-yearly on an average, midden closets were, therefore, generally insanitary and were also difficult to empty and clean. This closet was also designed with an opening through which deodorising material could be scattered over the top of the pit. A special ventilation shaft was also installed and it was widespread in Australia too
12.
Flush toilet
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Flush toilets can be designed for sitting or for squatting, in the case of squat toilets. The opposite of a toilet is a dry toilet, which uses no water for flushing. Flush toilets usually incorporate an S, U, J, or P shaped bend that causes the water in the bowl to collect and act as a seal against sewer gases. Since flush toilets are not designed to handle waste on site, their drain pipes must be connected to waste conveyance. When a toilet is flushed, the flows into a septic tank or sewage system. A flush toilet may be called a lavatory, water closet, loo, comfort room. A flush toilet is different from a urinal, which is designed to handle only liquid waste, or from a bidet, a typical flush toilet is a vitreous, ceramic bowl containing water, plus plumbing to rapidly fill it with more water. The water in the bowl is connected to a hollow drain pipe shaped like an upside-down U connecting the drain. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain, the top of the upside-down U-shaped drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. If water is poured slowly into the bowl it simply flows over the rim of the upside-down U, the standing water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas coming out of the sewer through the drain, and also as a receptacle for waste. Sewer gas is vented through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line. When a user flushes a toilet, a flapper valve opens. This rapid influx from the causes the swirling water in the bowl to rapidly rise. This full siphon tube starts the toilets siphonic action, the siphon action quickly “pulls” nearly all of the water and waste in the bowl and the on-rushing tank water down the drain — it flushes. When most of the water has drained out of the bowl, the toilet then gives its characteristic gurgle as the siphonic action ceases and no more water flows out of the toilet. After flushing, the valve in the water tank closes, water lines and valves connected to the water supply refill the toilet tank. Then the toilet is again ready for use, at the top of the toilet bowl is a rim with many angled drain holes that are fed from the tank, which fill, rinse, and induce swirling in the bowl when it is flushed
13.
Outhouse
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An outhouse, also known by many other names, is a small structure, separate from a main building, which covers one or more toilets. This is typically either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet, the term may also be used to denote the toilet itself, not just the superstructure. Outhouses were in use in cities of developed countries well into the half of the twentieth century. They are still common in areas and also in cities of developing countries. Outhouses that are covering pit latrines in densely populated areas can cause groundwater pollution. In some localities and varieties of English, particularly outside North America, the term refers not to a toilet. Outhouses vary in design and construction and they are by definition outside the dwelling, and are not connected to plumbing, sewer, or septic system. The World Health Organization recommends they be built a distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell. The superstructure exists to shelter the user, and also to protect the toilet itself, the primary purpose of the building is for privacy and human comfort, so that the user is not exposed and does not get wet when it is raining or cold when it is windy. Walls and a roof for privacy and to shield the user from the elements—rain, wind, sleet and snow —and thus to a small degree, Outhouses are commonly humble and utilitarian, made of lumber or plywood. This is especially so they can easily be moved when the pit fills up. Depending on the size of the pit and the amount of use, as pundit Jackpine Bob Cary wrote, Anyone can build an outhouse, but not everyone can build a good outhouse. Floor plans typically are rectangular or square, but hexagonal outhouses have been built, the arrangements inside the outhouse vary by culture. In Western societies, many, though not all, have at least one seat with a hole in it, others, often in more rural, older areas in European countries, simply have a hole with two indents on either side for your feet. In Eastern societies, there is a hole in the floor, a roll of toilet paper is usually available. Old corn cobs, leaves, or other types of paper are also used, the decoration on the outhouse door has no standard. The well-known crescent moon on American outhouses was popularized by cartoonists and had a basis in fact. There are authors who claim the practice began during the period as an early mens/ladies designation for an illiterate populace
14.
Linen-press
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Traditionally, a linen-press is a cabinet, usually of woods such as oak, walnut, or mahogany, and designed for storing sheets, table-napkins, clothing, and other textiles. Such Linen-presses were made chiefly in the 17th, 18th, early versions were often quite plain, with some exhibiting carving characteristic of Jacobean designs. Examples made during the 18th and 19th centuries often featured expensive veneers and intricate inlays, in modern houses, a linen press is often a built-in cabinet near bedroom or bathroom, for easy access to fresh bed sheets and towels. Analogous terms are laundry cupboard or linen cupboard, in Ireland the term hot press describes an airing cupboard used for storing linen. Cupboard Closet This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh
15.
