1.
Cabinetry
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A cabinet is a box-shaped piece of furniture with doors or drawers for storing miscellaneous items. Some cabinets stand alone while others are built into a wall or are attached to it like a medicine cabinet, cabinets are typically made of wood or, now increasingly, of synthetic materials. Commercial grade cabinets, which differ in the used, are called casework. Cabinets usually have one or more doors on the front, which are mounted with door hardware, many cabinets have doors and drawers or only drawers. Short cabinets often have a surface on top that can be used for display, or as a working surface. A cabinet intended for clothing storage is usually called a wardrobe or an armoire, before the advent of industrial design, cabinet makers were responsible for the conception and the production of any piece of furniture. In the last half of the 18th century, cabinet makers, such as Thomas Sheraton, Thomas Chippendale, Shaver, cabinet Constructors, and George Hepplewhite, also published books of furniture forms. These books were compendiums of their designs and those of other cabinet makers, in parallel to this evolution there came a growing demand by the rising middle class in most industrialised countries for finely made furniture. This eventually resulted in a growth in the number of traditional cabinet makers. Before 1650, fine furniture was a rarity in Western Europe, generally, people did not need it and for the most part could not afford it. They made do with simple but serviceable pieces, the arts and craft movement which started in the United Kingdom in the middle of the 19th century spurred a market for traditional cabinet making, and other craft goods. It rapidly spread to the United States and to all the countries in the British Empire and this movement exemplified the reaction to the eclectic historicism of the Victorian era and to the soulless machine-made production which was starting to become widespread. After World War II woodworking became a hobby among the middle classes. The more serious and skilled amateurs in this field now turn out pieces of furniture which rival the work of professional cabinet makers and this style of design is typified by clean horizontal and vertical lines. Compared to other designs there is an absence of ornamentation. While Scandinavian design is easy to identify, it is more about the materials than the design. This style of design is very ornate, French Provincial objects are often stained or painted, leaving the wood concealed. Corners and bevels are often decorated with gold leaf or given some kind of gilding
2.
Wardrobe
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A wardrobe is a standing closet used for storing clothes. The name of wardrobe was given to a room in which the wall-space was filled with closets and lockers. From these cupboards and lockers the modern wardrobe, with its hanging spaces, sliding shelves and drawers, throughout the chronological changes in the form of the enclosure, it more or less retained its preset function as a place to retain a king’s robe. The word has gained coinage over successive generations as an independent store for among others, preserving precious items for a ruler like gold and it is also a simple patio where clothes are hung from metal bars or tucked inside utility racks running from up to down. The word wardrobe appeared in the English language in the early 14th century and it originated from Old French words warderobe, wardereube and garderobe, in which warder meant to keep, to guard and robe meant garment. In the United States, the wardrobe in its form as an oak hanging cupboard dates back to the early 17th century. At that time it was an export product from America to England. Consequently, the item was sometimes referred to as an Oakley, during a large portion of the 18th century the tallboy was much used for storing clothes. A common feature was to base future size on the eight small men method, a considered good size double wardrobe would thus be able to hold within its capacity, eight small men. In the nineteenth century the wardrobe began to develop into its form, with a hanging cupboard at each side. Where Chippendale and his school had carved, Sheraton, Hepplewhite and their contemporaries achieved their effects by the employment of deftly contrasted. In the United Kingdom, a more affluent option is custom-fitted wardrobes, kas, kast or kasten is a massive cupboard or wardrobe of Dutch origin similar to an armoire that was popular in the Netherlands and America in the 17th & 18th century. It was fitted with shelves and drawers used to store linen, clothing and other valuables and they were status symbols and family heirlooms in the Low Countries and imported luxury goods to the American colonies. As such they were made of quality wood such as cherry, rosewood and ebony. Cabinetry Closet Encoignure This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. American kasten, the Dutch-style cupboards of New York and New Jersey, 1650–1800, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries
3.
