1.
Savile Club
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The Savile Club is a traditional London gentlemens club founded in 1868. It was originally formed after a division of opinion within the old Eclectic Club as to whether to accept an offer of rooms by the Medical Club and cease to be simply a night club. Initially calling itself the New Club, it rapidly, outgrowing its first floor rooms overlooking Trafalgar Square at 9 Spring Gardens. With its views over Green Park it was described by the members as the ideal clubhouse and it thus includes an elegant hall, a grand staircase and a lavish ballroom. Savile Club members are known as Savilians and the Clubs motto of Sodalitas Convivium implies convivial companionship, the traditional mainstays of the Savile are food and drink, good conversation, playing bridge and poker, and Savile Snooker. This is a version of the game, whose rules were first written down in the mid-20th century by Stephen Potter. It is a form of volunteer snooker, with unusual features. The dining room includes two long tables, derived from the Clubs original table dhôte. Unlike most other clubs, the Savile Club also has no black ball system. If they fail at the first meeting they are deferred to the next meeting, the musical tradition continues, with informal lunchtime and evening concerts, jazz evenings, sponsorship of music students and an annual St Cecilias Day concert, where Club members perform. A strong science connection has be revived with regular Science at the Savile talks, list of Londons gentlemens clubs Matthew Parris, Great Parliamentary Scandals Garrett Anderson, Hang Your Halo in the Hall. The Savile Club from 1868 Robin McDouall, Clubland Cooking Anon, The Savile Club 1868-1958 Anon, The Savile Club 1868-1923 Savile Club Website
2.
Pall Mall, London
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Pall Mall /ˌpæl ˈmæl/ is a street in the St Jamess area of the City of Westminster, Central London. It connects St Jamess Street to Trafalgar Square and is a section of the regional A4 road, the streets name is derived from pall-mall, a ball game played there during the 17th century. The area was built up during the reign of Charles II with fashionable London residences and it became known for high-class shopping in the 18th century, and gentlemens clubs in the 19th. The Reform, Athenaeum and Travellers Clubs have survived to the 21st century, the War Office was based on Pall Mall during the second half of the 19th century, and the Royal Automobile Clubs headquarters have been on the street since 1908. The street is around 0.4 miles long and runs east in the St Jamess area, from St Jamess Street across Waterloo Place, to the Haymarket, the street numbers run consecutively from north-side east to west and then continue on the south-side west to east. It is part of the A4, a road running west from Central London. London Bus Route 9 runs westwards along Pall Mall, connecting Trafalgar Square to Piccadilly, Pall Mall was constructed in 1661, replacing an earlier highway slightly to the south that ran from the Haymarket to the royal residence, St Jamess Palace. When St. Jamess Park was laid out by order of Henry VIII in the 16th century, in 1620, the Privy Council ordered the High Sheriff of Middlesex to clear a number of temporary buildings next to the wall that were of poor quality. Pall-mall, a game similar to croquet, was introduced to England in the early-17th century by James I. The game, already popular in France and Scotland, was enjoyed by James sons Henry, in 1630, St Jamess Field, Londons first pall-mall court, was laid out to the north of the Haymarket – St James road. After the Restoration and King Charles IIs return to London on 29 May 1660, Samuel Pepyss diary entry for 2 April 1661 records that he. Went into St. Jamess Park, where I saw the Duke of York playing at Pelemele and this new court suffered from dust blown over the wall from coaches travelling along the highway. In July 1661 posts and rails were erected, stopping up the old road, the court for pall-mall was very long and narrow, and often known as an alley, so the old court provided a suitable route for relocating the eastern approach to St Jamess Palace. A grant was made to Dan ONeale, Groom of the Bedchamber, the grant was endorsed Our warrant for the building of the new street to St Jamess. A new road was built on the site of the old pall-mall court and it was named Catherine Street, after Catherine of Braganza, wife of Charles II, but was better known as Pall Mall Street or the Old Pall Mall. The pall-mall field was a place for recreation and Pepys records several other visits. By July 1665 Pepys used Pell Mell to refer to the street as well as the game, in 1662, Pall Mall was one of several streets thought fitt immediately to be repaired, new paved or otherwise amended under the Streets, London and Westminster Act 1662. The paving commissioners appointed to oversee the work included the Earl of St Albans, the terms of the act allowed commissioners to remove any building encroaching on the highway, with compensation for those at least 30 years old
3.
Carlton Club
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The Carlton Club is a gentlemens club in London which describes itself as the oldest, and most important of all Conservative clubs. Membership of the club is by nomination and election only, the club was founded in 1832, by Tory peers, MPs and gentlemen, as a place to coordinate party activity after the partys defeat over the First Reform Act. It later played a role in the transformation of the Tory party into its modern form as the Conservative Party. The club was formed at the Thatched House Tavern in 1832 and its first premises were in Carlton Terrace and these premises were quickly found too small. The second club house was situated next to the Reform Club in Pall Mall, London and it was replaced by a third club house on the same site in 1856. The Caen stone used on the façade of the building proved unsuitable in the London atmosphere and had to be completely replaced in 1923–24. The club suffered a hit during the Blitz on 14 October 1940, No-one was killed in the explosion. The Carlton at once moved to its current premises, at 69 St Jamess Street, London, formerly the premises of Arthurs Club, which had closed earlier in 1940. The current Carlton has not retained any of the furnishings belonging to the building when it was Arthurs club, there is a marble Arthurs Club World War I War Memorial to be found on the wall by the stairs in the main vestibule of St Jamess Church Piccadilly. The walls of the Disraeli and Macmillan rooms and their windows at the back of the club were part of the fabric of the original Whites Club building. At 8,39 p. m. on 25 June 1990, lord Kaberry later died of his injuries received in the attack. Many Conservative politicians have been members, the leader of the Conservative Party is invited to become an honorary member. Iain Duncan Smith refused membership when it was offered to him, traditionally, only men could become full members after being proposed and seconded by a number of current members. From the 1970s onwards, women were allowed to associate members. On becoming Conservative leader in 1975, Margaret Thatcher was made a member of the club and, as such. David Cameron accepted honorary membership of the club as of 22 May 2008, Thatcher was elected as the clubs second president in May 2009. An entirely separate, unrelated Ladies Carlton Club was established after the First World War as a social and political centre for women Conservatives, the current chairman is Thomas Galbraith, 2nd Baron Strathclyde. A full history of the club was published to mark its 175th anniversary in 2007, list of Londons gentlemens clubs Official website Architectural description and plans – from the Survey of London online
4.
Collegia
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A collegium was any association in ancient Rome with a legal personality. The organization of a collegium was often modeled on that of governing bodies. The meeting hall was known as the curia, the same term as that applied to that of the Roman Senate. By law, only three people were required in order to create a legal collegium, the exception was the college of consuls. There were four religious colleges of Roman priests, in descending order of importance, Pontifices, headed by the Pontifex Maximus, Augures, Quindecimviri. College of Aesculapius and Hygia List of Ancient Roman Collegia Media related to Ancient Roman collegia at Wikimedia Commons
5.
Thomas Hoccleve
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Thomas Hoccleve or Occleve was an English poet and clerk. He is seen as a key figure in 15th-century English literature, Hoccleve is thought to have been born in 1368/9, as he states when writing in 1421/2 that he has seen fifty wyntir and three. Nothing is known of his family, but his name may come from the village of Hockliffe in Bedfordshire, what is known of his life is gleaned mainly from his works and from administrative records. He obtained a clerkship in the Office of the Privy Seal at the age of about twenty and this would require him to know French and Latin. He retained the post on and off, in spite of much grumbling and he had hoped for a church benefice, but none came. On 12 November 1399, however, he was granted an annuity by the new king, la Male Regle, one of his most fluid and lively poems, is a mock-penitential poem that gives some interesting glimpses of dissipation in his youth. By 1410 he had married only for love and settled down to writing moral, the Regement survives in 43 manuscript copies. It comments much on Henry Vs lineage, to cement the House of Lancasters claim to Englands throne and its incipit is a poem encompassing about a third of the whole, containing further reminiscences of London tavern life in the form of dialogue between the poet and an old man. He also remonstrated with Sir John Oldcastle, a leading Lollard, calling on him to rise up, a manly knight, out of the slough of heresy. He describes recovering from this five years ago last All Saints –1 November 1414 –, the Series then fulfills this plan, continuing with his moralized tales of Jereslaus Wife and of Jonathas. The Series next turns to the Learn to die, a theologically and psychologically astute verse translation of Henry Susos Latin prose Ars Moriendi, two autograph manuscripts of the Series survive. In addition to writing his own poetry, Hoccleve seems to have supplemented the income from his Privy Seal clerkship by working as a scribe and he also compiled a formulary of more than a thousand model Privy Seal documents in French and Latin for the use of other clerks. On 4 March 1426 the Exchequer issue rolls record a last reimbursement to Hoccleve, on 8 May 1426 his corrody at Southwick Priory was granted to Alice Penfold to be held in manner and form like Thomas Hoccleve now deceased. Like his more prolific and better known contemporary John Lydgate, he is a key figure of 15th-century English literature. While for much of the 20th century their work was little valued, the main interest for us in Hoccleves poems is that they are characteristic of his time. The nearest approach to the touch of his master is to be found in Hoccleves Male Regle. Yet Hoccleve claimed to know the limits of his powers and his diction is relatively simple and straightforward, and as a metrist he is highly self-deprecating. Later known as the humility topos, this posture would become one of the forms of authorial self-presentation in the Renaissance
6.