Changing room
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A changing room, locker room, dressing room or changeroom is a room or area designated for changing ones clothes. Changing rooms are provided in a situation to enable people to change clothes in privacy. Separate changing rooms may be provided for men and women, or there may be a non-gender specific open space with individual cubicles or stalls, sometimes a person may change his or her clothes in a toilet cubicle of a washroom. Many changing rooms include washrooms and showers, sometimes a changing room exists as a small portion of a washroom. For example, the mens and womens washrooms in Torontos Dundas Square each include an area which is a blank counter space at the end of a row of sinks. In this case, the facility is primarily a washroom, and its use as a room is minimal. Larger changing rooms are found at public beaches, or other bathing areas, where most of the space is for changing. Beach-style changing rooms are large open rooms with benches against the walls. Some do not have a roof, providing just the necessary to prevent persons outside from seeing in. Various types of changing rooms exist, changing stalls are small stalls where clothes can be changed in privacy. They are used for swimming purposes, locker rooms are usually gender-specific spaces where clothes are changed and stored in lockers. They are often used for swimming or other sporting purposes and they are open spaces with no stalls. Fitting rooms, or dressing rooms, are usually small single-user cubicles where a person may try on clothes and these are often found at retail stores where one would want to try on clothes before purchasing them. Green rooms and trap rooms are usually mixed-gender backstage or under-stage changing spaces found at theaters, changing stalls are small stalls where clothers can be changed in privacy. Clothes are usually stored in lockers, there are usually no separate areas for men and women. They are often combined with gender-separated communal showers, most public pools have changing facilities of this kind alongside communal changing rooms. Locker rooms are named because they provide lockers for the storage of ones belongings. Alternatively, they may have a room attendant who will keep a persons belongings until one comes to retrieve them
16.
Pantry
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A pantry is a room where beverages, food, and sometimes dishes, household cleaning chemicals, linens, or provisions are stored. Food and beverage pantries serve in a capacity to the kitchen. The word pantry derive from the source as the Old French term paneterie, that is from pain. In a late medieval hall, there were rooms for the various service functions. A pantry was where bread was kept and food associated with it was done. The head of the responsible for this room was referred to as a pantler. There were similar rooms for storage of bacon and other meats, alcoholic beverages known for the butts of barrels stored there), and cooking. In the United States, pantries evolved from early Colonial American butteries, built in a cold north corner of a Colonial home, into a variety of pantries in self-sufficient farmsteads. By the Victorian era, large houses and estates in Britain maintained the use of rooms, each one dedicated to a distinct stage of food preparation. The kitchen was for cooking, while food storage was done in a storeroom, food preparation before cooking was done in a larder, and dishwashing was done in a scullery or pantry, depending on the type of dish and level of dirt. Since the scullery was the room with running water, it had a sink, the pantry was where tableware was stored, such as china, glassware, and silverware. If the pantry had a sink for washing tableware, it was a wooden sink lined with lead, to prevent chipping the china, in some middle-class houses, the larder, pantry, and storeroom might simply be large wooden cupboards, each with its exclusive purpose. The pantry is making a comeback in American and English homes and it is one of the most requested features in American homes today, despite modern homes having larger kitchen sizes than ever before. The demand is due both to the charm and nostalgia associated with the pantry, as well as to the pantrys practical, utilitarian purpose. Today, the term may also be used for any small storeroom used for foods such as canned goods, it need not be located near the kitchen. Traditionally, kitchens in Asia have been more open format than those of the West, the function of the pantry was generally served by wooden cabinetry. For example, in Japan, a cabinet is called a Mizuya Tansu. A substantial tradition around woodworking and cabinetry in general developed in Japan, a huge number of designs for Tansu were made, each tailored towards one specific purpose or another
17.
Cubby-hole
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A cubby-hole, cubby-house or cubby is a small, snug place, which may be considered and used as a place of safety for children. This may be constructed by the children themselves and used as a place of play, autistic children are especially fond of such places. Children may have a shed, play-house or tent which they use as a cubby-house. Children might build their own in various places in the house or garden, an Australian fictional treatment of the quest for the perfect cubby can be found in Ursula Dubosarskys The Cubby House, illustrated by Mitch Vane. Possibly from the term cub in old English related to stall, pen, cattle shed, coop, cubby-hole is sometimes written as one word. In South Africa, cubby-hole is the word for a compartment in a vehicle. This usage is common in Zimbabwe and Barbados, as well as parts of Southern Minnesota. In England and Canada, it may refer to the cupboard under the stairs, in the United States, a cubby-hole most often refers to a small square or rectangle-shaped space where children may keep their personal belongings, such as in a preschool or kindergarten setting. These cubby-holes are often constructed out of the materials as bookshelves and have a similar appearance save for the division of the cubbies themselves
18.
Room
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A room is any distinguishable space within a structure. Usually, a room is separated from other spaces or passageways by interior walls, moreover, it is separated from outdoor areas by an exterior wall, sometimes with a door. Historically the use of rooms dates at least to early Minoan cultures about 2200 BC, in early structures, the different room types could be identified to include bedrooms, kitchens, bathing rooms, reception rooms, and other specialized uses. Ancient Rome manifested very complex building forms with a variety of room types, in the United Kingdom, many houses are built to contain a box-room that is easily identifiable, being smaller than the others. The small size of these rooms limits their use, and they tend to be used as a single bedroom, small childs bedroom. Other box rooms may house a live-in domestic worker, entryway Great hall Room number The Room class room Media related to Rooms at Wikimedia Commons
19.
House
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Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands
20.
