1.
San Isidro, Buenos Aires
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San Isidro is a municipality in Greater Buenos Aires. It is located 27.9 km from the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires and it ranks as the provinces most affluent neighborhood. The center of San Isidro is an area with cobbled streets. At the heart of Plaza Mitre is the neo-gothic San Isidro Cathedral built in 1898, the sloping plaza, home to the recently opened Rugby Museum, hosts an antiques and crafts fair. The plaza leads down to the Río de la Plata, where the park is popular with mate drinkers. The city is known as the National Capital of Rugby being the cradle of many important players. San Isidro is served by two lines, the Mitre Line and the Tren de la Costa. The San Isidro station is a vintage 1891 building designed in the style of British stations, the facility also houses a shopping arcade, a cinema complex and restaurants. The station is located just 200 meters from the San Isidro Cathedral, many large houses surround the historic center and line the riverside. The oldest is the House of General Pueyrredón, built in 1790 by Juan Martín de Pueyrredón, the house, with its old giant algarrobo tree under which Pueyrredón and San Martín discussed independence, is a national historic monument and hosts the municipal historic museum of San Isidro. The home of writer Victoria Ocampo, the Villa Ocampo, is owned by Unesco and is open to the public, the San Isidro Hippodrome is one of Argentinas most important race courses and covers a large part of the area inland from the city. Built in the striking 1930s architectural style, the track has faced tough times since the economic crises of the late 20th. In 2007, San Isidro celebrated its 300 years of existence with different celebrations taking place in the Hippodrome, the settlement was first incorporated in 1784 as the Alcaldía de la Hermandad and was granted municipality status by the province in 1850. It maintains sister city relationships with Herzliya, Israel, Nagoya, Japan, centro de Guias Turisticas de San Isidro Municipalidad de San Isidro Paintings by local artist Susana DMono
2.
Greater Buenos Aires
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Greater Buenos Aires is the urban agglomeration comprising the autonomous city of Buenos Aires and the adjacent 24 partidos over the Province of Buenos Aires. Thus, it does not constitute an administrative unit. The conurbation spreads south, west and north of Buenos Aires city, to the east, the River Plate serves as a natural boundary. The term is related to other expressions that are not necessarily well-defined, the Buenos Aires conurbation, the Greater Buenos Aires Agglomeration. The National Institute of Statistics and Censuses has defined Greater Buenos Aires, there are three main groups within the Buenos Aires Conurbation. The first two groups comprise the traditional conurbation, or the conurbation proper, the third group of six partidos is in process of becoming fully integrated with the rest. D. and Marcos, M. The social map of Greater Buenos Aires as empirical evidence of urban models, volume 11 Number 1, pp. 67–78, DOI10. 1353/lag.2012.0012 Keeling, D. Buenos Aires, Global Dreams, Local Crisis
3.
Rugby union equipment
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A traditional rugby union kit consists of a collared jersey, shorts, jockstrap / compression shorts, long rugby socks and boots with studs. Some modest padding is allowed on the head, shoulders and collarbone, most players also opt to wear a mouthguard to guard against concussion and chipping of the teeth. Traditionally, rugby boots were of a cut above the ankle. Over the years, such boots have become common, although many players still wear mid-cut boots. Additional ankle support was seen as appropriate given the nature of the game, particularly the stresses of forward play, higher cut boots also provided some protection against knocks. Modern boots are now similar to football boots, with a low cut offering less ankle support. It is essential for safety considerations, particularly in the scrum, the studs may be metal or plastic and must conform to Regulation 12 of World Rugby. This regulation dictates the permissible dimensions of the studs and also defines a standard for the hardness of the material, backs would be advised, on most ground types, to wear boots with some form of stud, to ensure adequate grip when changing direction. Referees are required to all players studs before a game. Any studs that are worn down so that the steel fixing is showing must be changed before the player is allowed to join in the game. The intent of the standard and these pre-match checks is to eliminate the potential for a stud to cause a cut if it comes into contact with a players skin, generally there are two types of stud pattern worn, the 8 stud or the 6 stud. The 8 stud is most often worn by the forwards to provide them with extra grip for scrummaging and mauling. The 6 stud is worn by backs as it allows for more agility, plastic blade studs, common in football, are an increasingly frequent choice among backs. Tackle bags are use during training and warm up in rugby union, tackle bags are padded equipment which allows players to tackle without another player being involved. Tackle bags come in two forms, the shield and the tackle bag. The rucking shield is held in the hand of a coach or fellow player, the tackle bag stands on the ground held loosely by another person, it allows the tackler to practice a full tackle
4.
Argentina
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Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a federal republic in the southern half of South America. With a mainland area of 2,780,400 km2, Argentina is the eighth-largest country in the world, the second largest in Latin America, and the largest Spanish-speaking one. The country is subdivided into provinces and one autonomous city, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system, Argentina claims sovereignty over part of Antarctica, the Falkland Islands, and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. The earliest recorded presence in the area of modern-day Argentina dates back to the Paleolithic period. The country has its roots in Spanish colonization of the region during the 16th century, Argentina rose as the successor state of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a Spanish overseas viceroyalty founded in 1776. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with waves of European immigration radically reshaping its cultural. The almost-unparalleled increase in prosperity led to Argentina becoming the seventh wealthiest developed nation in the world by the early 20th century, Argentina retains its historic status as a middle power in international affairs, and is a prominent regional power in the Southern Cone and Latin America. Argentina has the second largest economy in South America, the third-largest in Latin America and is a member of the G-15 and it is the country with the second highest Human Development Index in Latin America with a rating of very high. Because of its stability, market size and growing high-tech sector, the description of the country by the word Argentina has to be found on a Venice map in 1536. In English the name Argentina probably comes from the Spanish language, however the naming itself is not Spanish, Argentina means in Italian of silver, silver coloured, probably borrowed from the Old French adjective argentine of silver > silver coloured already mentioned in the 12th century. The French word argentine is the form of argentin and derives of argent silver with the suffix -in. The Italian naming Argentina for the country implies Argentina Terra land of silver or Argentina costa coast of silver, in Italian, the adjective or the proper noun is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said lArgentina. The name Argentina was probably first given by the Venitian and Genoese navigators, in Spanish and Portuguese, the words for silver are respectively plata and prata and of silver is said plateado and prateado. Argentina was first associated with the silver mountains legend, widespread among the first European explorers of the La Plata Basin. The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to La Argentina, a 1602 poem by Martín del Barco Centenera describing the region, the 1826 constitution included the first use of the name Argentine Republic in legal documents. The name Argentine Confederation was also used and was formalized in the Argentine Constitution of 1853. In 1860 a presidential decree settled the name as Argentine Republic
5.