Henry IV of England
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Henry IV, also known as Henry of Bolingbroke, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from 1399 to 1413, and asserted the claim of his grandfather, Edward III, to the Kingdom of France. Henry was born at Bolingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, one of Henrys elder sisters, Philippa of Lancaster, married John I of Portugal, and the other, Elizabeth, was the mother of John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter. His younger half-sister Catherine, the daughter of his fathers second wife and he also had four half-siblings by Katherine Swynford, originally his sisters governess, then his fathers longstanding mistress, and later his third wife. These four children were given the surname Beaufort after a castle their father held in Champagne, Henrys relationship with his stepmother, Katherine Swynford, was a positive one, but his relationship with the Beauforts varied. In youth he seems to have close to all of them. His brother-in-law Ralph Neville remained one of his strongest supporters, and so did his eldest half-brother John Beaufort, Thomas Swynford, a son from Katherines first marriage to Sir Hugh Swynford, was another loyal companion. Thomas was Constable of Pontefract Castle, where King Richard II is said to have died, Henrys half-sister Joan Beaufort through his fathers relationship with Katherine Swynford was the grandmother of Edward IV and Richard III. Joan had married Ralph Neville, the 1st Earl of Westmorland, when their daughter Cecily married Richard Plantagenet, the 3rd Duke of York, and had several offspring, including Edward IV and Richard III, Joan became the grandmother of two York kings of England. Henry experienced a rather more inconsistent relationship with King Richard II than his father had, first cousins and childhood playmates, they were admitted together to the Order of the Garter in 1377, but Henry participated in the Lords Appellants rebellion against the king in 1387. After regaining power, Richard did not punish Henry, although he did execute or exile many of the rebellious barons. In fact, Richard elevated Henry from Earl of Derby to Duke of Hereford, Henry spent the full year of 1390 supporting the unsuccessful siege of Vilnius by Teutonic Knights with his 300 fellow knights. During this campaign he bought 300 captured Lithuanian princes and then took them back to England. Henrys second expedition to Lithuania in 1392 illustrates the benefits to the Order of these guest crusaders. His small army consisted of over 100 men, including longbow archers and six minstrels, despite the efforts of Henry and his English crusaders, two years of attacks on Vilnius proved fruitless. In 1392–93 Henry undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, where he made offerings at the Holy Sepulchre, later he vowed to lead a crusade to free Jerusalem from the infidel, but he died before this could be accomplished. The relationship between Henry Bolingbroke and the king met with a second crisis, in 1398, a remark by Bolingbroke regarding Richard IIs rule was interpreted as treason by Thomas de Mowbray, 1st Duke of Norfolk. The two dukes agreed to undergo a duel of honour at Gosford Green near Caludon Castle, Mowbrays home in Coventry, yet before the duel could take place, Richard II decided to banish Henry from the kingdom to avoid further bloodshed. Mowbray himself was exiled for life, John of Gaunt died in 1399
7.
John Aubrey
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John Aubrey FRS, was an English antiquary, natural philosopher and writer. He is perhaps best known as the author of the Brief Lives and he was a pioneer archaeologist, who recorded numerous megalithic and other field monuments in southern England, and who is particularly noted as the discoverer of the Avebury henge monument. The Aubrey holes at Stonehenge are named after him, although there is doubt as to whether the holes that he observed are those that currently bear the name. He was also a pioneer folklorist, collecting together a miscellany of material on customs, traditions and he set out to compile county histories of both Wiltshire and Surrey, although both projects remained unfinished. His Interpretation of Villare Anglicanum was the first attempt to compile a full-length study of English place-names and he had wider interests in applied mathematics and astronomy, and was friendly with many of the greatest scientists of the day. For much of the 19th and 20th centuries, thanks largely to the popularity of Brief Lives, Aubrey was regarded as more than an entertaining but quirky, eccentric. Only in the 1970s did the full breadth and innovation of his begin to be more widely appreciated. He published little in his lifetime, and many of his most important manuscripts remain unpublished, or published only in partial and unsatisfactory form. Aubrey was born at Easton Piers or Percy, near Kington St Michael, Wiltshire, to a long-established and his grandfather, Isaac Lyte, lived at Lytes Cary Manor, Somerset, now owned by the National Trust. Richard Aubrey, his father, owned lands in Wiltshire and Herefordshire, for many years an only child, he was educated at home with a private tutor, he was melancholy in his solitude. His father was not intellectual, preferring field sports to learning, Aubrey read such books as came his way, including Bacons Essays, and studied geometry in secret. He was educated at the Malmesbury grammar school under Robert Latimer and he then studied at the grammar school at Blandford Forum, Dorset. He entered Trinity College, Oxford, in 1642, but his studies were interrupted by the English Civil War and his earliest antiquarian work dates from this period in Oxford. In 1646 he became a student of the Middle Temple and he spent a pleasant time at Trinity in 1647, making friends among his Oxford contemporaries, and collecting books. He was to show Avebury to Charles II at the Kings request in 1663 and his father died in 1652, leaving Aubrey large estates, but with them some complicated debts. He claimed that his memory was not tenacious by 17th-century standards, but from the early 1640s he kept notes of observations in natural philosophy, his friends ideas. He also began to write Lives of scientists in the 1650s, in 1659 he was recruited to contribute to a collaborative county history of Wiltshire, leading to his unfinished collections on the antiquities and the natural history of the county. His erstwhile friend and fellow-antiquary Anthony Wood predicted that he would one day break his neck while running downstairs in haste to interview some retreating guest or other and he drank the Kings health in Interregnum Herefordshire, but with equal enthusiasm attended meetings in London of the republican Rota Club
8.
Bread Street
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The street itself is just under 500 ft in length and now forms the eastern boundary of the ward after the 2003 boundary changes. The Citys major shopping centre opened in 2010 is at One New Change within Bread Street Ward. As with most of the Citys 25 wards, the boundaries of Bread Street were altered considerably in 2003. The ward is now bounded on its north by Cheap Ward, to the east by Cordwainer Ward, to the south by Queenhithe and Vintry Wards, and to the west by Castle Baynard and Farringdon Within Wards. Its geographical boundaries are Bread Street in the east, Newgate Street and Cheapside in the north, Warwick Lane and Ave Maria Lane in the west, and Queen Victoria Street to the south. St Pauls Cathedral is outside the boundaries, being in Castle Baynard Ward. Five successive Livery Halls of the Worshipful Company of Cordwainers stood in the ward and they are commemorated by a blue plaque in the gardens of St Pauls facing Cannon Street. The fifth and last hall was built between 1909-10 but, on the night of 10 May 1941, was gutted during the Blitz. There were once two churches in the ward, All Hallows Bread Street and St Mildred, Bread Street, today their former parishes comprise part of St Mary-le-Bow on Cheapside. All Hallows was demolished in 1876 to make way for warehouses, Bread Street is one of 25 wards in the City of London, each electing one Alderman and a number of Common Councilmen on the Court of Common Council of the City of London Corporation. As of July 2014, the members for Bread Street include Alderman William Russell. A bust of Admiral Phillip can be seen in the gardens on Watling Street. Lord Mayor John Ansley was elected Alderman for Bread Street in 1800, Bread Street is the birthplace of the poets John Donne and John Milton, both of whom are commemorated within Bread Street Ward. onenewchange. com Ward Club
9.
Mermaid Tavern
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The Mermaid Tavern was a tavern on Cheapside in London during the Elizabethan era, located east of St. Pauls Cathedral on the corner of Friday Street and Bread Street. A popular tradition has grown up that the group included William Shakespeare, according to Jonson, the Tavern was situated on Bread Street. It probably had entrances on both Bread Street and Friday Street, the location corresponds to the modern junction between Bread Street and Cannon Street. The taverns landlord is named as William Johnson in a will dated 1603, in 1600 a notable disorder, caused by some drunken members of a group known as the Damned Crew attacking the watch after they were challenged, began after they were ejected from the Mermaid Tavern. It resulted in a Star Chamber trial, the building was destroyed in 1666 during the Great Fire of London. Gifford also was the first to name the Mermaid as the site of Jonson and Shakespeares battle-of-wits debates in which they discussed politics, religion, and literature. According to tradition, Shakespeare, though not as learned as Jonson, often won these debates because Jonson was more ponderous, how much of the legend is true is a matter of speculation. There is an reference to the Tavern and its witty conversation in Master Francis Beaumonts Letter to Ben Jonson. Coryats letters also refer to the Tavern, and mention Jonson, Donne, Cotton, Inigo Jones, Shakespeare certainly had connections with some of the taverns literary clientele, as well as with the taverns landlord, William Johnson. When Shakespeare bought the Blackfriars gatehouse on March 10,1613, and Hugh Holland, mentioned in Coryats letters, composed one of the commendatory poems prefacing the First Folio of Shakespeares plays. The Sireniacal gentlemen also met at the Mitre tavern in London, apparently they were seen as too elitist. The wine in question seems to be the same as sack, Jonson and Beaumont both mentioned the tavern in their verse. Jonsons Inviting a Friend to Supper refers to A pure cup of rich Canary wine, / Which is the Mermaids now and he is not of our time, but of all times. With Rabelais he rioted, and Don Quixote and Sancho were his vera brithers, in 1913 the ballad poet Alfred Noyes published Tales of the Mermaid Tavern, a long poem in a series of chapters, each dedicated to Elizabethan writers associated with the tavern. These include Jonson, Shakespeare and Marlowe, beryl Markham, in her 1942 memoir, West with the Night, remarked that every man has his Mermaids Tavern, every hamlet its shrine to conviviality. William Stansby Mermaid Series Affinity group Halliday, F. E, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press. New York, St. Martins Press,1981, a Pleasing Sinne, Drink and Conviviality in Seventeenth-century England. Volume 14 of Studies in Renaissance literature, DS Brewer,2004 ISBN 184384009X Details from William Shakespeare. Org
10.
