1.
Munster
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Munster is one of the provinces of Ireland situated in the south of Ireland. In early Ireland, it was one of the fifths ruled by a king of over-kings Irish, following the Norman invasion of Ireland, the ancient kingdoms were shired into counties for administrative and judicial purposes. In later centuries, local government legislation has seen further sub-division of the historic counties, Munster has no official function for local government purposes. For the purposes of the ISO, the province is listed as one of the provincial sub-divisions of the State, geographically, Munster covers a total area of 24,675 km2 and has a population of 1,246,088 with the most populated city being Cork. Other significant urban centres in the province include Limerick and Waterford, in the early centuries AD, Munster was the domain of the Iverni peoples and the Clanna Dedad familial line, led by Cú Roí and to whom the king Conaire Mór also belonged. In the 5th century, Saint Patrick spent several years in the area and founded Christian churches, during the Early Middle Ages, most of the area was part of the Kingdom of Munster, ruled by the Eóganachta dynasty. Prior to this, the area was ruled by the Dáirine and Corcu Loígde overlords from the early 7th century onwards, later rulers from the Eóganachta who would dominate a greater part of Ireland were Cathal mac Finguine and Feidlimid mac Cremthanin. Notable regional kingdoms and lordships of Early Medieval Munster were Iarmuman, Osraige, Uí Liatháin, Uí Fidgenti, Éile, Múscraige, Ciarraige Luachra, Corcu Duibne, Corcu Baiscinn, around this period Ossory broke away from Munster. The 10th century saw the rise of the Dalcassian clan, who had earlier annexed Thomond and their leaders were the ancestors of the OBrien dynasty and spawned Brian Boru, perhaps the most noted High King of Ireland, and several of whose descendants were also High Kings. By 1118 Munster had fractured into the Kingdom of Thomond under the OBriens, the Kingdom of Desmond under the MacCarthy dynasty, the three crowns of the flag of Munster represent these three late kingdoms. The OBrien of Thomond and MacCarthy of Desmond surrendered and regranted sovereignty to the Tudors in 1543 and 1565, the impactful Desmond Rebellions, led by the FitzGeralds, soon followed. By the mid-19th century much of the area was hit hard in the Great Famine, the province was affected by events in the Irish War of Independence in the early 20th century, and there was a brief Munster Republic during the Irish Civil War. The Irish leaders Michael Collins and earlier Daniel OConnell came from families of the old Gaelic Munster gentry, noted for its traditions in Irish folk music, and with many ancient castles and monasteries in the province, Munster is a tourist destination. During the fifth century, St. Patrick spent seven years founding churches and ordaining priests in Munster, but a fifth century bishop named Ailbe is the patron saint of Munster. In Irish mythology, a number of goddesses are associated with the province including Anann, Áine, Grian, Clíodhna, Aimend, Mór Muman, Bébinn, Aibell. Each is historically associated with certain septs of the nobility, the druid-god of Munster is Mug Ruith. The province has long had trading and cultural links with continental Europe, the tribe of Corcu Loígde had a trading fleet active along the French Atlantic coast, as far south as Gascony, importing wine to Munster. The Eóganachta had ecclesiastical ties with Germany, which show in the architecture of their capital at the Rock of Cashel
2.