Billiard room
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A billiard room is a recreation room, such as in a house or recreation center, with a billiards, pool or snooker table. The term billiard room is also used as synonymous with billiard hall i. e. a business providing public access to hourly-rental or coin-operated billiard tables. The billiard room room may be in the center of the house or the private areas of the house. Billiard rooms require proper lighting and clearances for game playing, although there are adjustable cue sticks on the market,5 feet of clearance around the pool table is ideal. Interior designer Charlotte Moss believed that a room is synonymous with group dynamics. Its where you mix drinks and embark on a friendly competition. Billiards probably developed from one of the century or early-15th century lawn games in which players hit balls with sticks. The earliest mention of pool as a table game is in a 1470 inventory list of the accounts of King Louis XI of France. Following the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, billiard rooms were added to some famous 18th century cafes in Paris, although billiards had long been enjoyed by both men and women, a trend towards male suites developed in 19th century Great Britain. These male suites paired billiard rooms with smoking rooms and sometimes libraries, one example of these male suites is Castle Carr near Halifax. By the turn of the century, billiard rooms were considered a feature in great British houses with House Beautiful claiming Up-to-date owners of English estates have installed billiard rooms. Many mid- and late-19th century billiard rooms were designed in an Oriental or Moorish style, mark Twains billiard room in Hartford, CT was decorated with quasi-Moorish stencils. The late 19th and early 20th century represent the billiard rooms heyday
21.
Common room
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It is generally connected to several private rooms, and may incorporate a bathroom. However, they may also be found in day schools and sixth forms, regular features include couches, televisions, coffee tables, and other generic lounge furniture for socializing. Depending on its location and purpose of use, a room may be known by another name. For instance, in hospitals, where access is usually restricted to the daytime hours. In Singapore, the term refers to a bedroom without attached bathroom in an HDB apartment unit. Common Room Student lounge Media related to Common rooms at Wikimedia Commons
22.
Den (room)
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A den is a small room in a house where people can pursue activities in private. In the United States, the type of rooms described by the term den varies considerably by region and it is used to describe many different kinds of bonus rooms, including studies, family rooms, home offices, libraries, home cinemas, or even spare bedrooms. In some places, particularly in parts of the British Isles, while living rooms tend to be used for entertaining company on formal occasions, dens, like other family rooms, tend toward the more informal. In houses that do not have dedicated family rooms or recreation rooms, Dens can also be private areas primarily used by adult members of the household, possibly restricting access to the room by their children. Dens with home theater systems and large screen televisions may be referred to as media rooms instead, most den floors are made out of wood, carpet, or floor tiling. Dens can serve the purpose as cabinets in the past, becoming a modern man cave—a place for men to gather. In such cases, the design and decor may be distinctively masculine, media related to Dens at Wikimedia Commons
23.
Dining room
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A dining room is a room for consuming food. In modern times it is adjacent to the kitchen for convenience in serving. In the Middle Ages, upper class Britons and other European nobility in castles or large manor houses dined in the great hall and this was a large multi-function room capable of seating the bulk of the population of the house. The family would sit at the table on a raised dais. Tables in the hall would tend to be long trestle tables with benches. The sheer number of people in a Great Hall meant it would probably have had a busy, suggestions that it would also have been quite smelly and smoky are probably, by the standards of the time, unfounded. These rooms had large chimneys and high ceilings and there would have been a flow of air through the numerous door. In the first instance, the Black Death that ravaged Europe in the 14th Century caused a shortage of labour, also the religious persecutions following the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry VIII made it unwise to talk freely in front of large numbers of people. Over time, the nobility took more of their meals in the parlour, and the parlour became, functionally and it also migrated farther from the Great Hall, often accessed via grand ceremonial staircases from the dais in the Great Hall. Eventually dining in the Great Hall became something that was primarily on special occasions. Toward the beginning of the 18th Century, a pattern emerged where the ladies of the house would withdraw after dinner from the room to the drawing room. The gentlemen would remain in the room having drinks. The dining room tended to take on a more masculine tenor as a result, a typical North American dining room will contain a table with chairs arranged along the sides and ends of the table, as well as other pieces of furniture, as space permits. Often tables in modern dining rooms will have a leaf to allow for the larger number of people present on those special occasions without taking up extra space when not in use. Although the typical family dining experience is at a table or some sort of kitchen area. In modern American and Canadian homes, the room is typically adjacent to the living room. Smaller houses and condos may have a breakfast bar instead, often of a different height than the kitchen counter. If a home lacks a dinette, breakfast nook, or breakfast bar and this was traditionally the case in Britain, where the dining room would for many families be used only on Sundays, other meals being eaten in the kitchen
24.
Family room
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A family room is an informal, all-purpose room in a house. The family room is designed to be a place where family and guests gather for group recreation like talking, reading, watching TV, often, the family room is located adjacent to the kitchen, and at times, flows into it with no visual breaks. A family room often has doors leading to the yard and specific outdoor living areas such as a deck, garden. The term family room as defined in the 1945 book Tomorrows House by George Nelson and this big room would have furnishings and materials that were tough, for hard use, and it should be easy to clean. Could be kept out of sight, the distinction between a family room, living room, and recreation room is fluid, but can be classified according to three characteristics, location, function and design. It is typically located in the part of the house towards the front. The recreation room is typically in the basement and used for games, in homes with only one, the terms are generally used interchangeably. In floorplans, a room is where the living room. Parlour Den Living room Recreation room
25.
Garret
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A garret is a habitable attic or small and often dismal or cramped living space at the top of a house or larger residential building. In the days before lifts this was the least prestigious position in a building, in this era, the garret often had sloping ceilings. The word entered Middle English via Old French with a connotation of a watchtower or something akin to a garrison. Like garrison it comes from an Old French word garir of ultimately Germanic origin meaning to provide or defend, garrets were very often internal elements of the mansard roof, often with skylights or dormer windows. A bow garret is an outhouse situated at the back of a typical terraced house often used in Lancashire for the hat industry in pre-mechanised days. Bowing was the given to the technique of cleaning up animal fur in the early stages of preparation for turning it into hats. What is now believed to be the last bow garret in existence has now been listed in order to preserve this historical relic, Garratt - a type of steam locomotive Garratt Garet - people Garrett Garrett - history of the name Jarrett Old maid in the garret
26.