Oxford English Dictionary
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The Oxford English Dictionary is a descriptive dictionary of the English language, published by the Oxford University Press. The second edition came to 21,728 pages in 20 volumes, in 1895, the title The Oxford English Dictionary was first used unofficially on the covers of the series, and in 1928 the full dictionary was republished in ten bound volumes. In 1933, the title The Oxford English Dictionary fully replaced the name in all occurrences in its reprinting as twelve volumes with a one-volume supplement. More supplements came over the years until 1989, when the edition was published. Since 2000, an edition of the dictionary has been underway. The first electronic version of the dictionary was available in 1988. The online version has been available since 2000, and as of April 2014 was receiving two million hits per month. The third edition of the dictionary will probably appear in electronic form, Nigel Portwood, chief executive of Oxford University Press. As a historical dictionary, the Oxford English Dictionary explains words by showing their development rather than merely their present-day usages, therefore, it shows definitions in the order that the sense of the word began being used, including word meanings which are no longer used. The format of the OEDs entries has influenced numerous other historical lexicography projects and this influenced later volumes of this and other lexicographical works. As of 30 November 2005, the Oxford English Dictionary contained approximately 301,100 main entries, the dictionarys latest, complete print edition was printed in 20 volumes, comprising 291,500 entries in 21,730 pages. The longest entry in the OED2 was for the verb set, as entries began to be revised for the OED3 in sequence starting from M, the longest entry became make in 2000, then put in 2007, then run in 2011. Despite its impressive size, the OED is neither the worlds largest nor the earliest exhaustive dictionary of a language, the Dutch dictionary Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal is the worlds largest dictionary, has similar aims to the OED and took twice as long to complete. Another earlier large dictionary is the Grimm brothers dictionary of the German language, begun in 1838, the official dictionary of Spanish is the Diccionario de la lengua española, and its first edition was published in 1780. The Kangxi dictionary of Chinese was published in 1716, trench suggested that a new, truly comprehensive dictionary was needed. On 7 January 1858, the Society formally adopted the idea of a new dictionary. Volunteer readers would be assigned particular books, copying passages illustrating word usage onto quotation slips, later the same year, the Society agreed to the project in principle, with the title A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles. He withdrew and Herbert Coleridge became the first editor, on 12 May 1860, Coleridges dictionary plan was published and research was started
4.
Elizabethan era
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The Elizabethan era is the epoch in English history marked by the reign of Queen Elizabeth I. Historians often depict it as the age in English history. In terms of the century, the historian John Guy argues that England was economically healthier, more expansive. This golden age represented the apogee of the English Renaissance and saw the flowering of poetry, music, the era is most famous for theatre, as William Shakespeare and many others composed plays that broke free of Englands past style of theatre. It was an age of exploration and expansion abroad, while back at home and it was also the end of the period when England was a separate realm before its royal union with Scotland. The Elizabethan Age may be viewed especially highly when considered in light of the failings of the periods preceding Elizabeths reign, the Protestant/Catholic divide was settled, for a time, by the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, and parliament was not yet strong enough to challenge royal absolutism. England was also compared to the other nations of Europe. The Italian Renaissance had come to an end under the weight of Spanish domination of the peninsula, France was embroiled in its own religious battles due to significant Spanish intervention, that would only be settled in 1598 with the Edict of Nantes. The one great rival was Spain, which England clashed both in Europe and the Americas in skirmishes that exploded into the Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604 and this drained both the English Exchequer and economy that had been so carefully restored under Elizabeths prudent guidance. English commercial and territorial expansion would be limited until the signing of the Treaty of London the year following Elizabeths death, economically, the country began to benefit greatly from the new era of trans-Atlantic trade, persistent theft of Spanish treasure, and the African slave trade. The Victorian era and the early 20th century idealised the Elizabethan era, the Encyclopædia Britannica maintains that he long reign of Elizabeth I, 1558–1603, was Englands Golden Age. Merry England, in love with life, expressed itself in music and literature, in architecture and this idealising tendency was shared by Britain and an Anglophilic America. In popular culture, the image of those adventurous Elizabethan seafarers was embodied in the films of Errol Flynn, in response and reaction to this hyperbole, modern historians and biographers have tended to take a more dispassionate view of the Tudor period. Elizabethan England was not particularly successful in a military sense during the period, having inherited a virtually bankrupt state from previous reigns, her frugal policies restored fiscal responsibility. Her fiscal restraint cleared the regime of debt by 1574, and this general peace and prosperity allowed the attractive developments that Golden Age advocates have stressed. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, high officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic. That would be a prelude to the recovery of England for Catholicism. In 1570, the Ridolfi plot was thwarted, in 1584, the Throckmorton Plot was discovered, after Francis Throckmorton confessed his involvement in a plot to overthrow the Queen and restore the Catholic Church in England
5.