Republic of Ireland
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Ireland, also known as the Republic of Ireland, is a sovereign state in north-western Europe occupying about five-sixths of the island of Ireland. The capital and largest city is Dublin, which is located on the part of the island. The state shares its land border with Northern Ireland, a part of the United Kingdom. It is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the Celtic Sea to the south, Saint Georges Channel to the south-east, and it is a unitary, parliamentary republic. The head of government is the Taoiseach, who is elected by the Dáil and appointed by the President, the state was created as the Irish Free State in 1922 as a result of the Anglo-Irish Treaty. It was officially declared a republic in 1949, following the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, Ireland became a member of the United Nations in December 1955. It joined the European Economic Community, the predecessor of the European Union, after joining the EEC, Ireland enacted a series of liberal economic policies that resulted in rapid economic growth. The country achieved considerable prosperity between the years of 1995 and 2007, which known as the Celtic Tiger period. This was halted by a financial crisis that began in 2008. However, as the Irish economy was the fastest growing in the EU in 2015, Ireland is again quickly ascending league tables comparing wealth and prosperity internationally. For example, in 2015, Ireland was ranked as the joint sixth most developed country in the world by the United Nations Human Development Index and it also performs well in several national performance metrics, including freedom of the press, economic freedom and civil liberties. Ireland is a member of the European Union and is a member of the Council of Europe. The 1922 state, comprising 26 of the 32 counties of Ireland, was styled, the Constitution of Ireland, adopted in 1937, provides that the name of the State is Éire, or, in the English language, Ireland. Section 2 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948 states, It is hereby declared that the description of the State shall be the Republic of Ireland. The 1948 Act does not name the state as Republic of Ireland, because to have done so would have put it in conflict with the Constitution. The government of the United Kingdom used the name Eire, and, from 1949, Republic of Ireland, for the state, as well as Ireland, Éire or the Republic of Ireland, the state is also referred to as the Republic, Southern Ireland or the South. In an Irish republican context it is referred to as the Free State or the 26 Counties. From the Act of Union on 1 January 1801, until 6 December 1922, during the Great Famine, from 1845 to 1849, the islands population of over 8 million fell by 30%
3.
Nenagh
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Nenagh is the county town and second largest town in County Tipperary in Ireland. It is a parish in the historical barony of Ormond Lower. It is also an Ecclesiastical parish in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Killaloe, Nenagh was originally a market town, and its name in Irish means The Fair of Ormond – a reference to the Ormond Fair, of which it was the site. Nenagh is today a commercial town and is governed by Nenagh Town council. The Silvermine Mountain range lies to the south of the town, the Silvermines have been intermittently mined for silver and base metals for over seven hundred years. Traces of 19th century mine workings remain, the towns historic attractions include Nenagh Castle, the Heritage Centre and the ruined Franciscan abbey. It has a climate, with the average daily maximum in July of 19 °C. Nenagh is located in the Barony of Ormond Lower which was the territory of the OKennedys prior to the Norman invasion of Ireland. This land was included in the grant made by King John of England to Theobald, Theobald was subsequently appointed Chief Butler of Ireland. Nenagh Castle was built c.1216 and was the castle of the Butler family before they moved to Gowran. The family later purchased Kilkenny Castle which was to be the seat of their power for the next 500 years. The town was one of the ancient manors of the Butlers who received the grant of a fair from Henry VIII of England and they also founded the medieval priory and hospital of St John the Baptist, just outside the town at Tyone. A small settlement grew up around the castle, but it never seems to have been of any great importance other than as a market throughout the medieval period. The Abbey was in use for six hundred years, Fr. Patrick Harty, the Butlers who descended from the 1st Baronlater became Earls of Ormond. Nenagh remained their principal seat until 1391 when it was moved to Kilkenny Castle, in the rebellion of 1641 Neagh Castle was garrisoned by Sir George Hamilton for the twelfth Earl. After the Restoration, Sir William Flower came along in 1660 on behalf of the Marchioness of Ormond who had the ownership of the Manor on her marriage settlements, the last Marquess died in 1997. Without a male heir the marquessate became extinct, while the earldom is dormant, the town seems to have been refounded in the 16th century. In 1550 the town and friary were burned by OCarroll, in 1641 the town was captured by Red Owen ONeill, but shortly afterwards it was recaptured by Lord Inchiquin
4.