Sports club
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A sports club or sport club, sometimes athletics club or sports society or sports association, is a group of people formed for the purpose of playing sports. A club is solely created by its members, players and supporters, clubs may be dedicated to a single sport or to several. The term athletics club is used for a general sports club. Many professional sports clubs have a system where the affiliated supporters pay an annuity fee. Registered associate member fees, attendance receipts, sponsoring contracts, team merchandising, TV rights, some sports teams are owned and financed by a single non-sports company, for example the several sports teams owned by Red Bull GmbH and collectively known as Red Bulls. They may compete in different sports and leagues, being headquartered in some cases across several countries. In general, student sports can be described as composed by multisports clubs, each one representing its educational institution, in the United States major institutions like The New York Athletic Club and Los Angeles Athletic Club serve as athletic clubs that participate in multiple sports. Examples also abound of sports clubs that are in one sports team. Each team from the NFL, CFL, NBA, MLB, NHL or MLS North American sports leagues, can be called sports clubs, but in practice, they focus solely on a single sport. In the United Kingdom, almost all sports organizations are dedicated to a single sport. In addition, like in other countries, many universities and colleges develop a wide range of student sport activities including at a professional or semi-professional level. Fulham F. C. once ran a professional league team and rowing club. Many football clubs originate from cricket teams, today, most major cities have separate clubs for each sport. Many clubs internationally describe themselves as football clubs, generally, British football clubs field only football teams. Their counterparts in other countries tend to be full multi-sport clubs. Community organizations Health club Leisure centre North American Association of Sports Economists Sociedad Anónima Deportiva Voluntary Sports Societies of the USSR
6.
Association football
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Association football, more commonly known as football or soccer, is a team sport played between two teams of eleven players with a spherical ball. It is played by 250 million players in over 200 countries and dependencies making it the worlds most popular sport, the game is played on a rectangular field with a goal at each end. The object of the game is to score by getting the ball into the opposing goal, players are not allowed to touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play, unless they are goalkeepers. Other players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, the team that scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, the Laws of the Game were originally codified in England by The Football Association in 1863. Association football is governed internationally by the International Federation of Association Football, the first written reference to the inflated ball used in the game was in the mid-14th century, Þe heued fro þe body went, Als it were a foteballe. The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the word soccer was split off in 1863, according to Partha Mazumdar, the term soccer originated in England, first appearing in the 1880s as an Oxford -er abbreviation of the word association. Within the English-speaking world, association football is now usually called football in the United Kingdom and mainly soccer in Canada and the United States. People in Australia, Ireland, South Africa and New Zealand use either or both terms, although national associations in Australia and New Zealand now primarily use football for the formal name. According to FIFA, the Chinese competitive game cuju is the earliest form of football for which there is scientific evidence, cuju players could use any part of the body apart from hands and the intent was kicking a ball through an opening into a net. It was remarkably similar to football, though similarities to rugby occurred. During the Han Dynasty, cuju games were standardised and rules were established, phaininda and episkyros were Greek ball games. An image of an episkyros player depicted in low relief on a vase at the National Archaeological Museum of Athens appears on the UEFA European Championship Cup, athenaeus, writing in 228 AD, referenced the Roman ball game harpastum. Phaininda, episkyros and harpastum were played involving hands and violence and they all appear to have resembled rugby football, wrestling and volleyball more than what is recognizable as modern football. As with pre-codified mob football, the antecedent of all football codes. Non-competitive games included kemari in Japan, chuk-guk in Korea and woggabaliri in Australia, Association football in itself does not have a classical history. Notwithstanding any similarities to other games played around the world FIFA have recognised that no historical connection exists with any game played in antiquity outside Europe. The modern rules of football are based on the mid-19th century efforts to standardise the widely varying forms of football played in the public schools of England
7.
Rugby union
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Rugby union, known in some parts of the world simply as rugby, is a contact team sport which originated in England in the first half of the 19th century. One of the two codes of football, it is based on running with the ball in hand. In its most common form, a game is between two teams of 15 players using a ball on a rectangular field with H-shaped goalposts on each try line. Historically an amateur sport, in 1995 restrictions on payments to players were removed, World Rugby, originally the International Rugby Football Board and from 1998 to 2014 the International Rugby Board, has been the governing body for rugby union since 1886. Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland, early exponents of the sport included Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and France. Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport include Fiji, Georgia, Madagascar, New Zealand, Samoa, Tonga, Rugby union is played in over 100 countries across six continents, there are 101 full members and 18 associate members of World Rugby. The Rugby World Cup, first held in 1987, takes place four years with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup. The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere are major annual competitions. The origin of football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823. Although the evidence for the story is doubtful, it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in 1895, despite the doubtful evidence, the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after Webb Ellis. Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School, Old Rugbeian Albert Pell, a student at Cambridge, is credited with having formed the first football team. During this early period different schools used different rules, with pupils from Rugby. Other important events include the Blackheath Clubs decision to leave the Football Association in 1863, despite the sports full name of rugby union, it is known simply as rugby throughout most of the world. The first rugby football international was played on 27 March 1871 between Scotland and England, by 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams, and in 1883 the first international competition, the Home Nations Championship had begun. 1883 is also the year of the first rugby tournament, the Melrose Sevens. During the early history of union, a time before commercial air travel. The first two notable tours both took place in 1888—the British Isles team touring New Zealand and Australia, followed by the New Zealand team touring Europe, All three teams brought new styles of play, fitness levels and tactics, and were far more successful than critics had expected. After Morgan began singing, the crowd joined in, the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event, in 1905 France played England in its first international match
8.
Argentine football league system
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The Argentine football league system include tournaments organised by the Argentine Football Association. Clubs affiliated to the body compete in the tournaments, which are split into categories or divisions, rules establish a system of promotion and relegation, a process where teams are transferred between two divisions based on their performance for the completed season. Tournaments organised by the Association and its predecessors have held since 1893. Nevertheless, the first championship was organised by the Argentine Association Football League in 1891, the body dissolved that same year but the current association included the 1891 in its list of championships. Only clubs directly affiliated to AFA had taken part in tournaments organised by the body, the second group is formed clubs not directly affiliated to AFA that play in regional leagues, under the supervision of Consejo Federal de Fútbol, dependent on the AFA. Competitions reserved for those clubs are Torneo Federal A, Torneo Federal B, AFA official website Fútbol Interior Ascenso del Interior
9.
