1.
Romanization
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Romanization, in linguistics, is the conversion of writing from a different writing system to the Roman script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word, There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics, source, or donor language – A system may be tailored to romanize text from a particular language, or a series of languages, or for any language in a particular writing system. A language-specific system typically preserves language features like pronunciation, while the one may be better for cataloguing international texts. Target, or receiver language – Most systems are intended for an audience that speaks or reads a particular language and this affects the ease of creation, digital storage and transmission, reproduction, and reading of the romanized text. Reversibility – Whether or not the original can be restored from the converted text, some reversible systems allow for an irreversible simplified version. Most romanizations are intended to enable the reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language, the popular Hepburn romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers. The International Phonetic Alphabet is the most common system of phonetic transcription, for most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves tradeoffs between the two extremes. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written language, written native language. Reducing the number of processes, i. e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription, Romanization standards include the following, Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, Adopted by the International Convention of Orientalist Scholars in Rome. It is the basis for the very influential Hans Wehr dictionary, qalam, A system that focuses upon preserving the spelling, rather than the pronunciation, and uses mixed case ISO 233-2, Simplified transliteration. Buckwalter transliteration, Developed at Xerox by Tim Buckwalter, doesnt require unusual diacritics ALA-LC Arabic chat alphabet There are romanization systems for both Modern and Ancient Greek. ALA-LC Beta Code Greeklish ISO843 The Hebrew alphabet is romanized using several standards, ANSI Z39.25 UNGEGN ISO259, ALA-LC The Brahmic family of abugidas is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a tradition in the west to study Sanskrit. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones, ISO15919, A standard transliteration convention was codified in the ISO15919 standard. It uses diacritics to map the much larger set of Brahmic consonants, see also Transliteration of Indic scripts, how to use ISO15919
2.
Kabushiki gaisha
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A kabushiki gaisha or kabushiki kaisha, commonly abbreviated KK, is a type of company defined under the Companies Act of Japan. Often translated as stock company, joint-stock company, or stock corporation, in English, kabushiki kaisha is usually used while the original Japanese pronunciation is kabushiki gaisha due to rendaku. A kabushiki kaisha must include 株式会社 in its name, in a company name, 株式会社 can be used as a prefix or as a suffix. Many Japanese companies translate the phrase 株式会社 in their name as Co. Ltd. while others use the more Americanized translations Corporation or Incorporated. English texts often refer to kabushiki gaisha as joint stock companies, while this is close to a translation of the term. The Japanese government previously endorsed business corporation as an official translation, the first kabushiki gaisha was the First National Bank of Japan, incorporated in 1873. Rules regarding kabushiki gaisha were set out in the Commercial Code of Japan, over time, Japanese and U. S. corporate law diverged, and K. K. assumed many characteristics not found in U. S. corporations. For instance, a K. K. could not buy back its own stock, issue stock for a price of less than ¥50,000 per share, or operate with paid-in capital of less than ¥10 million. On June 29,2005, the Diet of Japan passed a new Companies Act, the new law greatly affected the formation and function of K. K. s and other Japanese business organizations, bringing them closer to their contemporary counterparts in the U. S. Prominent examples are the renaming of Nikon KK and Sony KK to Nikon Corporation and Sony Corporation, a kabushiki gaisha may be started with capital as low as ¥1, making the total cost of a K. K. incorporation approximately ¥240,000 in taxes and notarization fees. Under the old Commercial Code, a K. K, although seven incorporators were required as recently as the 1980s, a K. K. now only needs one incorporator, which may be an individual or a corporation. If there are multiple incorporators, they must sign an agreement before incorporating the company. K. to act beyond its purposes. Judicial or administrative scriveners are often hired to draft the purposes of a new company, the Corporation Code allows a K. K. The articles must be sealed by the incorporator and notarized by a notary public, in a direct incorporation, each incorporator receives a specified amount of stock as designated in the articles of incorporation. The other method is an incorporation by offering, in which each incorporator becomes the underwriter of a number of shares. As in a direct incorporation, the incorporators must then hold a meeting to appoint the initial directors. Any person wishing to receive shares must submit an application to the incorporator, capital must be received in a commercial bank account designated by the incorporator, and the bank must provide certification that payment has been made. Once the capital has received and certified, the incorporation may be registered at the Legal Affairs Bureau
3.