Great room
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A great room is a room space within an abode which combines the specific functions of several of the more traditional room spaces into a singular unified space. Great rooms are typically at or near the center of the house, feature raised ceilings, the New York Times called the great room the McMansions signature space. Developers of mid-range suburban homes in America tried to solve the problem of the living room. The general concept is one central room, the crossroads of the house to be used for all of the family functions traditionally split between living and family rooms. Some great room designs incorporate the functions of the dining room as well. In the most general sense, great rooms are found on the lower level of American multi-story homes built in the second half of the 20th century. In many houses the great room will also adjoin the kitchen, often separated just by a counter instead of a full wall, the modern great room concept traces back to the multipurpose room in modernist homes built by Joseph Eichler in California in the 1950s and 1960s. Developers started building houses with great rooms in the 1970s and 1980s. An example of this is the house in the television series The Brady Bunch, great rooms became a nearly ubiquitous feature of suburban homes constructed in America in the 1990s and 2000s. However, by the mid-2000s, the Wall Street Journal reported that home buyers were not as enthusiastic about great rooms. Common complaints included the cost to heat and cool them, that they were difficult to clean and paint due to height and irregular angles, great rooms were initially popular with homeowners. According to builders asked by the Wall Street Journal, this was because homeowners wanted a way to show off wealth in a growing economy, in 2007, Money listed great rooms as a fad whose time had passed
27.
Hearth
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In historic and modern usage, a hearth /ˈhɑːrθ/ is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace, with or without an oven, used for heating and originally also used for cooking food. In a medieval hall, the hearth commonly stood in the middle of the hall, later, such hearths were moved to the side of the room and provided with a chimney. In fireplace design, the hearth is the part of the fireplace where the fire burns, usually consisting of masonry at floor level or higher, the word hearth derives from an Indo-European root, *ker-, referring to burning, heat, and fire. In archaeology, a hearth is a firepit or other feature of any period. Hearths are common features of many eras going back to prehistoric campsites and they were used for cooking, heating, and the processing of some stone, wood, faunal, and floral resources. Farming or excavation—deform or disperse hearth features, making difficult to identify without careful study. Lined hearths are easily identified by the presence of fire-cracked rock, often present are fragmented fish and animal bones, carbonized shell, charcoal, ash, and other waste products, all embedded in a sequence of soil that has been deposited atop the hearth. Unlined hearths, which are easily identified, may also include these materials. Because of the nature of most of these items, they can be used to pinpoint the date the hearth was last used via the process of radiocarbon dating. Although carbon dates can be affected if the users of the hearth burned old wood or coal. This was the most common way to cook, and to interior spaces in cool seasons. Kapnikon was a tax raised on households without exceptions for the poor, in England, a tax on hearths was introduced on 19 May 1662. Householders were required to pay a charge of two shillings per annum for each hearth, with half the payment due at Michaelmas and half at Lady Day. Exemptions to the tax were granted, to those in receipt of relief, those whose houses were worth less than 20 shillings a year. Also exempt were charitable institutions such as schools and almshouses, and industrial hearths with the exception of smiths forges, the returns were lodged with the Clerk of the Peace between 1662 and 1688. A revision of the Act in 1664 made the tax payable by all who had more than two chimneys The tax was abolished by William III in 1689 and the last collection was for Lady Day of that year and it was abolished in Scotland in 1690. Hearth tax records are important to historians as they provide an indication of the size of each assessed house at the time. The numbers of hearths are generally proportional to the size of the house, the assessments can be used to indicate the numbers and local distribution of larger and smaller houses
28.
Home cinema
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In the 1980s, home cinemas typically consisted of a movie pre-recorded on a LaserDisc or VHS tape, a LaserDisc or VHS player, and a heavy, bulky large-screen cathode ray tube TV set. Whether home cinema enthusiasts have a stereo set-up or a 5, in the 1950s, playing home movies became popular in the United States with middle class and upper-class families as Kodak 8 mm film projector equipment became more affordable. The development of audio systems and later LaserDisc in the 1980s created a new paradigm for home video, as it enabled movie enthusiasts to add better sound. In the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, a home cinema in the United States would have a LaserDisc or VHS player playing a movie. Some people used expensive front projectors in a viewing room. During the 1990s, watching movies on VHS at home became a leisure activity. In the 2010s, affordable large HDTV flatscreen TVs, high resolution video projectors, 3D television technology, in the 2000s, the term home cinema encompasses a range of systems meant for movie playback at home. 3D-TV-enabled home theaters make use of 3D TV sets/projectors and Blu-ray 3D players in which the viewers wear 3D-glasses, enabling them to see 3D content. Home theater designs and layouts are a choice and the type of home cinema a user can set up depends on her/his budget. Finally a set of speakers, at least two, are needed but more common are anywhere from six to eight with a subwoofer for bass or low-frequency effects. In the 2010s, many home cinema enthusiasts aim to replicate, to the degree that is possible, to do so, many home cinema buffs purchase higher quality components than used for everyday television viewing on a relatively small TV with only built-in speakers. As of 2016, home cinema enthusiasts using Smart Blu-ray players may also watch DVDs of TV shows, as well, with a Smart player, a user may be able to stream movies, TV shows and other content over the Internet. Many 2016-era DVD players and Blu-ray players also have inputs which allow users to view digital photos, video and audio input devices, One or more video/audio sources. High resolution movie media formats such as Blu-ray discs are normally preferred, some home theaters include a HTPC with a media center software application to act as the main library for video and music content using a 10-foot user interface and remote control. In 2016, some of the more-expensive Blu-ray players can stream movies, the user selects the input at this point before it is forwarded to the output stage. Some AV receivers enable the viewer to use a control to select which input device or source to use. Audio output, Systems consist of preamplifiers, power amplifiers and two or more loudspeakers mounted in speaker enclosures, the audio system requires at least a stereo power amplifier and two speakers, for stereo sound, most systems have multi-channel surround sound power amplifier and six or more speakers. Some users have 7.1 Surround Sound and it is possible to have up to 11 speakers with additional subwoofers
29.