Argentine Football Association
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The Argentine Football Association is the governing body of football in Argentina. It organises the Primera División and lower divisions, the Argentine Cup, Supercopa Argentina, the association is based in the city of Buenos Aires. Secondly, it organizes the amateur leagues for women, children, youth, Futsal. The Argentine Association Football League was founded on 21 February 1893 by Alexander Watson Hutton, the Argentine Association is the oldest in South America and one of the oldest to be formed outside Europe. In 1906 Florencio Martínez de Hoz became the first Argentine-born President of the Association, some teams moved to the FAF were Gimnasia y Esgrima, Independiente, Estudiantes de La Plata and Atlanta. The league lasted until 1914 when rejoining Asociación Argentina de Football forming a league for the 1915 season. The second dissident league was formed in 1919 and named Asociacion Amateurs de Football, the first round of the recently created professional championship was on 31 May 1931. With 75 presidents of different Argentine clubs voting, the day of the elections something went wrong when the final count resulted in a draw of 38 to 38, the explanation given was that one of the electors put a double vote and that mistake was not reported. As a result, the committee decided to postpone the election. After some meetings to put an end to the conflict, both agreed to have another election in June 2016. In June 2016, AFA president Luis Segura was charged with aggravated administrative fraud, Segura has been replaced on an interim basis by the AFAs executive secretary, Damián Dupiellet. The body has been renamed several times since its establishment in 1893,3 Expelled by the Argentine military dictatorship. 5 Then translated into Spanish as Asociación del Fútbol Argentino in 1946, official site Argentina at FIFA site
10.
Copa de Competencia Jockey Club
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Copa de Competencia Jockey Club is a defunct official football tournament which took place in Argentina between 1907 and 1933. The winner of this Cup was allowed to play the Tie Cup against the Uruguayan champion of Copa de Competencia, the Copa de Competencia Jockey Club was first awarded in 1907, being Alumni its first winner. Teams affiliated to the Argentine Football Association and Federación Rosarina de Football were allowed to enter to this competition, rosarian teams participated until the 1919 edition. From the 1921 edition, only teams from the cities of Buenos Aires, after the final edition of the Tie Cup in 1919, the Copa de Competencia Jockey Club was played on four more occasions in 1921,1925,1931 and 1936. It was contested on a total of 17 occasions and the most successful teams were Alumni, the following list includes all the editions of the Copa de Competencia, Copa de Competencia Tie Cup Copa de Competencia overview page at RSSSF
11.
Copa de Honor Municipalidad de Buenos Aires
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Copa de Honor Municipalidad de Buenos Aires was an Argentine official football cup competition. It was contested fourteen times between 1905 and 1920 and this cup was played by teams from Buenos Aires and Rosario. The champion of this tournament qualified to play the Copa de Honor Cousenier versus the winner of Uruguayan Copa de Honor representing the Association of that country. In 1936, a new Copa de Honor was played under a regular Primera División season, san Lorenzo finished 1st and was awarded the cup. In July 2013, the Argentine Football Association recognized the 1936 edition as a Primera División honour awarded to the club, the following list includes all the editions of the Copa de Honor, Copa de Honor Cousenier Copa de Honor
12.
Tie Cup
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The Tie Cup Competition is a defunct international football tournament played between representatives of the Argentina, Rosario and Uruguay Associations. It was one of the earliest international football tournaments played between members of different national football associations, the cup was donated by Francis Hepburn Chevallier Boutell, the president of Argentine Association Football League, in 1900. The tournament was played on a basis until 1919. Between 1900 and 1906 qualifiers from the three contested the semi-finals 2 from the Argentine football association,1 from Rosario and one from the Uruguayan football association. From 1907 to 1919 only the match was international, contested between one representative each from Argentina and Uruguay. The participants were determined via qualification cups, the following list includes all the editions of the Tie Cup Competition, Copa de Competencia Jockey Club Copa de Competencia
13.
Field hockey
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Field hockey is a team sport of the hockey family. The earliest origins of the date back to the Middle Ages in England, Scotland, France. The game can be played on a field or a turf field as well as an indoor board surface. Each team plays with eleven players, including the goalie, players use sticks made out of wood, carbon fibre, fibre glass or a combination of carbon fibre and fibre glass in different quantities to hit a round, hard, plastic ball. The length of the stick depends on the players individual height, only one end of the stick is allowed to be used. Goalies often have a different kind of stick, however they can use an ordinary field hockey stick. The specific goal-keeping sticks have another curve at the end of the stick, the uniform consists of shin guards, shoes, shorts, a mouth guard and a jersey. Today, the game is played globally, with particular popularity throughout Western Europe, the Indian subcontinent, Southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, Field Hockey is the national game of India and Pakistan. The term field hockey is used primarily in Canada and the United States where ice hockey is more popular, in Sweden the term landhockey is used. To some degree also in Norway and it is a section of Norways Bandy Association. Until recently they called it hockey, when it was changed to landhockey, during play, goal keepers are the only players who are allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body, while field players play the ball with the flat side of their stick. Goal keepers also cannot play the ball with the back of their stick, whoever scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout, there are many variations to overtime play that depend on the league and tournament play. In college play, an overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal period with seven players for each team. If a tie remains, the game enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses 5 players to dribble from the 25 yard line down to the circle against the opposing goalie. The player has 8 seconds to score on the goalie keeping it in bounds, the play ends after a goal is scored, the ball goes out of bounds, a foul is committed or time expires. If the tie still persists extra rounds thereafter until one team has scored, the FIH is also responsible for organising the Hockey Rules Board and developing the rules for the game. A popular variant of field hockey is indoor field hockey, which differs in a number of respects while embodying the principles of hockey
14.