John Selden
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John Selden was an English jurist and a scholar of Englands ancient laws and constitution and scholar of Jewish law. He was known as a polymath showing true intellectual depth and breadth and he was born at Salvington, in the parish of West Tarring, West Sussex, and was baptised at St Andrews, the parish church. The cottage in which he was survived until 1959 when it was destroyed by a fire caused by an electrical fault. His father, another John Selden, had a small farm, Selden was educated at the free grammar school at Chichester, The Prebendal School, and in 1600 he went on to Hart Hall, Oxford. In 1603 he was admitted to Cliffords Inn, London, in 1604 he moved to the Inner Temple, and in 1612 he was called to the bar. His earliest patron was Sir Robert Bruce Cotton, the antiquary, for some reason, Selden very rarely practised in court, but his practice in chambers as a conveyancer and consulting counsel was large and apparently lucrative. In 1618, his History of Tithes appeared, although it had passed censorship and licensing, this dissertation on the historical basis of the tithe system caused anxiety among the bishops and provoked the intervention of the king. The author was summoned before the Privy Council and was compelled to retract his opinions, also, his work was suppressed, and he was forbidden to reply to anyone who might come forward to answer it. This all seems to have caused Seldens entry into politics and he and several others were imprisoned, at first in the Tower and later under the charge of Sir Robert Ducie, sheriff of London. In 1623 he was returned to the House of Commons for the borough of Lancaster and he was also nominated reader of Lyons Inn, an office he declined to undertake. For this the benchers of the Inner Temple fined him £20, nevertheless, after a few years, he became a master of the bench. In the first parliament of Charles I, it appears from the returns of members printed in 1878 that contrary to the assertion of all his biographers, he had no seat. In Charless second parliament, he was elected for Great Bedwyn in Wiltshire, in the following year, in Darnells Case, he was counsel for Sir Edmund Hampden in the Court of Kings Bench. In 1628 he was returned to the parliament of Charles for Ludgershall, Wiltshire. There he remained for eight months, deprived for a part of the time of the use of books and he was then removed, under less rigorous conditions, to the Marshalsea, until Archbishop Laud arranged for him to be freed. Some years before, he had been appointed steward to the Earl of Kent, to seat, Wrest in Bedfordshire. He was not elected to the Short Parliament of 1640, but to the Long Parliament, summoned in the autumn, he was returned without opposition for Oxford University. He opposed the resolution against episcopacy which led to the exclusion of the bishops from the House of Lords and he was equally opposed to the court on the question of the commissions of lieutenancy of array and to the parliament on the question of the militia ordinance
11.
John Donne
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John Donne was an English poet and cleric in the Church of England. He is considered the pre-eminent representative of the metaphysical poets and his works are noted for their strong, sensual style and include sonnets, love poems, religious poems, Latin translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. His poetry is noted for its vibrancy of language and inventiveness of metaphor, Donnes style is characterised by abrupt openings and various paradoxes, ironies and dislocations. His early career was marked by poetry that bore immense knowledge of English society, another important theme in Donnes poetry is the idea of true religion, something that he spent much time considering and about which he often theorized. He wrote secular poems as well as erotic and love poems and he is particularly famous for his mastery of metaphysical conceits. Despite his great education and poetic talents, Donne lived in poverty for several years and he spent much of the money he inherited during and after his education on womanising, literature, pastimes, and travel. In 1601, Donne secretly married Anne More, with whom he had twelve children, in 1615, he became an Anglican priest, although he did not want to take Anglican orders. He did so because King James I persistently ordered it, in 1621, he was appointed the Dean of St Pauls Cathedral in London. He also served as a member of Parliament in 1601 and in 1614, Donne was born in London, into a recusant Roman Catholic family when practice of that religion was illegal in England. Donne was the third of six children and his father, also named John Donne, was of Welsh descent and a warden of the Ironmongers Company in the City of London. Donnes father was a respected Roman Catholic who avoided unwelcome government attention out of fear of persecution and his father died in 1576, when Donne was four years old, leaving his son fatherless and his widow, Elizabeth Heywood, with the responsibility of raising their children alone. Heywood was also from a recusant Roman Catholic family, the daughter of John Heywood, the playwright, and sister of the Reverend Jasper Heywood and she was a great-niece of the Roman Catholic martyr Thomas More. This tradition of martyrdom would continue among Donnes closer relatives, many of whom were executed or exiled for religious reasons, Donne was educated privately, however, there is no evidence to support the popular claim that he was taught by Jesuits. Donnes mother married Dr. John Syminges, a widower with three children, a few months after Donnes father died. Two more of his sisters, Mary and Katherine, died in 1581, Donnes mother lived her last years in the Deanery after Donne became Dean of St Pauls, and died just two months before Donne, in January 1631. In 1583, the 11-year-old Donne began studies at Hart Hall, now Hertford College, after three years of studies there, Donne was admitted to the University of Cambridge, where he studied for another three years. However, Donne could not obtain a degree from either institution because of his Catholicism, in 1591 Donne was accepted as a student at the Thavies Inn legal school, one of the Inns of Chancery in London. On 6 May 1592 he was admitted to Lincolns Inn, one of the Inns of Court, Donnes brother Henry was also a university student prior to his arrest in 1593 for harbouring a Catholic priest, William Harrington, whom he betrayed under torture
12.
John Fletcher (playwright)
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John Fletcher was a Jacobean playwright. Though his reputation has been far eclipsed since, Fletcher remains an important transitional figure between the Elizabethan popular tradition and the drama of the Restoration. Fletcher was born in December 1579 in Rye, Sussex, and he cried out at her death, So perish all the Queens enemies. Richard Fletcher died shortly after falling out of favour with the queen and he appears to have been partly rehabilitated before his death in 1596, however, he died substantially in debt. The upbringing of John Fletcher and his seven siblings was entrusted to his paternal uncle Giles Fletcher and his uncles connections ceased to be a benefit, and may even have become a liability, after the rebellion of the Earl of Essex, who had been his patron. Fletcher appears to have entered Corpus Christi College, Cambridge University in 1591 and it is not certain that he took a degree, but evidence suggests that he was preparing for a career in the church. Little is known about his time at college, but he followed the same path previously trodden by the University wits before him. In 1606, he began to appear as a playwright for the Children of the Queens Revels, at the beginning of his career, his most important association was with Francis Beaumont. The two wrote together for close to a decade, first for the children and then for the Kings Men, according to an anecdote transmitted or invented by John Aubrey, they also lived together, sharing clothes and having one wench in the house between them. This domestic arrangement, if it existed, was ended by Beaumonts marriage in 1613, and their partnership ended after Beaumont fell ill, probably of a stroke. By this time, Fletcher had moved into an association with the Kings Men. He collaborated with Shakespeare on Henry VIII, The Two Noble Kinsmen, and the lost Cardenio, a play he wrote singly around this time, The Womans Prize or the Tamer Tamed, is a sequel to The Taming of the Shrew. In 1616, after Shakespeares death, Fletcher appears to have entered into an arrangement with the Kings Men similar to Shakespeares. Fletcher wrote only for that company between the death of Shakespeare and his own death nine years later and he never lost his habit of collaboration, working with Nathan Field and later with Philip Massinger, who succeeded him as house playwright for the Kings Men. His popularity continued unabated throughout his life, during the winter of 1621 and he died in 1625, apparently of the plague. He seems to have buried in what is now Southwark Cathedral, although the precise location is not known. His mastery is most notable in two types, tragicomedy and comedy of manners. In the preface to the edition of his play, Fletcher explained the failure as due to his audiences faulty expectations
13.
Francis Beaumont
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Francis Beaumont was a dramatist in the English Renaissance theatre, most famous for his collaborations with John Fletcher. Beaumont was the son of Sir Francis Beaumont of Grace Dieu, near Thringstone in Leicestershire and his mother was Anne, the daughter of Sir George Pierrepont, of Holme Pierrepont, and his wife Winnifred Twaits. Beaumont was born at the seat and was educated at Broadgates Hall at age thirteen. Following the death of his father in 1598, he left university without a degree, accounts suggest that Beaumont did not work long as a lawyer. He became a student of poet and playwright Ben Jonson, he was acquainted with Michael Drayton and other poets and dramatists. His first work, Salmacis and Hermaphroditus, appeared in 1602, in 1605, Beaumont wrote commendatory verses to Jonsons Volpone. Beaumonts collaboration with Fletcher may have begun as early as 1605, the play received a lukewarm reception. The following year, Fletchers Faithful Shepherdess failed on the same stage, in 1609, however, the two collaborated on Philaster, which was performed by the Kings Men at the Globe Theatre and at Blackfriars. The play was a success, not only launching the careers of the two playwrights but also sparking a new taste for tragicomedy. According to an anecdote related by John Aubrey, they lived in the same house on the Bankside in Southwark. About 1613 Beaumont married Ursula Isley, daughter and co-heiress of Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by whom he had two daughters, one posthumous. He had a stroke between February and October 1613, after which he no more plays, but was able to write an elegy for Lady Penelope Clifton. Beaumont died in 1616 and was buried in Westminster Abbey, although today Beaumont is remembered as a dramatist, during his lifetime he was also celebrated as a poet. It was once written of Beaumont and Fletcher that in their joint plays their talents are so. completely merged into one, yet this romantic notion did not stand up to critical examination. Nineteenth- and twentieth-century critics like E. H. C, oliphant subjected the plays to a self-consciously literary, and often subjective and impressionistic, reading — but nonetheless began to differentiate the hands of the collaborators. This study was carried much farther, and onto a more objective footing, by twentieth-century scholars, the same is true of The Woman Hater, The Maids Tragedy, The Noble Gentleman, and Philaster. On the other hand, Cupids Revenge, The Coxcomb, The Scornful Lady, Beggars Bush, in Loves Cure and Thierry and Theodoret, the influence of Massingers revision complicates matters, but in those plays too, Fletcher appears to be the majority contributor, Beaumont the minority. A Short Biographical Dictionary of English Literature, London, J. M. Dent & Sons
14.
William Shakespeare
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William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the worlds pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called Englands national poet, and the Bard of Avon and his extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays,154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright, Shakespeare was born and brought up in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire. At the age of 18, he married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children, Susanna, and twins Hamnet and Judith. Sometime between 1585 and 1592, he began a career in London as an actor, writer. He appears to have retired to Stratford around 1613, at age 49, Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1589 and 1613. His early plays were primarily comedies and histories, which are regarded as some of the best work ever produced in these genres. He then wrote mainly tragedies until about 1608, including Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, in his last phase, he wrote tragicomedies, also known as romances, and collaborated with other playwrights. Many of his plays were published in editions of varying quality and it was prefaced with a poem by Ben Jonson, in which Shakespeare is hailed, presciently, as not of an age, but for all time. In the 20th and 21st centuries, his works have been adapted and rediscovered by new movements in scholarship. His plays remain highly popular and are studied, performed. William Shakespeare was the son of John Shakespeare, an alderman and a successful glover originally from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden and he was born in Stratford-upon-Avon and baptised there on 26 April 1564. His actual date of birth unknown, but is traditionally observed on 23 April. This date, which can be traced back to an 18th-century scholars mistake, has proved appealing to biographers because Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616 and he was the third child of eight and the eldest surviving son. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married 26-year-old Anne Hathaway, the consistory court of the Diocese of Worcester issued a marriage licence on 27 November 1582. The next day, two of Hathaways neighbours posted bonds guaranteeing that no lawful claims impeded the marriage, twins, son Hamnet and daughter Judith, followed almost two years later and were baptised 2 February 1585. Hamnet died of unknown causes at the age of 11 and was buried 11 August 1596, after the birth of the twins, Shakespeare left few historical traces until he is mentioned as part of the London theatre scene in 1592. The exception is the appearance of his name in the bill of a law case before the Queens Bench court at Westminster dated Michaelmas Term 1588 and 9 October 1589
15.