Roscrea
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Roscrea is a historical market town in County Tipperary, Ireland. In 2011 the town had a population of 5,403 and its main industries include meat processing and pharmaceuticals. It is one of civil parishes in the historical barony of Ikerrin. It is also an Ecclesiastical parish in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Killaloe, the town is one of the oldest in Ireland which developed around the ancient monastery of Saint Crónán of Roscrea, parts of which remain preserved today. Roscrea is a designated Irish Heritage Town due to the extent of important historical buildings that are preserved in the town, amongst the most notable buildings of interest are the 13th century Roscrea Castle and Damer House on Castle Street. Within the town are the remains of the ancient Romanesque doorway, the Round Tower and the High cross of the ancient monastery are also located nearby. Also of interest in the town are the remains of the 15th century Franciscan Friary and Monaincha and it is 71 km from Limerick City in the west and 122 km from Dublin City in the east. It is at the crossroads of the M7 motorway between Dublin and Limerick and the N62 between Athlone and Horse and Jockey and it is possible the route formed much of the old N7 route now the R445 which originally passed through the town. Roscrea is well connected by bus routes, route 12 connects Dublin and Limerick and connections are available hourly. A private bus contractor, JJ Kavanagh and Sons, provides bus services to Dublin. Roscrea railway station is on the Limerick–Ballybrophy railway line, at Ballybrophy it joins the main Cork-Dublin line. At one time there was a branch from Roscrea to nearby Birr in County Offaly, Roscrea railway station opened on 19 October 1857. A January 2012 national newspaper article suggested that Irish Rail was expected to seek permission from the National Transport Authority to close the Limerick–Ballybrophy railway line, an enhanced timetable was operated between February 2012 and January 2013 before services were downgraded again. 3 km from the town is a Cistercian monastery, Mount St. Joseph Abbey, notable architectural features include the round tower, Roscrea Castle, the Damer House complex and the Fancy Fountain. The latter feature was re-located from the old Market Square at the foot of Main Street to its present site in Rosemary Square, early History & Medieval Period c. 550–1500 Roscrea has historically been an important trading town, the settlement grew around an ancient church or monastery, founded by St. Cronan in the late 6th century. The town is situated strategically in a gap in the hills on one of the ancient roads of Ireland. It became an important ecclesiastical centre evidenced by the beautiful west gable of a Romanesque church, a 12th-century sculptured High Cross, the round tower has a doorway 4.6 m from the ground and is the oldest surviving part of the ancient monastery
5.
Birr, County Offaly
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Birr is a town in County Offaly, Ireland. It was formerly called Parsonstown, after the Parsons family who were landowners and hereditary Earls of Rosse. The town lies within a parish of the name in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Killaloe. Birr is a designated Irish Heritage Town with a carefully preserved Georgian heritage, Birr itself has graceful wide streets and elegant buildings. Many of the houses in Johns Place and Oxmantown Mall have exquisite fanlight windows of the Georgian period. The town is known for Birr Castle and its gardens, home of the Parsons family, the town is situated at the meeting of the Camcor and Little Brosna rivers which flow on into the River Shannon near Victoria Lock. Birr railway station opened on 8 March 1858, but finally closed on 1 January 1963, the Ormond Flying Club has been in operation at Birr Airfield for over 30 years. The area has been linked with aviation for some time – as a British Army airstrip was previously near the current field, Birr lies on the N52 and N62 national secondary roads. The routes are combined as they pass through Birr, the R439, R440 and R489 regional roads also terminate in the town. Bus Éireann provide public services to the town. The Athlone to Limerick service regularly passes through the town daily, kearns privately owned bus service provides a number of direct bus services to Dublin from Birr. A monastery was founded here by St Brendan of Birr and it produced the MacRegol Gospels, named after the abbot at the turn of the 8th/9th century and now to be seen in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The Synod of Birr, held in 697, was the occasion on which the Cáin Adomnáin, in Gaelic Ireland, Birr was located in the OCarroll territory of Éile. This petty kingdom formed an area now forms the south of County Offaly. The tuatha was subject to the overkingdom of Munster and formed a border with the Kingdom of Meath to the east, the boundary between Ely OCarroll and the ancient Meath is co-terminous with the present boundary between the Diocese of Killaloe and the Diocese of Meath. The OCarroll family had a located at the present site of Birr Castle. Following the Plantations of Ireland, Birr was located in the Barony of Ballybritt following the formation of Kings County in 1556, the town itself is an old market and former garrison town dating to the 1620s. The town was also the location of the Crotty Schism, one of the few schisms to affect the Catholic Church in Ireland in the 19th century
6.