Animation studio
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An animation studio is a company producing animated media. They also own rights over merchandising and creative rights for characters created/held by the company, in some early cases, they also held patent rights over methods of animation used in certain studios that were used for boosting productivity. Overall, they are business concerns and can function as such in legal terms, currently there are about 201 animation studios dedicated to the production and distribution of animated films that are active. Few are actual production house where as others are corporate entities, many of these animation studios help with the fulfillment of animation works for big brand names and have carried out outsourced projects including Nemo. Though beaten to the post of being the first studio, Brays studio employee, Earl Hurd, the patents for animation systems using drawings on transparent celluloid sheets and a registration system that kept images steady were held under this firm. Bray also developed the basic division of labor used in animation studios. The biggest name in animation studios during this time was Disney Brothers Animation Studio, co-founded by Walt. Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, which laid the foundation for other studios to try to make full-length movies. In 1932 Flowers and Trees, a production by Walt Disney Productions and United Artists, won the first Academy Award for Best Animated Short Film. Disney continued to lead in technical prowess among studios for a long time afterwards, as can be seen with their achievements. In 1941, Otto Messmer created the first animated television commercials for Botany Tie ads/weather reports and they were shown on NBC-TV in New York until 1949. This marked the first forays of animation designed for the screen and was to be followed by the first animated series specifically made for television, Crusader Rabbit. It was in 1958 that The Huckleberry Hound Show claimed the title of being the first all new half-hour cartoon show, in 2002, Shrek, produced by DreamWorks and Pacific Data Images won the first Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Since then, Disney/Pixar have produced the most number of either to win or be nominated for the award. Direct-to-video animation has seen a rise, as a concept, in the Western markets, current studios such as Warner Bros. and early ones such as Fleischer Studios, started life as small, independent studios, being run by a very small core group. After being bought out or sold to companies, they eventually consolidated with other studios. The drawback of this setup was that there was now a major thrust towards profitability with the management acting as a damper towards creativity of these studios, examples of such co-operation are the joint ventures between DreamWorks and Paramount Pictures and that of Blue Sky Studios and 20th Century Fox. In 1961, these began to be aired in the USA. Toei Animation, formed in 1956, was the first Japanese animation studio of importance, after the formation of Toei Animation Co. Ltd. in 1956, the Japanese studios churned out minor works of animation
4.
Suginami
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Suginami is a special ward in Tokyo, Japan. In English, The English translation of its Japanese self-designation is Suginami City, as of May 1,2015, the ward has an estimated population of 561,700 and a population density of 16,490 persons per km². The total area is 34.06 km², Suginami occupies the western part of the ward area of Tokyo. Its neighbors include these special wards, to the east, Shibuya and Nakano, to the north, Nerima and its western neighbors are the cities of Mitaka and Musashino. The Kanda river passes through Suginami, the Zenpukuji river originates from Zenpukuji Park in western Suginami, and the Myoshoji river originates in Myoshoji Park, to the north of Ogikubo station. The name Suginami dates back to the early Edo period and is a version of Suginamiki. This name came about when a land baron, Lord Tadayoshi Okabe. The ward was founded on March 15,1947, in 1970,40 high school students were exposed to photochemical smog and required hospitalization. The incident attracted attention and increased awareness of the dangers of pollution. The following neighborhoods make up Suginami-ku, historically, Suginami has leaned toward liberal activism. In 1954, local housewives launched the Suginami Appeal against nuclear weapons, the ward has also passed an ordinance placing limits on the installation of security cameras. To combat burglaries, which reached a number of 1,710 in 2002. The ward urged residents to plant flowers facing the street, with the goal of increasing neighborhood watchfulness. In addition,9,600 volunteers were recruited for neighborhood safety patrols,200 security cameras were placed at crime-vulnerable areas, subsequent to the start of the program, burglaries were down 80% to 390 in 2008. As of 2006, the mayor of Suginami is Hiroshi Yamada, Suginami refused to connect to Japans Residents Basic Registry Network. As of 2005, it is implementing a measure to make registry optional, public high schools are operated by the Tokyo Metropolitan Government Board of Education. Bones is headquartered in Igusa, while Sunrise has its headquarters near the Kami-Igusa Station on the Seibu Shinjuku Line, bones was founded by former members of Sunrise, and staff at each company often help each other on projects. The Satelight studio, founded in Sapporo, relocated to the Asagaya neighborhood in 2006, in addition, many smaller studios are based here, as of 2006, over 70 studios were located in Suginami
5.