Walter Raleigh
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Sir Walter Raleigh was an English landed gentleman, writer, poet, soldier, politician, courtier, spy and explorer. He was cousin to Sir Richard Grenville and younger half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert and he is also well known for popularising tobacco in England. Raleigh was born to a Protestant family in Devon, the son of Walter Raleigh, later, he became a landlord of property confiscated from the native Irish. He rose rapidly in the favour of Queen Elizabeth I and was knighted in 1585, Raleigh was instrumental in the English colonisation of North America and was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia, which paved the way for future English settlements. In 1591, he secretly married Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the Queens ladies-in-waiting, without the Queens permission, for which he, after his release, they retired to his estate at Sherborne, Dorset. In 1594, Raleigh heard of a City of Gold in South America and sailed to find it, publishing an exaggerated account of his experiences in a book that contributed to the legend of El Dorado. After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, Raleigh was again imprisoned in the Tower, this time for being involved in the Main Plot against King James I, in 1616, he was released to lead a second expedition in search of El Dorado. During the expedition, men led by his top commander ransacked a Spanish outpost and he returned to England and, to appease the Spanish, was arrested and executed in 1618. Raleigh was one of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, in 2002, he was featured in the BBC poll of the 100 Greatest Britons. Little is known about Raleighs birth, some historians believe that he was born on 22 January 1552, although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography currently favours a date of 1554. He grew up in the house of Hayes Barton, a farmhouse near the village of East Budleigh and he was the youngest of five sons born to Catherine Champernowne in two successive marriages. His half-brothers John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert, and Adrian Gilbert, Catherine Champernowne was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeths governess, who introduced the young men at court. Raleighs family was highly Protestant in religious orientation and had a number of near escapes during the reign of Roman Catholic Queen Mary I of England, in the most notable of these, his father had to hide in a tower to avoid execution. As a result, Raleigh developed a hatred of Roman Catholicism during his childhood, in matters of religion, Elizabeth was more moderate than her half sister Mary. In 1569, Raleigh left for France to serve with the Huguenots in the French religious civil wars, in 1572, Raleigh was registered as an undergraduate at Oriel College, Oxford, but he left a year later without a degree. Raleigh proceeded to finish his education in the Inns of Court, in 1575, he was registered at the Middle Temple. At his trial in 1603, he stated that he had never studied law and his life is uncertain between 1569 and 1575, but in his History of the World he claimed to have been an eyewitness at the Battle of Moncontour in France. In 1575 or 1576, Raleigh returned to England, between 1579 and 1583, Raleigh took part in the suppression of the Desmond Rebellions
16.
Ben Jonson
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Benjamin Jonson was an English playwright, poet, actor, and literary critic of the 17th century, whose artistry exerted a lasting impact upon English poetry and stage comedy. He popularised the comedy of humours, Ben Jonson said that his family originally came from the folk of the Anglo-Scottish border country, which genealogy is attested by the three spindles in the Jonson family coat of arms. One spindle is a heraldic device shared with the Border-country Johnstone family of Annandale. Jonsons clergyman father died two months before his birth, his mother married a master bricklayer two years later, Jonson attended school in St. Martins Lane. Later, a family friend paid for his studies at Westminster School, on leaving Westminster School, Jonson was to have attended the University of Cambridge, to continue his book learning but did not, because of his unwilled apprenticeship to his bricklayer stepfather. According to the churchman and historian Thomas Fuller, Jonson at this time built a wall in Lincolns Inn. After having been a bricklayer, Ben Jonson went to the Netherlands. After his military activity on the Continent, Jonson returned to England and worked as an actor, as an actor, Jonson was the protagonist “Hieronimo” in the play The Spanish Tragedy, by Thomas Kyd, the first revenge tragedy in English literature. Regarding his marriage Jonson described his wife to William Drummond as a shrew, concerning the family of Anne Lewis and Ben Jonson, the St. Martins Church registers indicate that Mary Jonson, their eldest daughter, died in November 1593, at six months of age. Moreover,32 years later, a son, also named Benjamin Jonson. By summer 1597, Jonson had an engagement in the Admirals Men, then performing under Philip Henslowes management at The Rose. John Aubrey reports, on authority, that Jonson was not successful as an actor, whatever his skills as an actor. By this time Jonson had begun to write plays for the Admirals Men. None of his early tragedies survive, however, an undated comedy, The Case is Altered, may be his earliest surviving play. In 1597 a play which he co-wrote with Thomas Nashe, The Isle of Dogs, was suppressed after causing great offence, arrest warrants for Jonson and Nashe were issued by Queen Elizabeth Is so-called interrogator, Richard Topcliffe. Jonson was jailed in Marshalsea Prison and charged with Leude and mutynous behaviour, two of the actors, Gabriel Spenser and Robert Shaw, were also imprisoned. A year later, Jonson was again imprisoned, this time in Newgate Prison. While in jail Jonson converted to Catholicism, possibly through the influence of fellow-prisoner Father Thomas Wright, in 1598 Jonson produced his first great success, Every Man in His Humour, capitalising on the vogue for humorous plays which George Chapman had begun with An Humorous Days Mirth
17.
Temple Bar, London
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Temple Bar was the principal ceremonial entrance to the City of London on its western side from the City of Westminster. The road east of Temple Bar and within the City is Fleet Street, at Temple Bar the Corporation of the City of London formerly erected a barrier to regulate trade into the City. The 19th century Royal Courts of Justice are located next to it on its north side, to its south is the Temple Church and the Inner Temple and Middle Temple Inns of Court. Wrens arch was preserved and was re-erected in 2004 in the City, in the Middle Ages the authority of the City of London Corporation reached beyond the Citys ancient defensive walls in several places, known as the Liberties of London. To regulate trade into the City, barriers were erected on the major entrance routes wherever the true boundary was a distance from the nearest ancient gatehouse in the walls. Temple Bar was the most used of these, since traffic between the City of London and the Palace of Westminster passed through it and it was originally located where Fleet Street now meets The Strand, which was actually outside the London boundary wall. The historic ceremony of the monarch halting at Temple Bar and being met by the Lord Mayor has often featured in art and it is commented on in televised coverage of modern-day royal ceremonial processions. However the popular belief that the monarch requires the Lord Mayors permission to enter the City is incorrect, a bar is first mentioned in 1293 and was probably only a chain or bar between a row of posts. More substantial structures with arches followed, by 1351, a wooden archway had been built housing a small prison above it. The earliest known documentary and historical notice of Temple Bar is in 1327, in 1384 Richard II granted a licence for paving the Strand Street from Temple Bar to the Savoy, and collecting tolls to cover the expense. On 5 November 1422, the corpse of Henry V was borne to Westminster Abbey by the citizens and nobles. Anne Boleyn passed through the Bar on May 31,1534, on that occasion Temple Bar was new painted and repaired, and near it stood singing men and children—the Fleet Street conduit all the time running claret. In 1554 Thomas Wyatt led an uprising in opposition to Queen Mary Is proposed marriage to Philip II of Spain and this revolt persuaded the government to go through with the verdict against Lady Jane Grey. The notable Scottish bookseller Andrew Millar owned his first London shop at Temple Bar, taken over from the ownership of James McEuen in 1728, whom Millar had apprenticed to. Although it escaped damage by the Great Fire of London of 1666, the statues of Anne of Denmark, James l, Charles I, and Charles II, in niches in the upper floor were carved by John Bushnell. Rusticated, it is a structure consisting of one wide central arch for the road traffic. During the 18th century the heads of convicted traitors were frequently mounted on pikes and exhibited on the roof, the other seven principal gateways to London, had all been demolished by 1800, but Temple Bar remained despite its impediment to the ever-growing traffic. The upper-storey room was leased to the banking house of Child & Co for storage of records
18.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
19.
Coffeehouse
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A coffeehouse, coffee shop, or café is an establishment which primarily serves hot coffee, related coffee beverages, tea, and other hot beverages. Some coffeehouses also serve cold beverages such as iced coffee and iced tea, many cafés also serve some type of food, such as light snacks, muffins, or pastries. Coffeehouses range from owner-operated small businesses to multinational corporations. A coffeehouse may share some of the characteristics of a bar or restaurant. Many coffee houses in the Middle East and in West Asian immigrant districts in the Western world offer shisha, espresso bars are a type of coffeehouse that specializes in serving espresso and espresso-based drinks. Since the development of Wi-Fi, coffeehouses with this capability have also become places for patrons to access the Internet on their laptops, a coffeehouse can serve as an informal club for its regular members. As early as the 1950s Beatnik era and the 1960s folk music scene, coffeehouses have hosted singer-songwriter performances, coffeehouses in Mecca became a concern as places for political gatherings to the imams, who banned them, as well as the drink, for Muslims between 1512 and 1524. In 1530, the first coffeehouse was opened in Damascus and not long there were many coffeehouses in Cairo. About that year, a fellow called Hakam from Aleppo and a wag called Shams from Damascus came to the city, they opened a large shop in the district called Tahtakale. Various legends involving the introduction of coffee to Istanbul at a Kiva Han in the late 15th century circulate in culinary tradition, resembling checkers, hopscotch, and chess, are played. In addition, mollas, dervishes, and poets take turns telling stories in verse or in prose, the narrations by the mollas and the dervishes are moral lessons, like our sermons, but it is not considered scandalous not to pay attention to them. No one is forced to give up his game or his conversation because of it. It often happens that two or three people talk at the time, one on one side, the other on the opposite, and sometimes one will be a preacher. The most common English spelling, café, is the French, Portuguese and Spanish spelling, thus the spelling cafe has become very common in English-language usage throughout the world, especially for the less formal, i. e. greasy spoon variety. The Italian spelling, caffè, is sometimes used in English. In southern England, especially around London in the 1950s, the French pronunciation was often altered to /ˈkæf/. The English words coffee and café both descend from the Italian word for coffee, caffè—first attested as caveé in Venice in 1570— and in turn derived from the Arabic qahuwa. The Arabic term qahuwa originally referred to a type of wine but after the ban by Mohammed
20.