River Shannon
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The River Shannon is the longest river in Ireland at 360.5 km. It drains the Shannon River Basin which has an area of 16,865 km2, the Shannon divides the west of Ireland from the east and south. County Clare, being west of the Shannon but part of the province of Munster, is the major exception. The river represents a physical barrier between east and west, with fewer than thirty crossing-points between Limerick city in the south and the village of Dowra in the north. The river is named after Sionna, a Celtic goddess, the Shannon has been an important waterway since antiquity, having first been mapped by the Graeco-Egyptian geographer Ptolemy. The river flows southwards from the Shannon Pot in County Cavan before turning west. Limerick city stands at the point where the water meets the sea water of the estuary. The Shannon is tidal east of Limerick as far as the base of the Ardnacrusha dam. By tradition the Shannon is said to rise in the Shannon Pot, surveys have defined a 12.8 km2 immediate pot catchment area covering the slopes of Cuilcagh. This area includes Garvah Lough, Cavan,2.2 km to the northeast, further sinks that source the pot include Pollboy and, through Shannon Cave, Pollahune in Cavan and Polltullyard and Tullynakeeragh in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland. The highest point in the catchment is a spring at Tiltinbane on the end of the Cuilcagh mountain ridge. From the Shannon Pot, the river subsumes a number of tributaries before replenishing Lough Allen at its head. The river runs through or between 11 of Irelands counties, subsuming the tributary rivers Boyle, Inny, Suck, Mulkear and Brosna, among others, many different values have been given for the length of the Shannon. A traditional value is 390 km, an official Irish source gives a total length of 360.5 km. Most Irish guides now give 344 km, some academic sources give 280 km, although most will refuse to give a number. The reason is there is no particular end to a river that empties into an estuary. The 344 km length relates to the distance between Shannon Pot and a line between Kerry Head and Loop Head, the furthest reaches of the land, the 280 km distance finishes where the Shannon estuary joins the estuary of the River Fergus, close to Shannon Airport. Longer distances emerged before the use of surveying instruments
7.
Church of Ireland
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The Church of Ireland is a Christian church in Ireland and an autonomous province of the Anglican Communion. It is organised on a basis and is the second-largest Christian church on the island after the Catholic Church in Ireland. Like other Anglican churches, it has retained elements of pre-Reformation practice, notably its episcopal polity, nevertheless, in theological and liturgical matters, it incorporates many principles of the Reformation, particularly those espoused during the English Reformation. The church self identifies as being both Catholic and Reformed, within the church, differences exist between those members who are more Catholic-leaning and those who are more Protestant-leaning. For historical and cultural reasons, the Church of Ireland is generally identified as a Protestant church, the Church of Ireland is the second-largest in the Republic of Ireland, with around 130,000 members, and the third-largest in Northern Ireland, with around 260,000 members. The Church of Ireland describes itself as part of the Irish Church which was influenced by the Reformation. However, the Church of Ireland is also Protestant, or Reformed, since it opposes doctrines and ways of worshiping that it considers contrary to scripture and which led to the Reformation. When the Church of England broke communion with the Holy See, all, the church then became the established church of Ireland, assuming possession of most church property. This church-state link was vigorously applied when the Normans came to Ireland in the 12th century, Bishops were required to do homage to the king for their lands, just like earls and barons, who were vassals of the crown. It was therefore accepted, both during and after the Reformation, that the crown should continue to exercise authority over the church. In this way, church property that existed at the time of the Reformation, in Ireland, the substantial majority of the population continued to adhere to Roman Catholicism, despite the political and economic advantages of membership in the state church. Legitimacy for the Norman invasion of Ireland was derived from a Papal Bull of 1155 – Laudabiliter, the bull gave King Henry II of England authority to invade Ireland ostensibly as a means of reforming the church in Ireland more directly under the control of the Holy See. The authorisation from the Holy See was based upon the Donation of Constantine which made every Christian island in the western Roman Empire the property of the Papacy. The Church of Ireland is the second largest church in Ireland, the Church of Ireland began as a reformed church independent of the Catholic Church in 1536 when the Irish Parliament declared King Henry VIII to be the Supreme Head of the Church on earth. He would not legally become king of Ireland until 1541, adrian granted Henry II the Lordship of Ireland, thus, Henrys assumption of the title of King had less to do with dispossessing the native Irish kings than with confronting the Pope. The reformation commenced mainly in Dublin under the auspices of George Browne during Henrys reign, when the Church of England was reformed under King Edward VI of England, so too was the Church of Ireland. All but two of the Irish bishops appointed by Queen Mary accepted the Elizabethan Settlement, although the vast majority of priests, the Church of Ireland claims Apostolic succession because of the unbroken continuity of the episcopal hierarchy, however, this is disputed by the Roman Catholic Church. In this way, they were able to conform to the established church whilst at the same time continuing to worship. in the traditional
8.