Basque pelota
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The roots of this class of games can be traced to the Greek and other ancient cultures. The term pelota probably comes from the Vulgar Latin term pilotta and it is a diminutive form of the word pila which may relate to a hard linen or leather ball filled with pilus or to the Latin words for strike or spade and is related to the English word pellet. Today, Basque pelota is played in several countries, in Europe, this sport is concentrated in Spain and France, especially in the Basque Country. The sport is played in Latin American countries such as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay. Operated as an enterprise called Jai Alai, it is seen in parts of the U. S. such as Florida, Connecticut, Nevada. In Valencia, Valencian pilota is considered the sport, it is also played in Belgium, North of Italy, Mexico. The four modalities admit fourteen disciplines, depending the use of hand, leather ball, rubber ball, paleta, racket. Two of the fourteen disciplines are played by men and women, the other twelve are played only by men. This allows championship play at the level, and allows the participation of players. There is, however, criticism about this, since purists might argue that some of the traits of each particular modality could be lost. Even with protection, accidents do happen, with the ball easily travelling at 200 km/h pelota can kill if safety equipment is not used properly or at all and, though rare, deaths occasionally occur. The origin of this sport is tied to the decline of the ancient jeu de paume, while the game evolved to the modern jeu de paume and eventually to tennis, rural alpine and pyreneean communities kept the tradition. According to the basque pilota historian Chipitey Etcheto, the first recorded matches took place in Napoleonic times, the mid-19th century saw the explosion of the pelota craze. The player Gantxiki is considered the father of the chistera. The top champions of the end of the 19th century, such as Chiquito de Cambo, were immensely popular, the first official competitions were organized in the 1920s, and led to the world championship in the 1950s. In 1924 the United States built their first fronton, in Miami, men often came in suits and women came in elaborate dresses for the special event. Nowadays Jai-Alai has dropped in popularity instead of thousands of people who came to watch now there are barely a couple hundred, the sport is truly dying out in America. Pelota is usually played in the Basque regions of south-western France and north-eastern Spain, due to the origin of the game, there are many good players who are Basques, either natives or from the Basque diaspora
15.
Bowls
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Bowls or lawn bowls is a sport in which the objective is to roll biased balls so that they stop close to a smaller ball called a jack or kitty. It is played on a green which may be flat or convex or uneven. It is normally played outdoors and the surface is either natural grass, artificial turf. It has been traced certainly to the 13th century, and conjecturally to the 12th, the jactus lapidum of which he speaks may have been more akin to shotput. It is beyond dispute, however, that the game, at any rate in a form, was played in the 13th century. A manuscript of that period in the library, Windsor. The worlds oldest surviving bowling green is the Southampton Old Bowling Green, another manuscript of the same century has a crude but spirited picture which brings us into close touch with the existing game. Three figures are introduced and a jack, a 14th-century manuscript, Book of Prayers, in the Francis Douce collection in the Bodleian Library at Oxford contains a drawing in which two persons are shown, but they bowl to no mark. Strutt suggests that the first players bowl may have been regarded by the player as a species of jack. In the third he stands almost upright, in the first he kneels, in the second he stoops, the game eventually came under the ban of king and parliament, both fearing it might jeopardise the practice of archery, then so important in battle. Statutes forbidding it and other sports were enacted in the reigns of Edward III, Richard II, even when, on the invention of gunpowder and firearms, the bow had fallen into disuse as a weapon of war, the prohibition was continued. The word bowls occurs for the first time in the statute of 1511 in which Henry VIII confirmed previous enactments against unlawful games and it was further enjoined that any one playing bowls outside his own garden or orchard was liable to a penalty of 6s. While those possessed of lands of the value of £100 might obtain licences to play on their own private greens. Young Mitchell was only 11 when he played on Kilmarnock Bowling green and this is turn led to the codification of modern rules for many sports, including lawn bowls, most football codes, lawn tennis and others. National Bowling Associations were established in the late 1800s, today the sport is played in over 40 countries with more than 50 member national authorities. The home of the game is still Scotland with the World Bowls centre in Edinburgh at Caledonia House,1 Redheughs Rigg, South Gyle, Edinburgh. Lawn bowls is played on a large, rectangular, precisely levelled and manicured grass or synthetic surface known as a bowling green which is divided into parallel playing strips called rinks. Once it has come to rest, the jack is aligned to the centre of the rink, a bowl may curve outside the rink boundary on its path, but must come to rest within the rink boundary to remain in play
16.
Golf
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Golf is a club and ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a course in as few strokes as possible. Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not utilize a standardized playing area, the game is played on a course with an arranged progression of 18 holes. Each hole on the course must contain a tee box to start from, there are other standard forms of terrain in between, such as the fairway, rough, sand traps, and hazards but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at all levels, while the modern game of golf originated in 15th-century Scotland, the games ancient origins are unclear and much debated. Some historians trace the sport back to the Roman game of paganica, one theory asserts that paganica spread throughout Europe as the Romans conquered most of the continent, during the first century BC, and eventually evolved into the modern game. Others cite chuiwan as the progenitor, a Chinese game played between the eighth and 14th centuries, the game is thought to have been introduced into Europe during the Middle Ages. Another early game that resembled modern golf was known as cambuca in England, the Persian game chaugán is another possible ancient origin. In addition, kolven was played annually in Loenen, Netherlands, beginning in 1297, to commemorate the capture of the assassin of Floris V, a year earlier. The modern game originated in Scotland, where the first written record of golf is James IIs banning of the game in 1457, as an unwelcome distraction to learning archery. James IV lifted the ban in 1502 when he became a golfer himself, with golf clubs first recorded in 1503-1504, to many golfers, the Old Course at St Andrews, a links course dating to before 1574, is considered to be a site of pilgrimage. In 1764, the standard 18-hole golf course was created at St Andrews when members modified the course from 22 to 18 holes. Golf is documented as being played on Musselburgh Links, East Lothian, Scotland as early as 2 March 1672, which is certified as the oldest golf course in the world by Guinness World Records. The oldest surviving rules of golf were compiled in March 1744 for the Company of Gentlemen Golfers, later renamed The Honourable Company of Edinburgh Golfers, Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York. The levels of grass are varied to increase difficulty, or to allow for putting in the case of the green, while many holes are designed with a direct line-of-sight from the teeing area to the green, some holes may bend either to the left or to the right. This is commonly called a dogleg, in reference to a dogs knee, the hole is called a dogleg left if the hole angles leftwards and dogleg right if it bends right. Sometimes, a holes direction may bend twice, this is called a double dogleg, a regular golf course consists of 18 holes, but nine-hole courses are common and can be played twice through for a full round of 18 holes. Early Scottish golf courses were laid out on links land. This gave rise to the golf links, particularly applied to seaside courses
17.