Tatler (1709 journal)
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The Tatler was a British literary and society journal begun by Richard Steele in 1709 and published for two years. Tatler was founded in 1709 by Richard Steele, who used the nom de plume Isaac Bickerstaff, the original Tatler was published for only two years, from 12 April 1709 to 2 January 1711. A collected edition was published in 1710–11, with the title The Lucubrations of Isaac Bickerstaff, in 1711, Steele and Addison decided to liquidate The Tatler, and co-founded The Spectator magazine, which used a different persona than Bickerstaff. Several later journals revived the name Tatler, three short series are preserved in the Burney Collection, John Morphew, the original printer, continued to produce further issues in 1711 under the Isaac Bickerstaffe name from 4 January to 17 May. A single issue of a rival Tatler was published by Baldwin on 11 January 1711, in 1753–4, several issues by William Bickerstaffe, nephew of the late Isaac Bickerstaffe were published. James Watson, who had previously reprinted the London Tatler in Edinburgh, began his own Tatler there on 13 January 1711, three months after the original Tatler was first published, an unknown woman writer using the pen name Mrs. Crackenthorpe published what was called the Female Tatler. Scholars from the 1960s to the 1990s thought the woman might have been Delarivier Manley, but she was subsequently ruled out as author. However, its run was shorter, the magazine ran for less than a year—from 8 July 1709 to 31 March 1710. The London Tatler and the Northern Tatler were later 18th-century imitations, the Tatler Revivd ran for 17 issues from October 1727 to January 1728, another publication of the same name had six issues in March 1750. On 4 September 1830, Leigh Hunt launched The Tatler, A Daily Journal of Literature and he edited it till 13 February 1832, and others continued it till 20 October 1832. In July 1901, Clement Shorter, the publisher of The Sphere, introduced a magazine called Tatler, after several mergers and name changes it was still in print a hundred years later, owned by Condé Nast Publications. Ross, Angus Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator ISBN 978-0140432985, edited with an introduction and notes. The Story of Tatler, A 300-year frolic through Tatlers history, bibliographical Notes on One Hundred Books Famous in English Literature. The Tatler and The Guardian The Tatler, Vol.1 at Project Gutenberg
21.
The Spectator (1711)
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The Spectator was a daily publication founded by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in England, lasting from 1711 to 1712. Each paper, or number, was approximately 2,500 words long, and these were collected into seven volumes. The paper was revived without the involvement of Steele in 1714, appearing thrice weekly for six months, eustace Budgell, a cousin of Addisons, and the poet John Hughes also contributed to the publication. In Number 10, Mr. Spectator states that The Spectator will aim to enliven morality with wit and he hopes it will be said he has brought philosophy out of closets and libraries, schools, and colleges, to dwell in clubs and assemblies, at tea-tables and coffee–houses. He recommends that readers of the paper consider it as a part of the tea-equipage, the Spectator sought to provide readers with topics for well-reasoned discussion, and to equip them to carry on conversations and engage in social interactions in a polite manner. In keeping with the values of Enlightenment philosophies of their time, the authors of The Spectator promoted family, marriage and these readers came from many stations in society, but the paper catered principally to the interests of Englands emerging middle class—merchants and traders large and small. The Spectator also had many readers in the American colonies, in particular, James Madison read the paper avidly as a teenager. It is said to have had a big influence on his world view, jürgen Habermas sees The Spectator as instrumental in the formation of the public sphere in 18th century England. Although The Spectator declares itself to be neutral, it was widely recognised as promoting Whig values. The Spectator continued to be popular and widely read in the late 18th and 19th centuries and it was sold in eight-volume editions. Its prose style, and its marriage of morality and advice with entertainment, were considered exemplary, the decline in its popularity has been discussed by Brian McCrea and C. S. Lewis. Bully Dawson – mentioned in The Spectator as being kicked by Sir Roger de Coverley in a coffee house. The Spectator a current weekly British conservative magazine, the Spectator Nos.1,2,10, 1710–11. The standard edition of The Spectator is Donald F, bonds edition in five volumes, published in 1965. Selections can be found in The Norton Anthology of English Literature, ross, Angus Selections from The Tatler and The Spectator. Edited with an introduction and notes, bibliographical Notes on One Hundred Books Famous in English Literature. The Norton Anthology of English Literature
22.
Stuart period
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The Stuart period of British history usually refers to the period between 1603 and 1714 and sometimes from 1731 in Scotland. This coincides with the rule of the House of Stuart, whose first monarch of Scotland was Robert II, the period ended with the death of Queen Anne and the accession of George I from the House of Hanover. The Stuart period was plagued by internal and religious strife, the English Civil War took place during the reign of Charles I, the second Stuart monarch. The war ended in victory for the Parliamentarians, after this conflict, the line of Stuart monarchs was temporarily displaced by the Commonwealth of England. Their rule lasted from 1649 to 1660, oliver Cromwell ruled directly from 1653 to 1658. After Cromwells death the Commonwealth fell apart, the Convention Parliament welcomed Charles II, son of Charles I, to return from war and become king. This event was known as the English Restoration, Stuart England was consumed with internal affairs. During 1600-1650 the king made repeated efforts to colonize Guiana in South America and they all failed and the lands were ceded to the Dutch in 1667. James Is foreign policy placed much higher priority on European affairs, the Anglo-Dutch Wars were a series of three wars which took place between the English and the Dutch from 1652 to 1674. The causes included political disputes and increasing competition from merchant shipping, religion was not a factor, since both sides were Protestant. The British in the first war had the advantage with larger numbers of more powerful ships of the line which were well suited to the naval tactics of the era. The British also captured numerous Dutch merchant ships, in the second war Dutch naval victories followed. This second war cost London ten times more than it had planned on, and it ended the fights over mercantilism Meanwhile, the French were building up fleets that threatened both the Netherlands and Great Britain. In third war, The British counted on a new alliance with France, the Dutch gained domination of sea trading routes until 1713. The British gained the colony of New Netherland, and renamed it New York. Historians have long regarded the overthrow of King James II in 1688 as a break in English history. Pincus argues that this revolution was the first modern revolution, it was violent, popular and he rejects older theories to the effect that it was an aristocratic coup or a Dutch invasion. Instead, Pincus argues it was a supported and decisive rejection of James II
23.
House of Tudor
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The House of Tudor was a royal house of Welsh and English origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales, the Tudors succeeded the House of Plantaganet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first monarch, Henry VII, descended through his mother from a branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses and his victory was reinforced by his marriage to Elizabeth of York, daughter of King Edward IV, symbolically uniting the former warring factions under a new dynasty. They also maintained the nominal English claim to the Kingdom of France, although none of them made substance of it, after him, his daughter Mary I lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558. In total, five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century, Henry VIII was the only male-line male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Issues around the royal succession became major political themes during the Tudor era, the House of Stuart, descended from Henry VIIIs sister Margaret, came to power in 1603 when the direct Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir. The church retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate by way of a bull the same year. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunts legitimate son, Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts legitimacy, nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunts legitimate descendants from his first marriage, the House of Lancaster. On 1 November 1455, John Beauforts granddaughter, Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, married Henry VIs half-brother Edmund Tudor and it was his father, Owen Tudor, who abandoned the Welsh patronymic naming practice and adopted a fixed surname. When he did, he did not choose, as was generally the custom, his fathers name, Maredudd, Owen Tudor was one of the bodyguards for the queen dowager Catherine of Valois, whose husband, Henry V, had died in 1422. Evidence suggests that the two were married in 1429. The two sons born of the marriage, Edmund and Jasper, were among the most loyal supporters of the House of Lancaster in its struggle against the House of York, Edmund died on 3 November 1456. On 28 January 1457, his widow Margaret Beaufort, who had just attained her fourteenth birthday, gave birth to a son, Henry Tudor, at her brother-in-laws Pembroke Castle. Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII, spent his childhood at Raglan Castle, the home of William Herbert, 1st Earl of Pembroke, a leading Yorkist. Following the murder of Henry VI and death of his son, Edward, in 1471, concerned for his young nephews life, Jasper Tudor took Henry to Brittany for safety. Lady Margaret remained in England and remarried, living quietly while advancing the Lancastrian cause, capitalizing on the growing unpopularity of Richard III, she was able to forge an alliance with discontented Yorkists in support of her son. Two years after Richard III was crowned, Henry and Jasper sailed from the mouth of the Seine to the Milford Haven Waterway, upon this victory, Henry Tudor proclaimed himself King Henry VII
24.
Debating society
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Debate is a method of formally presenting an argument in a structured manner. The outcome of a debate may depend upon consensus or some way of reaching a resolution. In a formal debating contest, there are rules for participants to discuss and decide on differences, Debating is carried out in debating chambers and assemblies of various types to discuss matters and to make resolutions about action to be taken, often by voting. Deliberative bodies such as parliaments, legislative assemblies, and meetings of all sorts engage in debates, in particular, in parliamentary democracies a legislature debates and decides on new laws. Formal debates between candidates for elected office, such as the debates that are sometimes held in democracies. Debating is also carried out for educational and recreational purposes, usually associated with educational establishments, the major goal of the study of debate as a method or art is to develop the ability to debate rationally from either position with equal ease. The outcome of a contest may be decided by vote, by judges. Debating teams are often helpful to high school students in teaching the writing process, Debating societies emerged in London in the early eighteenth century, and soon became a prominent fixture of national life. The origins of these societies are not certain in many cases however, by the mid-18th century, john Henley, a clergyman, founded an Oratory in 1726 with the principal purpose of reforming the manner in which such public presentations should be performed. He made extensive use of the print industry to advertise the events of his Oratory and these changes were further implemented when Henley moved his enterprise to Lincolns Inn Fields. The public was now willing to pay to be entertained, by the 1770s, debating societies were firmly established in London society. The year 1785 was pivotal, The Morning Chronicle announced on March 27, giles, Clare-Market, Hockley in the Hole, Whitechapel, Rag-Fair, Dukes Place, Billingsgate, and the Back of the Borough. In 1780,35 differently named societies advertised and hosted debates for anywhere between 650 and 1200 people, the question for debate was introduced by a president or moderator who proceeded to regulate the discussion. Speakers were given set amounts of time to argue their point of view, and, at the end of the debate, a vote was taken to determine a decision or adjourn the question for further debate. Speakers were not permitted to slander or insult other speakers, or diverge from the topic at hand, the first of the post-revolutionary debating societies, the Dialectic and Philanthropic Societies, were formed at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1795 and are still active. The first student debating society in Great Britain was the St Andrews Debating Society, the Cambridge Union Society was founded in 1815, and claims to be the oldest continually operating debating society in the World. Over the next few decades, similar societies emerged at other prominent universities. Examples include the Oxford Union and the Yale Political Union, in parliaments and other legislatures, members debate proposals regarding legislation, before voting on resolutions which become laws
25.