Small office/home office
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Small office/home office refers to the category of business or cottage industry that involves from 1 to 10 workers. Before the 19th century, and the spread of the industrial revolution around the globe, nearly all offices were small offices and/or home offices, most businesses were small, and the paperwork that accompanied them was limited. The industrial revolution aggregated workers in factories, to mass-produce goods, in most circumstances, the white collar counterpart—office work—was aggregated as well in large buildings, usually in cities or densely populated suburban areas. Beginning in the mid-1980s, the advent of the computer and fax machine, plus breakthroughs in telecommunications. Decentralization was also perceived as benefiting employers in terms of lower overheads, many consultants and the members of such professions as lawyers, real estate agents, and surveyors in small and medium-size towns operate from home offices. Several ranges of products, such as the desk and all-in-one printer, are designed specifically for the SOHO market. A number of books and magazines have published and marketed specifically at this type of office. These range from general advice texts to specific guidebooks on such challenges as setting up a small PBX for the office telephones, technology has also created a demand for larger businesses to employ individuals who work from home. Sometimes these people remain as independent businesspersons, and sometimes they become employees of a larger company, the small office home office has undergone a transformation since its advent as the internet has enabled anyone working from a home office to compete globally. Technology has made possible through email, the World-Wide Web, e-commerce, videoconferencing, remote desktop software, webinar systems. Bless This Home Office. With tax credits, An Adam Compilation, johnson, Karen K. ed. Orthos All About Home Offices. The Home Office, Setting Up, Furnishing and Decorating Your Own Work Space
30.
Kitchen
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A kitchen is a room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. Many households have an oven, a dishwasher and other electric appliances. The main function of a kitchen is serving as a location for storing, cooking and preparing food, commercial kitchens are found in restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, educational and workplace facilities, army barracks, and similar establishments. These kitchens are generally larger and equipped with bigger and more heavy-duty equipment than a residential kitchen, for example, a large restaurant may have a huge walk-in refrigerator and a large commercial dishwasher machine. Commercial kitchens are generally subject to public health laws and they are inspected periodically by public-health officials, and forced to close if they do not meet hygienic requirements mandated by law. The evolution of the kitchen is linked to the invention of the range or stove. Food was cooked over an open fire, technical advances in heating food in the 18th and 19th centuries changed the architecture of the kitchen. Before the advent of modern pipes, water was brought from a source such as wells. The houses in Ancient Greece were commonly of the atrium-type, the rooms were arranged around a courtyard for women. In many such homes, a covered but otherwise open patio served as the kitchen, homes of the wealthy had the kitchen as a separate room, usually next to a bathroom, both rooms being accessible from the court. In such houses, there was often a small storage room in the back of the kitchen used for storing food. In the Roman Empire, common folk in cities often had no kitchen of their own, some had small mobile bronze stoves, on which a fire could be lit for cooking. Wealthy Romans had relatively well-equipped kitchens, the fireplace was typically on the floor, placed at a wall—sometimes raised a little bit—such that one had to kneel to cook. Early medieval European longhouses had a fire under the highest point of the building. The kitchen area was between the entrance and the fireplace, in wealthy homes there was typically more than one kitchen. In some homes there were upwards of three kitchens, the kitchens were divided based on the types of food prepared in them. In place of a chimney, these buildings had a hole in the roof through which some of the smoke could escape. Besides cooking, the fire served as a source of heat
31.
Kitchenette
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A kitchenette is a small cooking area, which usually has a fridge and a microwave, but may have other appliances. New York City building code defines a kitchenette as a kitchen of less than 7.4 m2 of floor space, kitchenettes are a common feature in hotel and motel guest rooms and often contain a coffeemaker, a bar refrigerator, commonly called a mini-bar. In British English, the term also refers to a small secondary kitchen in a house. Often it is found on the floor as the childrens bedrooms, and used by a nanny or au pair to prepare meals for children. The word kitchenette was also used to refer to a type of small apartment prevalent in African American communities in Chicago, landlords often divided single-family homes or large apartment units into smaller units to house more families. Living conditions in these kitchenettes were often wretched, the author Richard Wright described them as our prison, in Brazil, a kitchenette is a very small apartment. It is composed of one room, one bathroom, and a kitchen and it corresponds to the studio apartment in American culture. Kitchenettes entry at the Encyclopedia of Chicago
32.