Squash (sport)
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Squash is a racket sport played by two or four players in a four-walled court with a small, hollow rubber ball. The players must alternate in striking the ball with their racket, the game was formerly called squash rackets, a reference to the squashable soft ball used in the game. The governing body of Squash, the World Squash Federation is recognised by the International Olympic Committee, supporters continue to lobby for its incorporation in a future Olympic program. The use of stringed rackets is shared with tennis, which dates from the sixteenth century. In rackets, instead of hitting over a net as in such as tennis. Squash was invented in Harrow School out of the older game rackets around 1830 before the spread to other schools. The first courts built at this school were rather dangerous because they were near water pipes, buttresses, chimneys, the school soon built four outside courts. Natural rubber was the material of choice for the ball, students modified their rackets to have a smaller reach to play in these cramped conditions. The rackets have changed in a way to those used in tennis. Squash rackets used to be out of laminated timber. In the 1980s, construction shifted to materials with small additions of components like Kevlar, boron. Natural gut strings were replaced with synthetic strings. In the 19th century the increased in popularity with various schools, clubs and even private citizens building squash courts. The first squash court in North America appeared at St. Pauls School in Concord, in 1904 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the earliest national association of squash in the world was formed as the United States Squash rackets Association, now known as U. S. Squash. In April 1907 the Tennis, rackets & Fives Association set up a sub committee to set standards for squash, then the sport soon formed, combining the three sports together called “Squash”. In 1912, the RMS Titanic had a court in first class. The 1st-Class Squash Court was situated on G-Deck and the Spectators Viewing Gallery was on the deck above on F-Deck, to use the Court cost 50 cents in 1912. Passengers could use the court for 1 hour unless others were waiting, standard rackets are governed by the rules of the game
18.
Swimming (sport)
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Swimming is an individual or team sport that involves using arms and legs to move the body through water. Typically, the takes place in pools or in open-water. Competitive swimming is one of the most popular Olympic sports, with events in butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, in addition to these individual events, swimmers also take part in relays. Swimming each stroke requires specific techniques, and in competition, there are specific regulations concerning the form for different strokes. There are also put in place to regulate what types of swimsuits are allowed at competitions. Although it is possible for competitive swimmers to incur several injuries from the sport, evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the earliest evidence dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC, with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a German professor of languages, wrote the first swimming book, Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St Georges Baths was opened to the public, by 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. In 1844 two Native American participants at a competition in London introduced the front crawl to a European audience. Sir John Arthur Trudgen picked up the stroke from some South American natives and successfully debuted the new stroke in 1873. His stroke is still regarded as the most powerful to use today, captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel, in 1875. Using the breaststroke technique, he swam the channel 21.26 miles in 21 hours and 45 minutes and his feat was not replicated or surpassed for the next 36 years, until T. W. Burgess made the crossing in 1911. Other European countries also established swimming federations, Germany in 1882, France in 1890, the first European amateur swimming competitions were in 1889 in Vienna. The worlds first womens swimming championship was held in Scotland in 1892, mens swimming became part of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. In 1902, the Australian Richmond Cavill introduced the front crawl to the Western world, in 1908, the world swimming association, Fédération Internationale de Natation, was formed. Womens swimming was introduced into the Olympics in 1912, the first international tournament for women outside the Olympics was the 1922 Womens Olympiad, Butterfly was developed in the 1930s and was at first a variant of breaststroke, until it was accepted as a separate style in 1952. Competitive swimming became popular in the 19th century, the goal of competitive swimming is to break personal or world records while beating competitors in any given event
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Tennis
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Tennis is a racket sport that can be played individually against a single opponent or between two teams of two players each. Each player uses a racket that is strung with cord to strike a hollow rubber ball covered with felt over or around a net. The object of the game is to play the ball in such a way that the opponent is not able to play a valid return, the player who is unable to return the ball will not gain a point, while the opposite player will. Tennis is an Olympic sport and is played at all levels of society, the sport can be played by anyone who can hold a racket, including wheelchair users. The modern game of tennis originated in Birmingham, England, in the late 19th century as lawn tennis and it had close connections both to various field games such as croquet and bowls as well as to the older racket sport of real tennis. The rules of tennis have changed little since the 1890s, two exceptions are that from 1908 to 1961 the server had to keep one foot on the ground at all times, and the adoption of the tiebreak in the 1970s. Tennis is played by millions of players and is also a popular worldwide spectator sport. Historians believe that the ancient origin lay in 12th century northern France. Louis X of France was a player of jeu de paume, which evolved into real tennis. Louis was unhappy with playing tennis outdoors and accordingly had indoor, in due course this design spread across royal palaces all over Europe. Because of the accounts of his death, Louis X is historys first tennis player known by name. Another of the enthusiasts of the game was King Charles V of France. It wasnt until the 16th century that rackets came into use, and the game began to be called tennis, from the French term tenez, an interjection used as a call from the server to his opponent. It was popular in England and France, although the game was played indoors where the ball could be hit off the wall. Henry VIII of England was a big fan of this game, during the 18th century and early 19th century, as real tennis declined, new racket sports emerged in England. This in turn led to the codification of rules for many sports, including lawn tennis, most football codes, lawn bowls. In 1872, along with two doctors, they founded the worlds first tennis club in Leamington Spa. Evans, turfgrass agronomist, Sports historians all agree that deserves much of the credit for the development of modern tennis, according to Honor Godfrey, museum curator at Wimbledon, Wingfield popularized this game enormously
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San Isidro Partido
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San Isidro is a partido of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina found in the north of Greater Buenos Aires. Its capital is the city of San Isidro and it is 21 km from the city of Buenos Aires. The founder of San Isidro city was Domingo de Acassuso, who built a cathedral in 1706 dedicated to San Isidro Labrador, other towns in the municipality are Acassuso, Beccar, Boulougne, Martínez, and Villa Adelina. The area of the partido is 51.44 km2, in 2010 there were 291,608 inhabitants. San Isidro borders on the partidos of Tigre, Vicente López, San Martín, Acassuso Beccar Boulogne Sur Mer Martínez San Isidro Villa Adelina The San Isidro cathedral was completed on July 14,1898. Constructed in Neo-Gothic style, it stands 68 m tall and it is located opposite Plaza Mitre in San Isidros historic quarter. San Isidro is home to Club Atlético Acassuso, a club that currently plays in the regionalised 3rd Division. San Isidro is home to a historically prominent Jockey Club, that runs San Isidros world-class race track, San Isidro is the national capital of Rugby and home to two of the most important rugby clubs in the country - SIC and CASI. There are a number of sailing clubs on the Río de la Plata