Restoration (England)
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The term Restoration is used to describe both the actual event by which the monarchy was restored, and the period of several years afterwards in which a new political settlement was established. It is very used to cover the whole reign of Charles II. Richard Cromwells main weakness was that he did not have the confidence of the army, after seven months, an army faction known as the Wallingford House party removed him on 6 May 1659 and reinstalled the Rump Parliament. Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, on 9 June 1659, he was nominated lord-general of the army. However, his leadership was undermined in Parliament, which chose to disregard the armys authority in a fashion to the post-First Civil War Parliament. A royalist uprising was planned for 1 August 1659, but it was foiled, however, Sir George Booth gained control of Cheshire, Charles II hoped that with Spanish support he could effect a landing, but none was forthcoming. Booth held Cheshire until the end of August when he was defeated by General Lambert, the Commons, on 12 October 1659, cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the Speaker. The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut, on 26 October a Committee of Safety was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members. Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, the Committee of Safety sent Lambert with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms. It was into this atmosphere that Monck, the governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, lamberts army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone. The Presbyterian members, excluded in Prides Purge of 1648, were recalled, Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before Parliament to answer for his conduct. On 3 March 1660, Lambert was sent to the Tower of London, Lambert was incarcerated and died in custody on Guernsey in 1694, Ingoldsby was indeed pardoned. On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the monarch since the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649. Constitutionally, it was as if the last nineteen years had never happened, Charles returned from exile, leaving the Hague on 23 May and landing at Dover on 25 May. He entered London on 29 May, his birthday, to celebrate his Majestys Return to his Parliament,29 May was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661, some contemporaries described the Restoration as a divinely ordained miracle. The sudden and unexpected deliverance from usurpation and tyranny was interpreted as a restoration of the natural, the Cavalier Parliament convened for the first time on 8 May 1661, and it would endure for over 17 years, finally being dissolved on 24 January 1679
26.
Charles II of England
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Charles II was king of England, Scotland and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, Charles IIs father, Charles I, was executed at Whitehall on 30 January 1649, at the climax of the English Civil War. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland, and Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim, after 1660, all legal documents were dated as if he had succeeded his father as king in 1649. Charless English parliament enacted laws known as the Clarendon Code, designed to shore up the position of the re-established Church of England, Charles acquiesced to the Clarendon Code even though he favoured a policy of religious tolerance. The major foreign policy issue of his reign was the Second Anglo-Dutch War. In 1670, he entered into the treaty of Dover. Louis agreed to aid him in the Third Anglo-Dutch War and pay him a pension, Charles attempted to introduce religious freedom for Catholics and Protestant dissenters with his 1672 Royal Declaration of Indulgence, but the English Parliament forced him to withdraw it. In 1679, Titus Oatess revelations of a supposed Popish Plot sparked the Exclusion Crisis when it was revealed that Charless brother, the crisis saw the birth of the pro-exclusion Whig and anti-exclusion Tory parties. Charles sided with the Tories, and, following the discovery of the Rye House Plot to murder Charles and James in 1683, Charles dissolved the English Parliament in 1681, and ruled alone until his death on 6 February 1685. He was received into the Roman Catholic Church on his deathbed, Charless wife, Catherine of Braganza, bore no live children, but Charles acknowledged at least twelve illegitimate children by various mistresses. He was succeeded by his brother James, Charles II was born in St Jamess Palace on 29 May 1630. His parents were Charles I and Henrietta Maria, Charles was their second son and child. Their first son was born about a year before Charles but died within a day, England, Scotland and Ireland were respectively predominantly Anglican, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic. At birth, Charles automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay, at or around his eighth birthday, he was designated Prince of Wales, though he was never formally invested. During the 1640s, when Charles was still young, his father fought Parliamentary, by spring 1646, his father was losing the war, and Charles left England due to fears for his safety. Charles I surrendered into captivity in May 1646, at The Hague, Charles had a brief affair with Lucy Walter, who later falsely claimed that they had secretly married
27.
Anne, Queen of Great Britain
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Anne became Queen of England, Scotland and Ireland on 8 March 1702. On 1 May 1707, under the Acts of Union, two of her realms, the kingdoms of England and Scotland, united as a sovereign state known as Great Britain. She continued to reign as Queen of Great Britain and Ireland until her death, Anne was born in the reign of her uncle Charles II, who had no legitimate children. Her father, James, was first in line to the throne and his suspected Roman Catholicism was unpopular in England, and on Charless instructions Anne was raised as an Anglican. Three years after he succeeded Charles, James was deposed in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, Annes Dutch Protestant brother-in-law and cousin William III became joint monarch with his wife, Annes elder sister Mary II. Although the sisters had been close, disagreements over Annes finances, status and choice of acquaintances arose shortly after Marys accession, William and Mary had no children. After Marys death in 1694, William continued as sole monarch until he was succeeded by Anne upon his death in 1702, as queen, Anne favoured moderate Tory politicians, who were more likely to share her Anglican religious views than their opponents, the Whigs. The Whigs grew more powerful during the course of the War of the Spanish Succession and her close friendship with Sarah Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, turned sour as the result of political differences. Anne was plagued by ill health throughout her life, from her thirties onwards, she grew increasingly lame and obese. Despite seventeen pregnancies by her husband, Prince George of Denmark, she died without any surviving children and was the last monarch of the House of Stuart. Anne was born at 11,39 p. m. on 6 February 1665 at St Jamess Palace, London, the child and second daughter of James, Duke of York. At her Anglican baptism in the Chapel Royal at St Jamess, her sister, Mary, was one of her godparents, along with the Duchess of Monmouth. The Duke and Duchess of York had eight children, but Anne, as a child, Anne suffered from an eye condition, which manifested as excessive watering known as defluxion. For medical treatment, she was sent to France, where she lived with her grandmother, Queen Henrietta Maria. Following her grandmothers death in 1669, Anne lived with an aunt, Henrietta Anne, on the sudden death of her aunt in 1670, Anne returned to England. Her mother died the following year, as was traditional in the royal family, Anne and her sister were brought up separated from their father in their own establishment at Richmond, London. On the instructions of Charles II, they were raised as Protestants, placed in the care of Colonel Edward and Lady Frances Villiers, their education was focused on the teachings of the Anglican church. Henry Compton, Bishop of London, was appointed as Annes preceptor, around 1671, Anne first made the acquaintance of Sarah Jennings, who later became her close friend and one of her most influential advisors
28.
White's
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Whites is a gentlemans club in St Jamess, London, regarded as one of the most exclusive of its kind. Whites is the oldest gentlemans club in London, founded in 1693, notable current members include Charles, Prince of Wales, Prince William, Duke of Cambridge, Conrad Black and Tom Stacey. Whites continues to maintain its standards as an establishment exclusively for gentlemen, brief exceptions were made for the visits by Queen Elizabeth II in 1991, Whites is a member of the Association of London Clubs. Tickets were sold to the productions at Kings Theatre and Royal Drury Lane Theatre as a side-business. Whites quickly made the transition from teashop to exclusive club and in the early 18th century, it was notorious as a gambling house, the club gained a reputation for both its exclusivity and the often raffish behaviour of its members. Jonathan Swift referred to Whites as the bane of half the English nobility, in 1778 it moved to 37–38 St Jamess Street. From 1783 it was the headquarters of the Tory party. A few apolitical and affable gentlemen managed to belong to both, the new architecture featured a bow window on the ground floor. In the later 18th century, the table directly in front of it became a seat of distinction and this belonged to the arbiter elegantiarum, Beau Brummell, until he removed to the Continent in 1816, when Lord Alvanley took the place of honour. It was here that Alvanley bet a friend £3,000 as to which of two raindrops would first reach the bottom of a pane of the bow window and it is not recorded whether he won his bet. Later, the spot was reserved for the use of the 1st Duke of Wellington until his death in 1852, alvanleys was not the most eccentric bet in Whites famous betting book. Some of those entries were on sports, but more often on political developments, especially during the years of the French Revolution. A good many were social bets, such as whether a friend would marry this year, there were two American members in the interwar period, one of whom was a General in the U. S. Army. Current American members include diplomat Edward Streator, Prince Charles held his stag night at the club before his wedding to Lady Diana Spencer in 1981. His eldest son, Prince William was entered as a member of the shortly after his birth. The clubhouse is located at 37–38 St Jamess Street in the City of Westminster and is a Grade I listed building. Originally built in 1674 and then rebuilt in 1787-88, probably by James Wyatt, it was altered in 1811. Constructed of Portland stone with a slate roof it possesses the Victorian version of a Palladian façade with some French motifs, the buildings consists of three storeys, a basement and a dormered attic
29.