Toilet (room)
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A toilet, in this sense, is a small room used for privately accessing the sanitation fixture for urination and defecation. Toilet rooms usually include a sink with soap for handwashing, as this is important for personal hygiene and this room is commonly known as a bathroom in American English, a loo in British English, and by many other names across the English-speaking world. Toilet originally referred to personal grooming and came by metonymy to be used for the rooms used for bathing, dressing. It was then used for the similarly private rooms used for urination and defecation. By metonymy, it came to refer directly to the fixtures in such rooms. At present, the word refers primarily to such fixtures and using toilet to refer to the room or activity is somewhat blunt and it is, however, a useful term since it is quickly understood by English-speakers across the world, whereas more polite terms vary by region. Lavatory was common in the 19th century and is broadly understood, although it is taken as quite formal in American English. The contraction lav is commonly used in British English, in American English, the most common term for a private toilet is bathroom, regardless of whether a bathtub or shower is present. Other terms are used, some as part of a regional dialect. Some forms of jargon have their own terms for toilets, including lavatory on commercial airplanes, head on ships, larger houses often have a secondary room with a toilet and sink for use by guests. These are typically known as powder rooms or half baths in North America, the main item in the room is the sanitation fixture itself, the toilet. This may be the sort, which is plumbed into a cistern operated by a ballcock. Or it may be a dry model, which does not need water, the toilet room may also include a plunger, a rubber or plastic tool mounted on a handle, which is used to removing blockages from the toilet drain. Toilets often have a mirror above the sink for grooming, checking ones appearance and/or makeup. Some toilets have a cupboard where cleaning supplies and personal hygiene products may be kept, methods of anal cleansing vary between cultures. If the norm is to use paper, then typically the room will have a toilet roll holder, if instead, people are used to cleaning themselves with water, then the room may include a bidet shower or a bidet. Toilets such as the Washlet, popular in Japan, provide an automatic washing function, the room may also include a plunger, a rubber or plastic tool mounted on a handle, which is used to removing blockages from the toilet drain. If it is a toilet, then the room usually also includes a toilet brush for cleaning the bowl
6.
Pail closet
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A pail closet or pail privy was a room used for the disposal of human excreta, under the pail system of waste removal. The closet was a small outhouse which contained a seat, underneath which a portable receptacle was placed and this bucket, into which the user would defecate, was removed and emptied by the local authority on a regular basis. The contents would either be incinerated or composted into fertiliser, the pail closet was an evolution of the midden closet, an impractical and unsanitary amenity considered a nuisance to public health. The pail system was popular in France and England, particularly in the historic Lancashire town of Rochdale, the pail closet was not without its own problems, if the pail was not emptied on a regular basis, it overflowed and became unhygienic. Some manufacturers lined the pail with absorbent materials, and other designs used mixtures of dry earth or ash to disguise the smell, improved water supplies and sewerage systems in England led directly to the replacement of the pail closet during the early 20th century. Municipal collection of pail toilets continued in Australia into the half of the twentieth century. In the western world, it has now been almost completely replaced by the flush toilet, pail closets were used to dispose of human excreta, dirty water, and general household waste such as kitchen refuse and sweepings. The pail closet system was one of methods of waste disposal in common use in the 19th century, others of which were the privy midden system, the pail system. By 1869, Manchester had a population of about 354,000 people who were served by about 10,000 water closets and 38,000 middensteads. An investigation of the condition of the sewer network revealed that it was choked up with an accumulation of solid filth. Such problems forced the city authorities to consider methods of dealing with human excretion. Manchester was one city and by 1877 its authorities had replaced about 40,000 middens with pail and midden closets. The soil surrounding the old middens was cleared out, connections with drains and sewers removed, the midden closet was a development of the privy, which had evolved from the primitive fosse ditch. Midden closets were used in the latter part of the 19th century but were rapidly falling out of favour. A Mr Redgrave, in a speech to the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1876, the 1868 Rivers Pollution Commission reported two years later, privies and ashpits are continually to be seen full to overflowing and as filthy as can be. These middens are cleaned out whenever notice is given that they need it, probably once half-yearly on an average, midden closets were, therefore, generally insanitary and were also difficult to empty and clean. This closet was also designed with an opening through which deodorising material could be scattered over the top of the pit. A special ventilation shaft was also installed and it was widespread in Australia too
7.