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Central Argentine Railway
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The Central Argentine Railway was one of the Big Four broad gauge,5 ft 6 in, private companies, owned by an american bussinessman, that built and operated railway networks in Argentina. The company was established in the 19th century, to serve the provinces of Santa Fe and Córdoba, in November 1855 the report was presented in Rosario. Campbell had been the engineer in the New York-Harlem railway line and been hired by William Wheelwright to make, the costs estimated by Campbell in the report, were the following, The distance estimated was 396 km and the costs were in Argentine Peso. The studio revealed a costos of GBP4,000 per mile built, a decree promulgated on April granted the company the lands to build roads, docks, stations and stops, that will be given to the company in perpetuity and free of lines. In 1863, the government of Argentina granted the company, led by engineer William Wheelwright, the grant included a clause to populate the lands along and around the railway that were given to the company by the national state. The construction works started in April 1863 with the establishment of the terminus in Rosario, the line, a 1,676 mm broad gauge railway. In September 1867 the line reached Villa María, Córdoba and the works ceased, minister Rawson expressed disagreement for the paralization of the works while passengers also protested against poor conditions of the service. The works for the Rosario Central station and other stations had not begun. The company alleged that they could not continue the extension of the line until the lands were given. On September 1867 the Government authorized a new disbursement of funds for $1,500,000 to conclude the pending works, finally in March 1870 the railway reached the city of Córdoba and it was officially inaugurated by then Presidente of Argentina Domingo Sarmiento on April 13. The CAR was the longest railway system at time and the first to join two provinces. During 18 years the company did not built any km else so in 1888 the railway system still had 396 km of extension, the company sent a commissioner to Europe to bring immigrants to form agricultural colonies, as required by the concession contract. They were settled first in Roldán, the first stop after Rosario, in 1891 the CA opened Fisherton Station in the west of Rosario, as well as new branch entering Rosario from the southwest and a stop on said line. Victoria station was opened in 1891. Trains to Zelaya and Capilla del Señor departed from Victoria for the first time one year later, the CAR also installed the first crossbuck and manually-operated gates in the many level crossings existing by then. The CA absorbed a company, Ferrocarril Oeste Santafesino, in 1900. In 1908, CA was merged with another company, Buenos Aires and Rosario Railway, which served the Buenos Aires–Rosario line. The fused company opened two new stops in Rosario, Parada Cruce Alberdi in the north-center of the city, and Parada Golf, in the limit of the municipality
22.
Argentine Rugby Union
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The Argentine Rugby Union are the governing body for rugby union in Argentina. It is a member of World Rugby with a seat on that bodys Executive Council, the UAR organises the Argentina national rugby union team, also known as Los Pumas. The first rugby match in Argentina was played in 1873, in the Buenos Aires Cricket Club Ground sited in Palermo, only 24 players could meet to contest the match. The teams were named Bancos and Ciudad and formed with 11 and 13 players respectively and that same year, another match was played on the Polo Field of Flores AC, part of land owned by the Unzué family. The teams were called Inglaterra and El Mundo, the first team was formed by Royal Navy officers that were temporarily in Buenos Aires, with the addition of some English citizens who resided in Argentina. Its rival was formed by English, Scottish, Welsh and Irish people plus some Argentine-born players of English descent, on May 14,1874, the Rugby Football Union rules were adopted to play rugby in Argentina. Those rules were used for the first time during the match contested at Buenos Aires Cricket Club between two teams from that institution, the teams were called El bando del Sr. Trench, and El bando del Sr. Hogg. Nevertheless, other say that the first game under the rules of rugby was played on Thursday,14 May 1874, at David Mathvens country house, in Caballito. Buenos Aires FC also played the first inter-provincial rugby game in Argentina, in 1899, clubs Belgrano AC, Rosario AC, Lomas AC, and Buenos Aires FC founded the River Plate Rugby Championship, which would become todays Argentine Rugby Union. The body organized the first championship that year, played by the four founding members. In the inaugural game, Lomas defeated Buenos Aires by 11-4, Lomas would be the first Argentine champion, winning the title at the end of the season. The sport requested an affiliation with the International Olympic Committee, who advised them to add Argentina to their name and so they became the Unión Argentina de Rugby on 29 November 1951. This body, one of the oldest rugby unions in the world, when the rest of the rugby union world went professional in 1995, the UAR decided to keep the game amateur. Also, the Buenos Aires clubs split off the UAR and formed the Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires, Argentine players who opt to go overseas to play professionally remain eligible for national team selection. As a result, the team was heavily, though not exclusively. In 2016, the UAR formed the Jaguares team to compete in the Super Rugby, also, it established a policy of selecting Pumas players from Super Rugby teams only, thereby excluding players from European clubs. The first national team made its debut against the British Lions when they toured Argentina in 1910 as part of the celebrations for the 100th anniversary of the Revolución de Mayo, the match was played on 12 June and the Argentina side lost 28-3. Argentina officially joined The Rugby Championship following a meeting in Buenos Aires on November 23,2011 and they became a full member of SANZAAR, the body which operates Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship competitions in rugby union, from the start of 2016
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New Zealand national rugby union team
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The New Zealand national rugby union team, commonly called the All Blacks, represent New Zealand in mens rugby union, which is regarded as the countrys national sport. The side has won the last two Rugby World Cups, in 2011 and 2015, as well as the tournament in 1987. They have a 77% winning record in test match rugby, and are the international side with a winning record against every opponent. Since their international debut in 1903, they have lost to only six of the 19 nations they have played in test matches, since the introduction of the World Rugby Rankings in 2003, New Zealand has held the number one ranking longer than all other teams combined. The All Blacks are statistically the best side to have played the game, New Zealand competes with Argentina, Australia and South Africa in The Rugby Championship. The All Blacks have won the fourteen times in the competitions twenty-one-year history. As of the end of 2016 competition, they hold the Bledisloe Cup, which is contested annually with Australia, New Zealand have achieved a Grand Slam four times –1978,2005,2008 and 2010. Fifteen former All Blacks have been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame, All Black coaches have won World Rugby Coach of the Year nine times since the awards 2001 launch. The teams first match was in 1884, and their first international test match was in 1903 against Australia in Sydney, the following year they hosted their first ever home test, a match against a British Isles side in Wellington. This was followed by a 34-game tour of Europe and North America in 1905, New Zealands early uniforms consisted of a black jersey with a silver fern and white knickerbockers. By the 1905 tour, they