Methodism
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Methodism, or the Methodist movement, is a group of historically related denominations of Protestant Christianity which derive their inspiration from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and Johns brother Charles Wesley were also significant leaders in the movement and it originated as a revival within the 18th century Church of England and became a separate Church after Wesleys death. Because of vigorous missionary work, the movement spread throughout the British Empire, Wesleys theology focused on sanctification and the effect of faith on the character of a Christian. Distinguishing Methodist doctrines include an assurance of salvation, imparted righteousness, the possibility of perfection in love, the works of piety and the primacy of Scripture. Most Methodists teach that Jesus Christ, the Son of God, died for all of humanity and that salvation is available for all, in theology and this teaching rejects the Calvinist position that God has pre-ordained the salvation of a select group of people. However, Whitefield and several others were considered Calvinistic Methodists and held to the latter position, Methodism emphasises charity and support for the sick, the poor and the afflicted through the works of mercy. These ideals are put into practice by the establishment of hospitals, orphanages, soup kitchens and schools to follow Christs command to spread the gospel, the movement has a wide variety of forms of worship, ranging from high church to low church in liturgical usage. Denominations that descend from the British Methodist tradition are generally less ritualistic, Methodism is known for its rich musical tradition and Charles Wesley was instrumental in writing much of the hymnody of the Methodist Church. In Britain, the Methodist Church had an effect in the early decades of the making of the working class. In the United States, it became the religion of many slaves who later formed black churches in the Methodist tradition. The Methodist revival began with a group of men, including John Wesley and his younger brother Charles, the Wesley brothers founded the Holy Club at the University of Oxford, where John was a fellow and later a lecturer at Lincoln College. The club met weekly and they set about living a holy life. They were accustomed to receiving Communion every week, fasting regularly, abstaining from most forms of amusement and luxury and frequently visited the sick, the fellowship were branded as Methodist by their fellow students because of the way they used rule and method to go about their religious affairs. John, who was leader of the club, took the attempted mockery, unsuccessful in their work, the brothers returned to England conscious of their lack of genuine Christian faith. They looked for help to Peter Boehler and other members of the Moravian Church, at a Moravian service in Aldersgate on 24 May 1738, John experienced what has come to be called his evangelical conversion, when he felt his heart strangely warmed. Charles had reported an experience an few days previously. Considered a pivotal moment, Daniel L. John Wesley came under the influence of the Dutch theologian Jacobus Arminius, Arminius had rejected the Calvinist teaching that God had pre-ordained an elect number of people to eternal bliss while others perished eternally. Conversely, George Whitefield, Howell Harris, and Selina Hastings, George Whitefield, returning from his own mission in Georgia, joined the Wesley brothers in what was rapidly to become a national crusade
9.