Living room
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In Western architecture, a living room, also called a lounge room, lounge or sitting room, is a room in a residential house or apartment for relaxing and socializing. Such a room is called a front room when it is near the main entrance at the front of the house. In large formal homes, a room is often a small private living area adjacent to a bedroom, such as the Queens Sitting Room. The term living room was coined in the late 19th or early 20th century, in homes that lack a parlour or drawing room, the living room may also function as a reception room. A typical Western living room may contain furnishings such as a sofa, chairs, occasional tables, coffee tables, bookshelves, electric lamps, rugs, or other furniture. Traditionally, a room in the United Kingdom and New Zealand has a fireplace. In a Japanese sitting room, called a washitsu, the floor is covered with tatami, sectioned mats, on which people can sit comfortably. Until the late 19th century, the front parlour was the room in the used for formal social events. Lobby Lounge Media related to Living rooms at Wikimedia Commons
33.
Man cave
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A man cave or manspace is a male retreat or sanctuary in a home, such as a specially equipped garage, spare bedroom, media room, den, or basement. The term man cave is a metaphor describing a room inside the house where guys can do as they please, paula Aymer of Tufts University calls it the last bastion of masculinity. The phrase is thought to come from the 1993 publication, Men Are from Mars, while a wife may have substantial authority over a whole house in terms of design and decoration, she generally has no say about what gets mounted on the walls of a mans personal space. Since it may be accepted that a woman has input on the decoration of the rest of the house, a man cave or man-space is in some sense a reaction to feminine domestic power. Man caves have multiple purposes, they are a place to be alone, to be away from women and from female sensibilities, to indulge in hobbies and it is, loosely, a male-only space to retreat to watch sports matches, or play video games. According to psychiatrist and author Scott Haltzman, it is important for a man to have a place to call his own, rules are relaxed, it is a place where other peoples sensibilities about standards of cleanliness are not necessarily observed. Writer and handyman Sam Martin explained, Men have had an identity problem since the womens movement and they have tried to figure out who theyre supposed to be. For a while women wanted them to be sensitive, so they were more sensitive. Then women wanted them to be more manly, one of the things I discovered is when men have their own manspace, what they put inside of it is really an expression of who they are. Manspace is about establishing an identity for a man and our premise is that women have control of the look and the feel of the house and that left guys wanting more. Anybody who has a specific interest or hobby or work or collection is going to want a space to indulge that and its like a firehouse lounge room, but in the home. According to several sources, the architectural and design trend is for men to take traditionally male-only spaces. A man cave may also be fitted out with a bar, the book suggests that men make their own spaces for good or ill, according to Publishers Weekly. Twitchell focused on communal man cave spaces such as groups in megachurches. One man redecorated the space to look like a model of the bridge of the Starship Enterprise from the TV show Star Trek. Upscale sports-themed furnishings are also available to outfit a man cave and these rooms are also often decorated by the male, with little or no female influence. A big screen television is useful for watching sports games with buddies, since it is an area set off from the rest of the house, its possible to make noise, or yell at the television, without fear of reprisals from a wife, girlfriend or mother. There are some reports suggesting that men are likely to lavish time, money
34.
Recreation room
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A recreation room is a room used for a variety of purposes, such as parties, games and other everyday or casual use. The term is common in the United States, Australia and Canada, often children and teenagers entertain their friends in the rec room, which is often located in the basement, away from the main living areas of the house. Usually it is a larger space than a room to have the ability to serve multiple purposes. Recreation rooms can vary in themes and styles, but they generally have a basic setup, Recreation rooms are normally centered on some form of entertainment and this can consist of something as elaborate as a projection screen with surround sound or something as simple as a base model television. Couches, pub tables/chairs, bar stools, and recliners may all be used in recreation rooms, tabletop games are frequent in recreation rooms. In addition to games played on a table, recreation rooms sometimes include custom game tables for table tennis, table football, table shuffleboard, air hockey. Custom tables for casino games such as poker, blackjack, other games include dart boards and arcade games such as pinball and video games. Fridges, microwaves, wet bars, popcorn machines, ice machines, soda fountains. Media related to Recreation rooms at Wikimedia Commons
35.
Shrine
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A shrine is a holy or sacred place, which is dedicated to a specific deity, ancestor, hero, martyr, saint, daemon, or similar figure of awe and respect, at which they are venerated or worshipped. Shrines often contain idols, relics, or other objects associated with the figure being venerated. A shrine at which offerings are made is called an altar. Shrines can be found in various settings, such as churches, temples, cemeteries, or in the home, a shrine may become a focus of a cult image. Many shrines are located buildings and in the temples designed specifically for worship, such as a church in Christianity. A shrine here is usually the centre of attention in the building, in such cases, adherents of the faith assemble within the building in order to venerate the deity at the shrine. In classical temple architecture, the shrine may be synonymous with the cella, historically, in Hinduism, Buddhism and Roman Catholicism, and also in modern faiths, such as Neopaganism, a shrine can commonly be found within the home or shop. This shrine is usually a structure or a setup of pictures and figurines dedicated to a deity that is part of the official religion. Small household shrines are common among the Chinese and people from South and Southeast Asia, whether Hindu. Usually a small lamp and small offerings are kept daily by the shrine, Buddhist household shrines must be on a shelf above the head, Chinese shrines must stand directly on the floor. Small outdoor yard shrines are found at the bottom of many gardens, following various religions, including historically. Shrines are found in most, though not all, religions, Shrines therefore attract the practice of pilgrimage. Shrines are found in many, though not all, forms of Christianity, Roman Catholicism, the largest denomination of Christianity, has many shrines, as do Orthodox Christianity and Anglicanism. For a shrine to be described as national, the approval of the Episcopal Conference is necessary, for it to be described as international, the approval of the Holy See is required. Another use of the shrine in colloquial Catholic terminology is a niche or alcove in most – especially larger – churches used by parishioners when praying privately in the church. They were also called Devotional Altars, since they could look like small Side Altars or bye-altars, Shrines were always centered on some image of Christ or a saint – for instance, a statue, painting, mural or mosaic, and may have had a reredos behind them. However, Mass would not be celebrated at them, they were used to aid or give a visual focus for prayers. Side altars, where Mass could actually be celebrated, were used in a way to shrines by parishioners
36.