were wearing all black, except for the silver fern, the team perform a haka – a Māori challenge or posture dance – before each match. The haka performed has traditionally been Te Rauparahas Ka Mate, although since 2005 Kapa o Pango is often performed, the first recorded game in New Zealand took place in May 1870 in Nelson between the Nelson club and Nelson College. The first provincial union, the Canterbury Rugby Football Union, was formed in 1879, NSW did not face a New Zealand representative team but played seven provincial sides – the tourists won four games and lost three. Two years later the first New Zealand team to travel overseas toured New South Wales, a privately organised British team, which later became the British and Irish Lions, toured New Zealand in 1888. No test matches were played, and the only played provincial sides. The British players were mainly from Northern England, but there were representatives from Wales. The first officially sanctioned New Zealand side toured New South Wales in 1893, the following year New Zealand played its first home international game, losing 8–6 to New South Wales. The teams first true test match occurred against Australia on 15 August 1903 at the Sydney Cricket Ground in front of over 30,000 spectators, a representative New Zealand team first toured the British Isles in 1905
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San Isidro Club
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The San Isidro Club is an Argentine rugby union and field hockey club based in the Boulogne Sur Mer district of Greater Buenos Aires. The club has gained recognition due to its rugby union team, SIC has also won 4 Nacional de Clubes tournaments. The senior team competes at the Grupo I, the top division of the Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires league system. The field hockey team plays at tournaments organised by the Buenos Aires Hockey Association, in 1935 the Club Atlético San Isidro played Atlético del Rosario in its home venue. After the match, CASI held the meeting with the rival team in the Salón Cullen of the club. During the dinner, one of the guests spilled a cup of wine over his pants, the rest of the players that were sat at the table showed their solidarity with him and also took their pants and continued with the dinner as if nothing had happened. This was seen by a member of the club who related the incident to clubs authorities, as a result, eleven players were suspended by CASI for periods from one to two years. Since the suspension was effective, the team lost the most games played, the banned players organised some friendly matches under the name Abelleyra XV, also wearing new jerseys. On 14 December 1935 the San Isidro Club was established in the Quinta Pueyrredón of San Isidro. The colors of the San Isidro Club were also approved in the meeting, being chosen the same colors than CASI, white, light blue (worn by the football team during the amateur era. The strong rivalry between CASI and SIC has remained to date, in 1939 the club moved to a land located in Boulogne, which the facilities and the stadium were built. Due to the land was crossed by a ditch, SIC was renamed as El Zanjero. In 1939 the team won its first title, but was relegated to the division in 1946. The team also remained undefeated during the entire tournament, more than 20 years would pass until the next championship, in 1970. Since then, SIC has achieved a long list of titles becoming one of the most important teams of Argentina, the team also toured on Great Britain and South Africa gaining recognition. During the 1980 SIC won 6 championships, on 22 October 1987, SIC achieved a historical 22–22 draw against Australia, one of the semi-finalist teams of the recently played 1987 Rugby World Cup in New Zealand. Another highlight in SICs history was on 1980 when the team defeated Fiji 28–11 During the 2000s SIC has won 5 titles in 11 years and it last achievement was the 2011 URBA championship, defeating Alumni 14–11 in the final game and obtaining the 25th. One of its most famous former players was Ernesto Guevara, mostly known as El Che, SIC main rival is the Club Atlético San Isidro since both clubs were separated
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Nacional de Clubes
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The Campeonato Nacional de Clubes is a club rugby union competition in Argentina. Originally, the competition involved 16 teams from most provincial unions, between 2009 and 2011, the competition was reduced to only 4 teams,2 from the Torneo del Interior and 2 from the Torneo de la URBA. It was announced in June 2013 that after a three-year hiatus, from 1993 to 2008, the competition involved 16 clubs, which were divided into four zones. The top two clubs of each zone proceeded to the quarter-finals of the competition, the 16 clubs were chosen from their own championships, eight from Buenos Aires, two each from the Northeast, Litoral and Córdoba and one from both Cuyo and Mar del Plata. In 2009 the Torneo del Interior was re-launched for clubs outside of URBA, the new formula of this tournament coincided with a complete overhaul of the Nacional de Clubes system. From 2009 to 2011, only 4 clubs qualified to the Nacional de Clubes, Nacional de Clubes on UAR website
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Argentine Hockey Confederation
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The Argentine Hockey Confederation is the official governing body of field hockey in Argentina. It governs the mens and the national teams and clubs competition Liga Nacional de Hockey. Other local competitions, such as the Womens and Mens Torneo Metropolitano are regulated by the Buenos Aires Hockey Association, a large number of regional associations are affiliated to CAH, covering the most important provinces of Argentina. The Argentine Hockey Confederation was established on August 26,1908, the first president was Thomas Bell, owner of Buenos Aires Herald, a newspaper by the British community of Argentina. The Confederation registered to Hockey Association of England, in 1909 the AHC allowed womens teams to join the association. The first team registered was Belgrano Ladies, that played its game on August 25 vs. St. Catherines School. Argentina womens national hockey team Argentina mens national field hockey team Confederación Argentina de Hockey Sólo Hockey Simplemente Hockey
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Belgrano Athletic Club
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Belgrano Athletic Club is an Argentine amateur sports club from Belgrano, Buenos Aires. One of Argentinas oldest institutions still in existence, Belgrano was one of the four clubs that founded the Argentine Rugby Union in 1899, the senior team currently competes at Grupo I, the first division of Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires. Belgrano Athletic was one of the most prominent teams during the first years of football in Argentina, Belgranos arch-rival during those years was Alumni, also from Belgrano neighborhood. Belgrano disaffiliated from the Argentine Association in late 1910s, focusing on rugby union, Association football is no longer practised at the club. Belgranos field hockey team takes part of Metropolitano championships organised by the Buenos Aires Hockey Association. Apart from the sports detailed below, several activities are practised at the nowadays, such as bowls, cricket, squash, swimming. The club facilities are divided between two locations, its main building sited in Belgrano and another one located in Pilar. The facilities at Belgranos headquarters include a rugby union pitch, a field hockey pitch, twelve tennis courts, an olympic size swimming pool. The facility in Pilar has three full size pitches, six youth pitches another hockey pitch and another swimming pool. There are records of a match played by the members of the Club Inglés de Belgrano in 1894. Belgrano AC participated in the Primera División from 1896 to 1916, the squad won three league titles in 1899,1904 and 1908, and also won a number of other tournaments including National cup Copa de Honor Cousenier in 1907 and international Tie Cup in 1900. Belgrano Athletic played one of the earliest football rivalries against Belgrano neighbours Alumni, both teams were so strong that they won all of the thirteen league titles contested between 1899 and 1911. Belgrano AC would achieve a victory over River Plate, defeating the Millonario 10–1 in 1912. That was the worst defeat of River Plate in clubs history, despite of being one of the most notable football teams during the first years of that sport in Argentina, Belgrano was relegated from the Argentine Primera División, along with Quilmes in 1916. Belgrano never returned to the first division, and the club disaffiliated from the Argentine Association, focusing on the practise of other sports. Belgrano Athletic rugby union team is one of the most successful teams in the Unión de Rugby de Buenos Aires, having won a total of 10 provincial titles. In 1899, along with Buenos Aires FC, Lomas and Rosario AC, the club would become a member of the River Plate Rugby Championship. The first title obtained in rugby union was in 1907, playing 16 matches with 13 victories,1 drew, the team scored 233 points and only received 29 at the end of the tournament