Moneygall
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Moneygall is a small village on the border of counties Offaly and Tipperary, in Ireland. It is situated on the R445 road between Dublin and Limerick, the 2011 Census counted 310 people in the village. This was an increase of 12 people since the census in 2006. Moneygall has a Catholic church, two shops, a post office, a school, a Garda station and two pubs. The nearest Church of Ireland church, Borrisnafarney, is 2 km from the village beside the former Loughton Demense. While all of the village is located in County Offaly, the Gaelic Athletic Association playing field is located in County Tipperary and it is part of the new Offaly constituency for the 2016 general election. Moneygall is on the R445 regional road and close to the M7 motorway where Junction 23 provides access to the village, Bus Éireann no longer provides a service to Moneygall but some of JJ Kavanagh and Sons services between Dublin Airport and Shannon Airport continue to stop in the village. There are two airstrips nearby one of which is Moneygall Aerodrome The closest airport with scheduled services is Shannon Airport in County Clare. Dublin Airport is easily accessible with direct Bus Éireann services, there is one Catholic national school in the village. The former Church of Ireland school was built in 1888 beside the Borrisokane turn-off, and closed in 1976, an earlier building, constructed around 1800, was previously used as a school. It was then used by the local Church of Ireland community as a chapel of ease until the late 1970s and it has now been converted to a private residence. Children travel mainly to either Roscrea or Nenagh for secondary schooling, the nearest third-level institutions are Tipperary Institute in Thurles or the University of Limerick, Limerick Institute of Technology and Mary Immaculate College, all of which are in Limerick. Kearneys father, Joseph, had been the village shoemaker, then a prosperous, the whole Kearney family emigrated to Ross County, Ohio, in the first half of the 19th century. Falmouth Kearneys youngest daughter, Mary Ann, moved from Indiana to Kansas after her fathers death in 1878, Mary Ann Kearney was a paternal grandmother of Stanley Dunham, President Obamas maternal grandfather. On 23 May 2011, Obama and his First Lady, Michelle Obama and they arrived to a rapturous reception by 5,000 people. Afterwards, they visited Ollie Hayess pub to meet more of the Presidents distant relatives, President and Mrs. Obama drank Irish stout to the traditional toast, sláinte, and Mrs. Obama went behind the bar to learn how to pull a pint. The Barack Obama Plaza service area was opened at Junction 23 of the M7 on the outskirts of Moneygall in June 2014
10.
History of Ireland
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Christianity subsumed or replaced the earlier polytheism and other forms of Celtic paganism by the end of the 7th century. The Norman invasion of the late 12th century marked the beginning of more than 800 years of direct English rule and, later, in 1177 Prince John Lackland was made Lord of Ireland by his father Henry II of England at the Council of Oxford. The Crown did not attempt to assert control of the island until the rebellion of the Earl of Kildare threatened English hegemony. Henry VIII proclaimed himself King of Ireland and also tried to introduce the English Reformation, attempts to either conquer or assimilate the Irish lordships into the Kingdom of Ireland provided the initial impetus for a series of Irish military campaigns between 1534 and 1603. As the military and political defeat of Gaelic Ireland became more pronounced in the seventeenth century. The 1614 overthrow of the Catholic majority in the Irish Parliament was realised principally through the creation of new boroughs which were dominated by the new settlers. By the end of the century, recusants, representing some 85% of Irelands population, were then banned from the Irish Parliament. Protestant domination of Ireland was confirmed after two periods of war between Catholics and Protestants in 1641-52 and 1689-91, although promised a repeal of the Test Act, Catholics were not granted full rights until Catholic Emancipation was attained throughout the new UK in 1829. This was followed by the first Reform Act 1832, a condition of which was the removal of the poorer British and Irish freeholders from the franchise. The Easter Rising staged by two years later brought physical force republicanism back to the forefront of Irish politics. The six northeastern counties, known as Northern Ireland, remained within the United Kingdom, the Irish Civil War followed soon after the War of Independence. The history of Northern Ireland has since dominated by sporadic sectarian conflict between Irish nationalists and unionists. This conflict erupted into the Troubles in the late 1960s, until peace was achieved with the Belfast Agreement thirty years later, what is known of pre-Christian Ireland comes from references in Roman writings, Irish poetry and myth, and archaeology. While some possible Paleolithic tools have been found, none of the finds are convincing of Paleolithic settlement in Ireland. However a bear found in Alice and Gwendoline Cave, County Clare. The bone shows signs of cut marks with stone tools. The people remained hunter-gatherers until about 6000 BCE, some of these tombs, as at Knowth and Dowth, are huge stone monuments and many of them, such as the Passage Tombs of Newgrange, are astronomically aligned. Four main types of Irish Megalithic Tombs have been identified, dolmens, court cairns, passage tombs, in Leinster and Munster, individual adult males were buried in small stone structures, called cists, under earthen mounds and were accompanied by distinctive decorated pottery
11.