Study (room)
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A study is a room in a house that is used for paperwork, computer work, or reading. A typical study might contain a desk, chair, computer, desk lamps, bookshelves, books, a spare bedroom is often utilized as a study, but many modern homes have a room specifically designated as a study. Other terms used for rooms of this nature include den, home office, the study developed from the closet or cabinet of the Renaissance onwards
37.
Sunroom
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Also known as a sun parlor, sun porch, patio room, Florida room, garden conservatory, or winter garden, such rooms are popular in the United States, Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. A portico is also called a porch. In Great Britain, with its history of formal conservatories. Sunrooms are used in passive solar building design as a technique for heating and lighting structures, a sunroom may be a room in a building specifically tailored to that function, a connected structure erected during new construction, or one added some time afterwards. Attached sunrooms are typically constructed of transparent tempered glazing atop a brick or wood knee wall, or framed entirely of wood, aluminum, or PVC, for privacy, frosted glass or breeze block is used. Some sunrooms are designed to exploit a view, others to collect sunlight for warmth. These, composed entirely of framed glass and usually called solariums, are found in high latitude or cold locations. During the 1960s, professional re-modelling companies developed affordable systems to enclose a patio or deck, offering design, installation, patio rooms featured lightweight, engineered roof panels, single pane glass, and aluminium construction. As technology advanced, insulated glass, vinyl and vinyl-wood composite framework appeared, more recently, specialized blinds and curtains were developed, many electrically operated by remote control. Specialized floorings, including radiant heat, have also adapted to both attached and integrated sunrooms. Arizona room Porch Smart glass Sunrooms and Sunspaces, media related to Sunrooms at Wikimedia Commons
38.
Atrium (architecture)
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In architecture, an atrium is a large open air or skylight covered space surrounded by a building. Atria were a feature in Ancient Roman dwellings, providing light. Modern atria, as developed in the late 19th and 20th centuries, are several stories high and having a glazed roof or large windows. Atria are a design feature because they give their buildings a feeling of space. The atrium has become a key feature of buildings in recent years. Atria are popular with building users, building designers and building developers, users like atria because they create a dynamic and stimulating interior that provides shelter from the external environment while maintaining a visual link with that environment. Designers enjoy the opportunity to new types of spaces in buildings. Fire control is an important aspect of contemporary atrium design due to criticism that poorly designed atria could allow fire to spread to a buildings upper stories more quickly. The Latin word atrium referred to the central court from which enclosed rooms led off. The impluvium was a shallow pool sunken into the floor to catch rainwater from the roof, some surviving examples are beautifully decorated. The opening in the ceiling above the pool called for some means of support for the roof, as the centrepiece of the house, the atrium was the most lavishly-furnished room. Also, it contained the chapel to the ancestral spirits. The term was used for a variety of spaces in public and religious buildings, mostly forms of arcaded courtyards. Byzantine churches were often entered through such a space, the 19th century brought the industrial revolution with great advances in iron and glass manufacturing techniques. Courtyards could then have horizontal glazing overhead, eliminating some of the elements from the space. One of the public spaces at Federation Square, in Melbourne, Australia, is called The Atrium and is a street-like space, five storeys high with glazed walls. The structure and glazing pattern follow the system of fractals used to arrange the panels on the rest of the facades at Federation Square, as of 2016, the Burj Al Arab hotel in Dubai, has the worlds tallest atrium at 590 feet. The Luxor Hotel, in Las Vegas, Nevada, has the largest atrium in the world at 29 million cubic feet, cavaedium Courtyard Quadrangle Roth, Leland M. Understanding Architecture, Its Elements History and Meaning
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Balcony
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A balcony is a platform projecting from the wall of a building, supported by columns or console brackets, and enclosed with a balustrade, usually above the ground floor. The traditional Maltese balcony is a closed balcony projecting from a wall. By contrast, a Juliet balcony does not protrude out of the building and it is usually part of an upper floor, with a balustrade only at the front, like a small Loggia. Modern Juliet balconies often involve a metal barrier placed in front of a window which can be opened. Sometimes balconies are adapted for ceremonial purposes, e. g. that of St. Peters Basilica at Rome, inside churches, balconies are sometimes provided for the singers, and in banqueting halls and the like for the musicians. A unit with a regular balcony will have doors that open up onto a patio with railings. A French balcony is actually a false balcony, with doors that open to a railing with a view of the courtyard or the surrounding scenery below. In theatres, the balcony was formerly a stage-box, but the name is now confined to the part of the auditorium above the dress circle. One of the most famous uses of a balcony is in traditional stagings of the scene that has come to be known as the scene in William Shakespeares tragedy, Romeo. Manufacturers names for their balcony designs often refer to the origin of the design, italian balcony, Spanish balcony, Mexican balcony, Ecuadorian balcony
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Conversation pit