Outhouse
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An outhouse, also known by many other names, is a small structure, separate from a main building, which covers one or more toilets. This is typically either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet, the term may also be used to denote the toilet itself, not just the superstructure. Outhouses were in use in cities of developed countries well into the half of the twentieth century. They are still common in areas and also in cities of developing countries. Outhouses that are covering pit latrines in densely populated areas can cause groundwater pollution. In some localities and varieties of English, particularly outside North America, the term refers not to a toilet. Outhouses vary in design and construction and they are by definition outside the dwelling, and are not connected to plumbing, sewer, or septic system. The World Health Organization recommends they be built a distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell. The superstructure exists to shelter the user, and also to protect the toilet itself, the primary purpose of the building is for privacy and human comfort, so that the user is not exposed and does not get wet when it is raining or cold when it is windy. Walls and a roof for privacy and to shield the user from the elements—rain, wind, sleet and snow —and thus to a small degree, Outhouses are commonly humble and utilitarian, made of lumber or plywood. This is especially so they can easily be moved when the pit fills up. Depending on the size of the pit and the amount of use, as pundit Jackpine Bob Cary wrote, Anyone can build an outhouse, but not everyone can build a good outhouse. Floor plans typically are rectangular or square, but hexagonal outhouses have been built, the arrangements inside the outhouse vary by culture. In Western societies, many, though not all, have at least one seat with a hole in it, others, often in more rural, older areas in European countries, simply have a hole with two indents on either side for your feet. In Eastern societies, there is a hole in the floor, a roll of toilet paper is usually available. Old corn cobs, leaves, or other types of paper are also used, the decoration on the outhouse door has no standard. The well-known crescent moon on American outhouses was popularized by cartoonists and had a basis in fact. There are authors who claim the practice began during the period as an early mens/ladies designation for an illiterate populace
8.
Changing room
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A changing room, locker room, dressing room or changeroom is a room or area designated for changing ones clothes. Changing rooms are provided in a situation to enable people to change clothes in privacy. Separate changing rooms may be provided for men and women, or there may be a non-gender specific open space with individual cubicles or stalls, sometimes a person may change his or her clothes in a toilet cubicle of a washroom. Many changing rooms include washrooms and showers, sometimes a changing room exists as a small portion of a washroom. For example, the mens and womens washrooms in Torontos Dundas Square each include an area which is a blank counter space at the end of a row of sinks. In this case, the facility is primarily a washroom, and its use as a room is minimal. Larger changing rooms are found at public beaches, or other bathing areas, where most of the space is for changing. Beach-style changing rooms are large open rooms with benches against the walls. Some do not have a roof, providing just the necessary to prevent persons outside from seeing in. Various types of changing rooms exist, changing stalls are small stalls where clothes can be changed in privacy. They are used for swimming purposes, locker rooms are usually gender-specific spaces where clothes are changed and stored in lockers. They are often used for swimming or other sporting purposes and they are open spaces with no stalls. Fitting rooms, or dressing rooms, are usually small single-user cubicles where a person may try on clothes and these are often found at retail stores where one would want to try on clothes before purchasing them. Green rooms and trap rooms are usually mixed-gender backstage or under-stage changing spaces found at theaters, changing stalls are small stalls where clothers can be changed in privacy. Clothes are usually stored in lockers, there are usually no separate areas for men and women. They are often combined with gender-separated communal showers, most public pools have changing facilities of this kind alongside communal changing rooms. Locker rooms are named because they provide lockers for the storage of ones belongings. Alternatively, they may have a room attendant who will keep a persons belongings until one comes to retrieve them
9.