Brooks's
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Brookss is a gentlemens club in St Jamess Street, London. It is one of the oldest gentlemens clubs in London, in January 1762 a private society was established at 50 Pall Mall by Messrs. Boothby and James in response to having been blackballed for membership of Whites and this society then split to form the predecessors of both Brookss and Boodles. The club that was to become Brookss was founded in March 1764 by twenty-seven prominent Whig nobles including the Duke of Portland, charles James Fox was elected as a member the following year at the age of sixteen. The club premises at 49 Pall Mall was a tavern owned by William Almack as was the neighbouring 50 Pall Mall where the society had previously met. These fashionable young men, known as Macaronis, would frequent the premises for the purposes of wining, dining and gambling, paid for at Brookss own expense, the building was completed in October 1778 and all existing members of Almacks were invited to join. Brookss gamble paid off as all existing members swiftly moved into the new building, brooks himself however would not live long to enjoy this success, dying in poverty in 1782. The new clubhouse was built of brick and Portland stone in a Palladian style similar to Hollands early country houses. The main suite of rooms on the first floor consisted of the Great Subscription Room, Small Drawing Room, the interiors are in neoclassical style, the Great Subscription Room having a segmental barrel vault ceiling. The interior of the building remained unchanged until 1889 when neighbouring 2 Park Place. The main historic attraction of Brookss was its gaming rooms, at several tables in one, gentlemen would stake fortunes on whist and hazard. Gambling all night was common, all day and all night, when the stakes far exceeded any ordinary expenses, all the club accounts were commonly deducted from winnings, so that no bills were rendered to members. Numerous eccentric bets were and are made in the Brookss betting book, one extraordinary entry from 1785 is Ld. Cholmondeley has given two guineas to Ld, derby, to receive 500 Gs whenever his lordship fucks a woman in a balloon one thousand yards from the Earth. Members gaming, such as at backgammon, continues today, in 1978 the St Jamess Club amalgamated with Brookss, adding to its membership some European royalty, members of the British diplomatic corps and writers. 140–164,1878 F. H. W. Sheppard, ed, survey of London, volumes 29 and 30, St James Westminster, Part 1, pp. 325–338,1960. Christopher Hibbert, London, the Biography of a City,1969, William Morrow, NY Stella Margetson, Regency London,1971, Praeger Publishers, NY Ellen Moers, The Dandy, Brummell to Beerbohm,1960, The Viking Press, Inc. NY Philip Ziegler & Desmond Seward, Brookss, a Social History,1991, vic Gatrell, City of Laughter, Atlantic Books,2006
30.
Boodle's
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Boodles is a London gentlemens club, founded in 1762, at 49–51 Pall Mall, London, by Lord Shelburne, the future Marquess of Lansdowne and Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. The club came to be known after the name of its head waiter, Boodles is regarded as one of the most prestigious clubs in London, and counts many British aristocrats and notable politicians among its members. It is the second oldest club in the world, with only Whites being older, Boodles Orange Fool is a traditional club dish. Early members were opponents of William Pitt the Elder’s foreign policies relating to the Seven Years War, during the Regency era, Boodles became known as the club of the English gentry, while Whites became the club of the more senior members of the nobility. Four members have been awarded the Victoria Cross and Sir Winston Churchill was one of the few people to be elected to honorary membership and it is reputed that Beau Brummells last bet took place at the Club before he fled the country to France. Today, membership is strictly by nomination and election only, in 1782 Boodles took over the Savoir Vivre club house at 28 St. Jamess Street, London, and has been located there ever since. The building had been designed by John Crunden in 1775, the ground floor was refurbished by John Buonarotti Papworth between 1821 and 1834. Hon. Charles James Fox, PC Edward Gibbon Andrew R. However, Boodles itself is referenced in the novels Moonraker and You Only Live Twice. Of J. K. Stanfords George Hysteron-Proteron, said to be a member of Boodles, I dont know if he is a member here but there are six George Proterons sitting round me in the smoking-room at the moment. The club is referenced in W. E. B. Griffin and William E. Butterworth IVs novel The Double Agents, ian Fleming and David Niven are referenced, as well as their membership at Boodles. While the actual story is fiction, their memberships at Boodles, out here, vulgar mankind – behind there, Boodles. In Oscar Wildes 1895 play An Ideal Husband, Sir Robert Chiltern says, Lord Goring is the result of Boodles Club, Mrs. Cheveley, Mrs. Cheveley responds, He reflects every credit on the institution. In Charles Dickenss 1853 novel Bleak House, ch, in Operation Crossbow Bradley suggests Boodles to Lt. Curtis as a stopover after their spy interviews. The club is referred to in the ITV series Downton Abbey
31.
Gentlemen's club
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Today, some clubs are more accommodating about the gender and social status of their members. The original clubs were established in the West End of London, today, the area of St Jamess is still sometimes called clubland. Clubs took over parts of the role occupied by coffee houses in 18th century London. The first clubs, such as Whites, Brookss and Boodles, were aristocratic in flavour, and provided an environment for gambling, the 19th century brought an explosion in the popularity of clubs, particularly around the 1880s. At their height, London had over 400 such establishments and this expansion can be explained in part by the large extensions of the franchise in the Reform Acts of 1832,1867, and 1885. Each time, hundreds of more men were qualified to vote. Each of the three great Reform Acts corresponded with an expansion of clubs, as did a further extension of the franchise in 1918. Many of these new, more inclusive clubs proved just as reluctant as their forebears to admit new members when the franchise was further extended. Club Life in London, an 1866 book, begins, The Club in the general acceptation of the term, may be regarded as one of the earliest offshoots of mans habitual gregariousness and social inclination. An increasing number of clubs were characterised by their members interest in politics, literature, sport, art, automobiles, travel, particular countries, or some other pursuit. In other cases, the connection between the members was membership of the branch of the armed forces, or the same school or university. Thus the growth of clubs provides an indicator as to what was considered a part of the Establishment at the time. This came to include professionals who had to earn their income, most gentlemen had only one club, which closely corresponded with the trade or social / political identity he felt most defined him, but a few people belonged to several. Members of the aristocracy and politicians were likely to have several clubs, the record number of memberships is believed to have been with Earl Mountbatten, who had nineteen in the 1960s. Public entertainments, such as performances and the like, were not a feature of this sort of club. The clubs were, in effect, second homes in the centre of London where men could relax, mix with their friends, play games, get a meal. Expatriates, when staying in England, could use their clubs, as the East India Club or the Oriental Club and they allowed upper- and upper-middle-class men with modest incomes to spend their time in grand surroundings. The richer clubs were built by the architects as the finest country houses of the time
32.
British Empire
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The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It originated with the possessions and trading posts established by England between the late 16th and early 18th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1913, the British Empire held sway over 412 million people, 23% of the population at the time. As a result, its political, legal, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread, during the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France, the independence of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after the American War of Independence caused Britain to lose some of its oldest and most populous colonies. British attention soon turned towards Asia, Africa, and the Pacific, after the defeat of France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, Britain emerged as the principal naval and imperial power of the 19th century. In the early 19th century, the Industrial Revolution began to transform Britain, the British Empire expanded to include India, large parts of Africa and many other territories throughout the world. In Britain, political attitudes favoured free trade and laissez-faire policies, during the 19th Century, Britains population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid urbanisation, which caused significant social and economic stresses. To seek new markets and sources of raw materials, the Conservative Party under Benjamin Disraeli launched a period of imperialist expansion in Egypt, South Africa, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand became self-governing dominions. By the start of the 20th century, Germany and the United States had begun to challenge Britains economic lead, subsequent military and economic tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First World War, during which Britain relied heavily upon its empire. The conflict placed enormous strain on the military, financial and manpower resources of Britain, although the British Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after World War I, Britain was no longer the worlds pre-eminent industrial or military power. In the Second World War, Britains colonies in Southeast Asia were occupied by Imperial Japan, despite the final victory of Britain and its allies, the damage to British prestige helped to accelerate the decline of the empire. India, Britains most valuable and populous possession, achieved independence as part of a larger movement in which Britain granted independence to most territories of the empire. The transfer of Hong Kong to China in 1997 marked for many the end of the British Empire, fourteen overseas territories remain under British sovereignty. After independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of Nations, the United Kingdom is now one of 16 Commonwealth nations, a grouping known informally as the Commonwealth realms, that share a monarch, Queen Elizabeth II. The foundations of the British Empire were laid when England and Scotland were separate kingdoms. In 1496, King Henry VII of England, following the successes of Spain and Portugal in overseas exploration, Cabot led another voyage to the Americas the following year but nothing was ever heard of his ships again
33.
Season (society)
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It was also the appropriate time to be resident in the city rather than in the country, in order to attend such events. The London social season evolved in the 17th and 18th centuries, the most exclusive events were held at the town mansions of leading members of the aristocracy. Exclusive public venues such as Almacks played a secondary role, the Season coincided with the sitting of Parliament and began some time after Christmas and ran until midsummer, roughly late June. The social season also played a role in the life of the country. But the Season also provided an opportunity for the children of age of the nobility. Women were formally introduced into society by presentation to the monarch at Court, the traditional Season went into decline after the First World War, when many aristocratic families gave up their London mansions. From this time on a number of society events took place at public venues. Many events that take place far from central London came to be regarded as part of the season, including Royal Ascot. The presentation of débutantes at court was abolished by Queen Elizabeth II in 1958, the events that now constitute the London social Season are increasingly hosted or sponsored by large companies. Dress codes still apply to events in the season, especially where the Queen plays an official role. According to the peerage guide Debretts, the social season runs from April to August. The traditional end of the London Season is the Glorious Twelfth of August, society would retire to the country to shoot birds during the autumn and hunt foxes during the winter, before coming back to London again with the spring. Many events of the season have traditional expectations with regard to dress and this continues to maintain a socially exclusive character to the Enclosure. If permitted to enter the Royal Enclosure, gentlemen are required to either black or grey morning dress, including a waistcoat. A gentleman may remove his top hat within a restaurant, a private box, hats may also be removed within any enclosed external seating area within the Royal Enclosure Garden. Ladies must not show bare midriffs or shoulders and must wear hats, at Henley Royal Regatta, in the Stewards Enclosure gentlemen must wear a jacket and tie. Rowing Club colours on a blazer or cap are encouraged, as is the wearing of boaters, a ladys skirt hem must reach below the knee and is checked before entry by the Stewards Officers. Hats are encouraged but not required for ladies, members must display their enamel badges at all times
34.