Butler
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A butler is a domestic worker in a large household. In great houses, the household is sometimes divided into departments with the butler in charge of the room, wine cellar. Some also have charge of the entire floor, and housekeepers caring for the entire house. A butler is usually male, and in charge of male servants, while a housekeeper is usually a woman, traditionally, male servants were rarer and therefore better paid and of higher status than female servants. The butler, as the male servant, has the highest servant status. He can also be used as a chauffeur. The precise duties of the employee will vary to some extent in line with the title given, in the grandest homes or when the employer owns more than one residence, there is sometimes an estate manager of higher rank than the butler. The butler was also the steward in a lascar ships crew. In Britain, the butler was originally a member of the staff of a grand household. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the butler gradually became the senior, usually male, member of a households staff in the very grandest households. However, there was sometimes a steward who ran the estate and financial affairs, rather than just the household. To Butler, To butler, to dispense wines or liquors, the modern role of the butler has evolved from earlier roles that were generally concerned with the care and serving of alcoholic beverages. The care of these assets was therefore generally reserved for trusted slaves, the biblical book of Genesis contains a reference to a role precursive to modern butlers. The early Hebrew Joseph interpreted a dream of Pharaohs שקה, which is most often translated into English as chief butler or chief cup-bearer. In ancient Greece and Rome, it was nearly always slaves who were charged with the care and service of wine, while during the Medieval Era the pincerna], the modern English butler thus relates both to bottles and casks. Eventually the European butler emerged as a member of the servants of a great house. While this is so for household butlers, those with the same title, the Steward of the Elizabethan era was more akin to the butler that later emerged. In the very grandest households there was sometimes an Estate Steward or other senior steward who oversaw the butler and his duties
12.
Henry II of England
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Henry was the son of Geoffrey of Anjou and Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England. He became actively involved by the age of 14 in his mothers efforts to claim the throne of England, then occupied by Stephen of Blois and he inherited Anjou in 1151 and shortly afterwards married Eleanor of Aquitaine, whose marriage to Louis VII of France had recently been annulled. Stephen agreed to a treaty after Henrys military expedition to England in 1153. Henry was an energetic and sometimes ruthless ruler, driven by a desire to restore the lands and privileges of his royal grandfather, Henrys desire to reform the relationship with the Church led to conflict with his former friend Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. This controversy lasted for much of the 1160s and resulted in Beckets murder in 1170, Henry soon came into conflict with Louis VII and the two rulers fought what has been termed a cold war over several decades. By 1172, he controlled England, large parts of Wales, the half of Ireland and the western half of France. Henry and Eleanor had eight children, as they grew up, tensions over the future inheritance of the empire began to emerge, encouraged by Louis and his son King Philip II. In 1173 Henrys heir apparent, Young Henry, rebelled in protest, he was joined by his brothers Richard and Geoffrey and by their mother, France, Scotland, Flanders, and Boulogne allied themselves with the rebels. The Great Revolt was only defeated by Henrys vigorous military action and talented local commanders, many of them new men appointed for their loyalty, Young Henry and Geoffrey revolted again in 1183, resulting in Young Henrys death. The Norman invasion of Ireland provided lands for his youngest son John, Philip successfully played on Richards fears that Henry would make John king, and a final rebellion broke out in 1189. Decisively defeated by Philip and Richard and suffering from an ulcer, Henry retreated to Chinon in Anjou. Henrys empire quickly collapsed during the reign of his youngest son John, many of the changes Henry introduced during his long rule, however, had long-term consequences. Historical interpretations of Henrys reign have changed considerably over time, in the 18th century, scholars argued that Henry was a driving force in the creation of a genuinely English monarchy and, ultimately, a unified Britain. Late-20th-century historians have combined British and French historical accounts of Henry, Henry was born in France at Le Mans on 5 March 1133 as the eldest child of the Empress Matilda and her second husband, Geoffrey the Fair, Count of Anjou. In theory, the county answered to the French king, but royal power over Anjou weakened during the 11th century, Henrys mother, firstly married to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, was the eldest daughter of Henry I, King of England and Duke of Normandy. She was born into a ruling class of Normans, who traditionally owned extensive estates in both England and Normandy. Geoffrey took advantage of the confusion to attack the Duchy of Normandy but played no role in the English conflict, leaving this to Matilda and her half-brother. The war, termed the Anarchy by Victorian historians, dragged on, Henry probably spent some of his earliest years in his mothers household, and accompanied Matilda to Normandy in the late 1130s
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