Aniplex
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Aniplex Inc. is a Japanese anime and music production owned by Sony Music Entertainment Japan and established in September 1995. Rurouni Kenshin, Charlotte, and Black Butler, additionally, Aniplex produces and distributes music and soundtrack records, including the original soundtracks for all of Sony Computer Entertainments computer and video games. Aniplex is also involved in merchandising, producing toys, games, stationery, food. In addition, Aniplex puts together events to promote their anime franchises, for example, in 2005 Aniplex held the Fullmetal Alchemist Festival which began with the Fullmetal Alchemist Tour at Universal Studios Japan. Originally known as Sony Pictures Entertainment Visual Works Inc. after becoming a completely owned by Sony Music Entertainment Japan. In April 2003, it changed its name to Aniplex Inc, in 2004, Aniplex launched the Sugi Label, which releases the works of Koichi Sugiyama—the composer of the music for Dragon Quest, but since 2009 it was sold to King Records. In March 2005, the company established its American affiliate company Aniplex of America, Aniplex has been involved with the following anime series. Anohana, The Flower We Saw That Day Aldnoah. Zero Arata-naru Sekai Baccano, dog Days D. Kara no Kyōkai Kamichu. O
6.
Japanese language
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Japanese is an East Asian language spoken by about 125 million speakers, primarily in Japan, where it is the national language. It is a member of the Japonic language family, whose relation to language groups, particularly to Korean. Little is known of the prehistory, or when it first appeared in Japan. Chinese documents from the 3rd century recorded a few Japanese words, during the Heian period, Chinese had considerable influence on the vocabulary and phonology of Old Japanese. Late Middle Japanese saw changes in features that brought it closer to the modern language, the standard dialect moved from the Kansai region to the Edo region in the Early Modern Japanese period. Following the end in 1853 of Japans self-imposed isolation, the flow of loanwords from European languages increased significantly, English loanwords in particular have become frequent, and Japanese words from English roots have proliferated. Japanese is an agglutinative, mora-timed language with simple phonotactics, a vowel system, phonemic vowel and consonant length. Word order is normally subject–object–verb with particles marking the grammatical function of words, sentence-final particles are used to add emotional or emphatic impact, or make questions. Nouns have no number or gender, and there are no articles. Verbs are conjugated, primarily for tense and voice, but not person, Japanese equivalents of adjectives are also conjugated. Japanese has a system of honorifics with verb forms and vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener. Japanese has no relationship with Chinese, but it makes extensive use of Chinese characters, or kanji, in its writing system. Along with kanji, the Japanese writing system uses two syllabic scripts, hiragana and katakana. Latin script is used in a fashion, such as for imported acronyms. Very little is known about the Japanese of this period, Old Japanese is the oldest attested stage of the Japanese language. Through the spread of Buddhism, the Chinese writing system was imported to Japan, the earliest texts found in Japan are written in Classical Chinese, but they may have been meant to be read as Japanese by the kanbun method. Some of these Chinese texts show the influences of Japanese grammar, in these hybrid texts, Chinese characters are also occasionally used phonetically to represent Japanese particles. The earliest text, the Kojiki, dates to the early 8th century, the end of Old Japanese coincides with the end of the Nara period in 794
7.