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A conversation pit is an architectural feature that incorporates built-in seating into a depressed section of flooring within a larger room. This area often has a table in the center as well, the seats typically face each other in a centrally focused fashion, bringing the occupants closer together than free-standing tables and chairs normally would. In residential design this proximity facilitates comfortable human conversation, dinner parties and their disadvantages include accidental falls and uncomfortable interactions with those standing above in the main room. The conversation pit was popular from the 1950s to the 1970s, a brilliant red conversation pit was later incorporated by Saarinen into the 1962 TWA Flight Center at John F. Kennedy International Airport in New York. Many conversation pits have filled in during renovation to create a uniform floor level. The conversation-pit concept influenced the popularity of the less radical sunken living room. In the late 1990s conversation pits and sunken living rooms were offered in home plans as a way of creating a space within a large space. Inglenook, a space that incorporates a fireplace
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Deck (building)
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In architecture, a deck is a flat surface capable of supporting weight, similar to a floor, but typically constructed outdoors, often elevated from the ground, and usually connected to a building. The term is a generalization of decks as found on ships, wood or timber decking can be used in a number of ways, as part of garden landscaping, to extend living areas of houses, and as an alternative to stone based features such as patios. Decks are made from treated lumber, composite lumber, composite material, lumber may be Western red cedar, teak, mahogany, ipê and other hardwoods. Recycled planks may be high-density polyethylene, polystyrene and PET plastic as well as mixed plastics, artificial decking products are often called wood-plastic composites. These days, WPCs have more known by different brands like Trex, Azek. Historically, the used for decking were logged from old growth forests. These include Atlantic white cedar, redwood and Western red cedar, Atlantic City built the first coastal boardwalk in the United States, originally constructed of Atlantic white cedar. However, it was not long before the commercial logging of this tree, Atlantic City and New York City both switched to Western red cedar. By the 1960s, Western red cedar from the US was declining due to over-logging, more expensive Western red cedar was available from western Canada but by then, pressure treated pine had become available. But even with chemical treatments, pine decking is not as durable as cedars in an outdoor environment, thus, many municipalities and homeowners are turning to hardwoods. Decks are often built from pressure treated wood, pressure treated wood is long lasting and holds up to wet and icey weather conditions. Pressure treated wood however is treated with chemicals which have known to be toxic. Generally, hardwoods used for decking come from tropical forests, US tropical wood imports are rising, partly due to the demand for decking. Due to environmental and durability concerns, composite decking have appeared on the market, proponents of composite decking have touted this as a much needed development as this helps to curb logging of trees for new decks. However composite decking has been found to contain chemicals, cannot be refurbished. However newer more modern composites feature a cap or shell that prevents mold, residential decks may contain spaces for cooking, dining and seating. Cooking areas ideally should be situated near the door while out of the way from general foot traffic. Dining spaces will include patio tables, for a typical 6 person outdoor patio table building an area of 12 x 16 is ideal
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Elevator
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An elevator or lift is a type of vertical transportation that moves people or goods between floors of a building, vessel, or other structure. Elevators are generally powered by electric motors that either drive traction cables or counterweight systems like a hoist, in agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of conveyor device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or silos. Several types exist, such as the chain and bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor using the principle of Archimedes screw, or the chain, languages other than English may have loanwords based on either elevator or lift. Because of wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a requirement in new multistory buildings. The earliest known reference to an elevator is in the works of the Roman architect Vitruvius, some sources from later historical periods mention elevators as cabs on a hemp rope powered by hand or by animals. In 1000, the Book of Secrets by al-Muradi in Islamic Spain described the use of a lifting device. In the 17th century the prototypes of elevators were located in the buildings of England. Louis XV of France had a flying chair built for one of his mistresses at the Chateau de Versailles in 1743. Ancient and medieval elevators used drive systems based on hoists or winders, the invention of a system based on the screw drive was perhaps the most important step in elevator technology since ancient times, leading to the creation of modern passenger elevators. The first screw drive elevator was built by Ivan Kulibin and installed in Winter Palace in 1793, several years later another of Kulibins elevators was installed in Arkhangelskoye near Moscow. The development of elevators was led by the need for movement of raw materials including coal, the technology developed by these industries and the introduction of steel beam construction worked together to provide the passenger and freight elevators in use today. Starting in the mines, by the mid-19th century elevators were operated with steam power and were used for moving goods in bulk in mines and factories. It elevated paying customers to a height in the center of London. Early, crude steam-driven elevators were refined in the decade, – in 1835 an innovative elevator called the Teagle was developed by the company Frost. The elevator was belt-driven and used a counterweight for extra power, the hydraulic crane was invented by Sir William Armstrong in 1846, primarily for use at the Tyneside docks for loading cargo. These quickly supplanted the steam driven elevators, exploiting Pascals law. A water pump supplied a variable level of pressure to a plunger encased inside a vertical cylinder. Counterweights and balances were used to increase the lifting power of the apparatus