Pantry
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A pantry is a room where beverages, food, and sometimes dishes, household cleaning chemicals, linens, or provisions are stored. Food and beverage pantries serve in a capacity to the kitchen. The word pantry derive from the source as the Old French term paneterie, that is from pain. In a late medieval hall, there were rooms for the various service functions. A pantry was where bread was kept and food associated with it was done. The head of the responsible for this room was referred to as a pantler. There were similar rooms for storage of bacon and other meats, alcoholic beverages known for the butts of barrels stored there), and cooking. In the United States, pantries evolved from early Colonial American butteries, built in a cold north corner of a Colonial home, into a variety of pantries in self-sufficient farmsteads. By the Victorian era, large houses and estates in Britain maintained the use of rooms, each one dedicated to a distinct stage of food preparation. The kitchen was for cooking, while food storage was done in a storeroom, food preparation before cooking was done in a larder, and dishwashing was done in a scullery or pantry, depending on the type of dish and level of dirt. Since the scullery was the room with running water, it had a sink, the pantry was where tableware was stored, such as china, glassware, and silverware. If the pantry had a sink for washing tableware, it was a wooden sink lined with lead, to prevent chipping the china, in some middle-class houses, the larder, pantry, and storeroom might simply be large wooden cupboards, each with its exclusive purpose. The pantry is making a comeback in American and English homes and it is one of the most requested features in American homes today, despite modern homes having larger kitchen sizes than ever before. The demand is due both to the charm and nostalgia associated with the pantry, as well as to the pantrys practical, utilitarian purpose. Today, the term may also be used for any small storeroom used for foods such as canned goods, it need not be located near the kitchen. Traditionally, kitchens in Asia have been more open format than those of the West, the function of the pantry was generally served by wooden cabinetry. For example, in Japan, a cabinet is called a Mizuya Tansu. A substantial tradition around woodworking and cabinetry in general developed in Japan, a huge number of designs for Tansu were made, each tailored towards one specific purpose or another
10.
House
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Houses use a range of different roofing systems to keep precipitation such as rain from getting into the dwelling space. Houses may have doors or locks to secure the dwelling space, most conventional modern houses in Western cultures will contain one or more bedrooms and bathrooms, a kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. A house may have a dining room, or the eating area may be integrated into another room. Some large houses in North America have a recreation room, in traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock may share part of the house with humans. The social unit that lives in a house is known as a household, most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups, such as roommates or, in a rooming house, unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a space for one family or similar-sized group. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as a garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment, a house may have a backyard or frontyard, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. The English word house derives directly from the Old English Hus meaning dwelling, shelter, home, house, the house itself gave rise to the letter B through an early Proto-Semitic hieroglyphic symbol depicting a house. The symbol was called bayt, bet or beth in various related languages, and became beta, ideally, architects of houses design rooms to meet the needs of the people who will live in the house. Such designing, known as design, has become a popular subject in universities. Feng shui can also mean the aura in or around a dwelling, making it comparable to the real-estate sales concept of indoor-outdoor flow, the square footage of a house in the United States reports the area of living space, excluding the garage and other non-living spaces. The square metres figure of a house in Europe reports the area of the enclosing the home. The number of floors or levels making up the house can affect the square footage of a home, many houses have several large rooms with specialized functions and several very small rooms for other various reasons. These may include an area, a sleeping area, and separate or combined washing. Some larger properties may also feature such as a spa room, indoor pool, indoor basketball court. In traditional agriculture-oriented societies, domestic animals such as chickens or larger livestock often share part of the house with human beings, most conventional modern houses will at least contain a bedroom, bathroom, kitchen or cooking area, and a living room. Little is known about the earliest origin of the house and its interior, roman architect Vitruvius theories have claimed the first form of architecture as a frame of timber branches finished in mud, also known as the primitive hut. Philip Tabor later states the contribution of 17th century Dutch houses as the foundation of houses today, as far as the idea of the home is concerned, the home of the home is the Netherlands