Hepburn romanization
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The system was originally proposed by the Romanization Club in 1885. The revised edition by Romaji-Hirome-kai in 1908 is called standard style romanization, Hepburn is based on English phonology and has competed with the alternative Nihon-shiki romanization, which was developed in Japan as a replacement of Japanese script. In 1930, a Special Romanization Study Commission was appointed to compare the two, the ordinance was temporarily overturned by the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers during the Occupation of Japan, but was reissued in 1954. In 1972, a version of Hepburn was codified as ANSI standard Z39. 11-1972. It was proposed in 1989 as a draft for ISO3602, the ANSI Z39. 11-1972 standard was consequently deprecated on October 6,1994. As of 1978, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, in addition The Japan Times, the Japan Travel Bureau, and many other private organizations used Hepburn instead of Kunrei-shiki. The National Diet Library used Kunrei-shiki, although Hepburn is not a government standard, some government agencies mandate it. In many other areas where it de jure status, Hepburn remains the de facto standard. Signs and notices in city offices and police stations, at shrines, temples, English-language newspapers and media use the simplified form of Hepburn. Cities and prefectures use it in information for English-speaking residents and visitors, official tourism information put out by the government uses it, as do guidebooks, local and foreign, on Japan. Many students of Japanese as a foreign language learn Hepburn, there are many variants of Hepburn romanization. The two most common styles are, Traditional Hepburn, as defined in various editions of Hepburns dictionary and this variant is characterized by the rendering of syllabic n as m before the consonants b, m and p, e. g. Shimbashi for 新橋. Modified Hepburn, also known as Revised Hepburn, in which the rendering of syllabic n as m before certain consonants is no longer used, in Japan itself, there are some variants officially mandated for various uses, Railway Standard, which follows the Hyōjun-shiki Rōmaji. All JR railways and other major railways use this type for station names, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism Standard, which follows the modified Hepburn style. This is used for road signs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs Passport Standard, a permissive standard which explicitly allows the use of non-Hepburn romaji in personal names, notably for passports. In particular, rendering the syllabic n as m before b, m, p, details of these variants can be found below. The romanizations set out in the first and second versions of Hepburns dictionary are primarily of historical interest, supporters argue that Hepburn is not intended as a linguistic tool. The long vowels are indicated by macrons
8.
Anime
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Anime is Japanese hand-drawn or computer animation. The word is the pronunciation of animation in Japanese, where this term references all animation. Arguably, the abstract approach to the words meaning may open up the possibility of anime produced in countries other than Japan. For simplicity, many Westerners strictly view anime as a Japanese animation product, some scholars suggest defining anime as specifically or quintessentially Japanese may be related to a new form of orientalism. The earliest commercial Japanese animation dates to 1917, and Japanese anime production has continued to increase steadily. Anime is distributed theatrically, by way of television broadcasts, directly to home media and it is classified into numerous genres targeting diverse broad and niche audiences. Anime is an art form with distinctive production methods and techniques that have been adapted over time in response to emergent technologies. It consists of an ideal story-telling mechanism, combining art, characterization, cinematography. The production of anime focuses less on the animation of movement and more on the realism of settings as well as the use of effects, including panning, zooming. Being hand-drawn, anime is separated from reality by a gap of fiction that provides an ideal path for escapism that audiences can immerse themselves into with relative ease. Diverse art styles are used and character proportions and features can be quite varied, the anime industry consists of over 430 production studios, including major names like Studio Ghibli, Gainax, and Toei Animation. Despite comprising only a fraction of Japans domestic film market, anime makes up a majority of Japanese DVD sales and it has also seen international success after the rise of English-dubbed programming. This rise in popularity has resulted in non-Japanese productions using the anime art style. Anime is an art form, specifically animation, that all genres found in cinema. In Japanese, the term refers to all forms of animation from around the world. In English, anime is more used to denote a Japanese-style animated film or television entertainment or as a style of animation created in Japan. The etymology of the anime is disputed. The English term animation is written in Japanese katakana as アニメーション and is アニメ in its shortened form, in English, anime—when used as a common noun—normally functions as a mass noun