Townhouse (Great Britain)
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The grandest of the London townhouses were stand-alone buildings, but many were terraced buildings. The aristocratic pedigree of terraced housing, for example as survives in St Jamess Square in Westminster, is widely forgotten, the term is comparable to the hôtel particulier which housed the French nobleman in Paris. Many of the Inns of Court in London served this function, for example Grays Inn was the London townhouse of Reginald de Grey, from the 18th century, landowners and their servants would move to a townhouse during the social season. From the 18th century most townhouses were terraced, it was one of the successes of Georgian architecture to persuade the rich to buy terraced houses, especially if they were in a garden square. Only a small minority of them, generally the largest, were detached, for example, the Duke of Norfolk owned Arundel Castle in the country, while from 1722 his London house, Norfolk House, was a terraced house in St Jamess Square over 100 feet wide. They gradually spread onto the Strand, the main thoroughfare from the City to the Palace of Westminster. Bishops also had London residences, generally termed Palaces, for example Lambeth Palace, Ely Palace, many aristocratic townhouses were demolished or ceased to be used for residential purposes after the First World War. The greatest residence on the Strand was the Savoy Palace, residence of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the Strand had the advantage of river frontage to the Thames, which gave the nobles their own private landing places. The next fashion was to still further westwards to St Jamess. In the 18th century Covent Garden was developed by the Duke of Bedford on his Bedford Estate, the final fashion before the modern era was for a residence on the former marsh-land of Belgravia, developed after the establishment of Mayfair also by the Duke of Westminster. The subsequent townhouse of the Berkeleys was on the site of Berkeley Square, the present Hertford House in Manchester Square, home of the Wallace Collection, was built by one of his very distant cousins. Hungerford House, residence of Baron Hungerford until 1669, powerscourt House - Dublin residence of Viscount Powersourt, a prominent Irish peer. It was sensitively converted into a shopping centre in the 1980s. Georgian Dublin consisted of five Georgian squares, which contained the townhouses of prominent peers, the squares were Merrion Square, St Stephens Green, Fitzwilliam Square, Ruthland Square and Mountjoy Square. Many of the townhouses in these squares are now offices while some have been demolished, english country house Great house Manor house Stately home List of house types Hôtel particulier Cunningham, Peter. Handbook of London Past and Present, London,1850, londons Mansions by David Pearce, ISBN 0-7134-8702-X The London Rich by Peter Thorold ISBN 0-670-87480-9 Daisy, Countess of Fingall. Ros, Maggi, Life in Elizabethan England, A London and Westminster Directory,2008
35.
Friendly society
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A friendly society is a mutual association for the purposes of insurance, pensions, savings or cooperative banking. It is an organization or benefit society composed of a body of people who join together for a common financial or social purpose. Before modern insurance, and the state, friendly societies provided financial and social services to individuals, often according to their religious, political. These societies are still widespread in parts of the developing world. Before the development of government and employer health insurance and other financial services. Many of these still exist. The current position of the mutual benefit society in Europe is well described in a report from 2012, healthcare mutuals worldwide are coming together in Association Internationale de la Mutualité, a Brussels-based association of healthcare mutuals. In other countries friendly societies have no legal status, which makes that they have to comply to the same rules. In some cases, especially in America, members paid a regular membership fee. If members became sick, they would receive an allowance to help meet their financial obligations. The society might have a doctor whom the member could consult for free, members of the lodge would visit to provide emotional and other support. When members died, their funeral would be paid for and the members of their lodge might attend in ceremonial dress—often, Friendly societies might also organize social functions such as dances, and some had sports teams for members. They occasionally became involved in issues that were of interest to their members. Others were purely financial, with little or no social side, the first mutual savings bank, founded in Scotland in 1810, was called the Savings and Friendly Society. Credit unions and other types of organization are modern equivalents, Friendly Society Brasses were the emblems of village friendly societies or clubs common in the west of England between the late 18th and early 20th centuries. The use of brasses as emblems was particularly prevalent in Somerset, Female friendly societies were a common form of friendly society in England during the 19th century e. g. the York Female Friendly Society, founded in 1788. The societies were more common in areas of the country where larger proportions of the population were in employment. In Ireland, friendly societies are registered with the Registrar of Friendly Societies under the Friendly Societies Acts 1896–2014
36.
English-speaking world
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Approximately 330 to 360 million people speak English as their first language. More than half of live in the United States, followed by some 55 million in England. English is the third largest language by number of speakers, after Mandarin. Estimates that include second language speakers vary greatly, from 470 million to more than 1 billion, david Crystal calculates that non-native speakers as of 2003 outnumbered native speakers by a ratio of 3 to 1. When combining native and non-native speakers, English is the most widely spoken language worldwide, there are six large countries with a majority of native English speakers that are sometimes grouped under the term Anglosphere. They are, in descending order of English speakers, the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Ireland, other substantial communities of native speakers are found in South Africa, and Nigeria. Also there are countries where in a part of the territory English became a language, e. g. Colombias San Andrés y Providencia. This was a result of the influence of British colonization in the area, English is one of the eleven official languages that are given equal status in South Africa. It is also the language in current dependent territories of Australia and of the United States. Although the United States federal government has no official languages, English has been official status by 32 of the 50 state governments. It is, by treaty, the official language for aeronautical. English is one of the languages of the United Nations and many other international organizations. In 2012, excluding native speakers,38 percent of Europeans consider that they can speak English, in publishing, English literature predominates considerably with 28 percent of all books published in the world and 30 percent of web content in 2011. This increasing use of the English language globally has had a impact on many other languages, leading to language shift and even language death. English itself has more open to language shift as multiple regional varieties feed back into the language as a whole. Variation in Nonnative Varieties of English, Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency. Census 2011, Key Statistics for Northern Ireland December 2012, language in England and Wales,2011. Language Use in the United States,2011, Population by mother tongue and age groups,2011 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories
37.
Scottish Enlightenment
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The Scottish Enlightenment was the period in 18th and early 19th century Scotland characterised by an outpouring of intellectual and scientific accomplishments. By the eighteenth century, Scotland had a network of schools in the Lowlands. Among the fields that rapidly advanced were philosophy, political economy, engineering, architecture, medicine, geology, archaeology, law, agriculture, chemistry, the Scottish Enlightenment of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was a natural development of this earlier engagement and advancement of knowledge. Union with England in 1707 meant the end of the Scottish Parliament, the parliamentarians, politicians, aristocrats, and placemen moved to London. Scottish law, however, was separate from English law, so the civil law courts, lawyers. The headquarters and leadership of the Church of Scotland also remained, as did the universities, at the union of 1707, England had about five times the population of Scotland and about 36 times as much wealth. Scotland experienced the beginnings of economic expansion that allowed it to close this gap, contacts with England led to a conscious attempt to improve agriculture among the gentry and nobility. Although some estate holders improved the quality of life of their workers, enclosures led to unemployment. The major change in trade was the rapid expansion of the Americas as a market. Glasgow particularly benefited from this new trade, initially supplying the colonies with manufactured goods, it emerged as the focus of the tobacco trade, the merchants dealing in this lucrative business became the wealthy tobacco lords, who dominated the city for most of the eighteenth century. Banking also developed in this period, the Bank of Scotland, founded in 1695 was suspected of Jacobite sympathies, and so a rival Royal Bank of Scotland was founded in 1727. Local banks began to be established in burghs like Glasgow and Ayr and these made capital available for business, and the improvement of roads and trade. By the late 17th century there was a complete network of parish schools in the Lowlands. By the 17th century, Scotland had five universities, compared with Englands two, all saw the establishment or re-establishment of chairs of mathematics. Observatories were built at St. Andrews and at Kings and Marischal colleges in Aberdeen, Robert Sibbald was appointed as the first Professor of Medicine at Edinburgh, and he co-founded the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in 1681. These developments helped the universities to major centres of medical education. By the 18th century, access to Scottish universities was probably more open than in contemporary England, attendance was less expensive and the student body more socially representative. In the eighteenth century Scotland reaped the benefits of this system
38.
Edinburgh
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Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 local government council areas. Located in Lothian on the Firth of Forths southern shore, it is Scotlands second most populous city and the seventh most populous in the United Kingdom. The 2014 official population estimates are 464,990 for the city of Edinburgh,492,680 for the authority area. Recognised as the capital of Scotland since at least the 15th century, Edinburgh is home to the Scottish Parliament and it is the largest financial centre in the UK after London. Historically part of Midlothian, the city has long been a centre of education, particularly in the fields of medicine, Scots law, literature, the sciences and engineering. The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1582 and now one of four in the city, was placed 17th in the QS World University Rankings in 2013 and 2014. The city is famous for the Edinburgh International Festival and the Fringe. The citys historical and cultural attractions have made it the United Kingdoms second most popular tourist destination after London, attracting over one million overseas visitors each year. Historic sites in Edinburgh include Edinburgh Castle, Holyrood Palace, the churches of St. Giles, Greyfriars and the Canongate, Edinburghs Old Town and New Town together are listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, which has been managed by Edinburgh World Heritage since 1999. It appears to derive from the place name Eidyn mentioned in the Old Welsh epic poem Y Gododdin, the poem names Din Eidyn as a hill fort in the territory of the Gododdin. The Celtic element din was dropped and replaced by the Old English burh, the first documentary evidence of the medieval burgh is a royal charter, c. 1124–1127, by King David I granting a toft in burgo meo de Edenesburg to the Priory of Dunfermline. In modern Gaelic, the city is called Dùn Èideann, the earliest known human habitation in the Edinburgh area was at Cramond, where evidence was found of a Mesolithic camp site dated to c.8500 BC. Traces of later Bronze Age and Iron Age settlements have found on Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat, Craiglockhart Hill. When the Romans arrived in Lothian at the end of the 1st century AD, at some point before the 7th century AD, the Gododdin, who were presumably descendants of the Votadini, built the hill fort of Din Eidyn or Etin. Although its location has not been identified, it likely they would have chosen a commanding position like the Castle Rock, Arthurs Seat. In 638, the Gododdin stronghold was besieged by forces loyal to King Oswald of Northumbria and it thenceforth remained under their jurisdiction. The royal burgh was founded by King David I in the early 12th century on land belonging to the Crown, in 1638, King Charles Is attempt to introduce Anglican church forms in Scotland encountered stiff Presbyterian opposition culminating in the conflicts of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. In the 17th century, Edinburghs boundaries were defined by the citys defensive town walls
39.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