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Pitch (sports field)
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A pitch or a sports ground is an outdoor playing area for various sports. The term pitch is most commonly used in British English, while the term in American and Canadian English is playing field or sports field. In most sports the official term is field of play, although this is not regularly used by those outside refereeing/umpiring circles. The surface of a pitch is most commonly composed of sod, in the sport of cricket, the cricket pitch refers not to the entire field of play, but to the section of the field on which batting and bowling take place in the centre of the field. The pitch is prepared differently from the rest of the field, a pitch is often a regulation space, as in an association football pitch. The term level playing field is used metaphorically to mean fairness in non-sporting human activities such as business where there are notional winners and losers. Game court Grassfield High School in Virginia, United States, often referred to as Grassfield or Grass field Rules and dimensions
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Tennis court
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A tennis court is the venue where the sport of tennis is played. It is a rectangular surface with a low net stretched across the center. The same surface can be used to play doubles and singles matches. A variety of surfaces can be used to create a tennis court, Tennis is played on a rectangular flat surface, usually of grass, clay or hard material. The dimensions of a court are defined and regulated by the International Tennis Federation governing body and are written down in the annual Rules of Tennis document. The court is 78 feet long and its width is 27 feet for singles matches and 36 feet for doubles matches. The service line is 21 feet from the net, additional clear space around the court is needed in order for players to reach overrun balls for a total of 60 feet wide and 120 feet long. A net is stretched across the width of the court, parallel with the baselines. The net is 3 feet 6 inches high at the posts, the net posts are 3 feet outside the doubles court on each side or, for a singles net,3 feet outside the singles court on each side. Tennis is played on a variety of surfaces and each surface has its own characteristics which affect the style of the game. There are four types of courts depending on the materials used for the court surface, clay courts, hard courts, grass courts. The Australian Open switched to hard courts in 1988 and in its years the French championship alternated between clay and sand/rubble courts. ITF uses the classification for tennis court surface types, Clay courts are made of crushed shale, stone. The French Open is the only Grand Slam tournament to use clay courts, Clay courts slow down the ball and produce a high bounce in comparison to grass courts or hard courts. For this reason, the court takes away many of the advantages of big serves. Clay courts are cheaper to construct than other types of tennis courts, Clay courts need to be rolled to preserve flatness. The clays water content must be balanced, green courts generally require the courts to be sloped to allow water run-off, Clay courts are more common in Europe and Latin America than in North America and tend to heavily favour baseline players. Grass courts are the fastest type of courts in common use and they consist of grass grown on very hard-packed soil, which adds additional variables, bounces depend on how healthy the grass is, how recently it has been mown, and the wear and tear of recent play
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Synthetic rubber
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A synthetic rubber is any artificial elastomer. These are mainly polymers synthesised from petroleum byproducts, about 15 billion kilograms of rubbers are produced annually, and of that amount two thirds are synthetic. Global revenues generated with synthetic rubbers are likely to rise to approximately US$56 billion in 2020, synthetic rubber, like natural rubber, has uses in the automotive industry for tires, door and window profiles, hoses, belts, matting, and flooring. The expanded use of vehicles, and particularly motor vehicle tires, starting in the 1890s. In 1909, a team headed by Fritz Hofmann, working at the Bayer laboratory in Elberfeld, Germany, succeeded in polymerizing Isoprene, the first rubber polymer synthesized from butadiene was created in 1910 by the Russian scientist Sergei Vasiljevich Lebedev. This form of synthetic rubber provided the basis for the first large-scale commercial production by the tsarist empire and this early form of synthetic rubber was again replaced with natural rubber after the war ended, but investigations of synthetic rubber continued. Russian American Ivan Ostromislensky who moved to New York in 1922 did significant early research on synthetic rubber, political problems that resulted from great fluctuations in the cost of natural rubber led to the enactment of the Stevenson Act in 1921. By 1925 the price of rubber had increased to the point that many companies were exploring methods of producing synthetic rubber to compete with natural rubber. K. Neoprene is highly resistant to heat and chemicals such as oil and gasoline, the company Thiokol applied their name to a competing type of rubber based on ethylene dichloride which was commercially available in 1930. The first rubber plant in Europe SK-1 was established by Sergei Lebedev in Yaroslavl under Joseph Stalins First Five-Year Plan on July 7,1932, in 1935, German chemists synthesized the first of a series of synthetic rubbers known as Buna rubbers. These were copolymers, meaning the polymers were made up from two monomers in alternating sequence, other brands included Koroseal, which Waldo Semon developed in 1935, and Sovprene, which Russian researchers created in 1940. B. F. Goodrich Company scientist Waldo Semon developed a new, Ameripol made synthetic rubber production much more cost effective, helping to meet the United States needs during World War II. The production of rubber in the United States expanded greatly during World War II. Military trucks needed rubber for tires, and rubber was used in almost every other war machine, the U. S. government launched a major effort to improve synthetic rubber production. A large team of chemists from many institutions were involved, including Calvin Souther Fuller of Bell Labs, the rubber designated GRS, a copolymer of butadiene and styrene, was the basis for U. S. synthetic rubber production during World War II. By 1944, a total of 50 factories were manufacturing it and it still represents about half of total world production. The Ferrara, Italy, synthetic rubber factory was bombed August 23,1944, three other synthetic rubber facilities were at Ludwigshafen/Oppau, Hanover/Limmer, and Leverkusen. A synthetic rubber plant at Oświęcim in Nazi-occupied Poland, was construction on March 5,1944
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Swimming pool
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A swimming pool, swimming bath, wading pool, or paddling pool is a structure designed to hold water to enable swimming or other leisure activities. Pools can be built into the ground or built above ground, many health clubs, fitness centers and private clubs, such as the YMCA, have pools used mostly for exercise or recreation. Many towns and cities provide public pools, many hotels have pools available for their guests to use at their leisure. Educational facilities such as universities typically have pools for physical education classes, recreational activities, hot tubs and spas are pools filled with hot water, used for relaxation or hydrotherapy, and are common in homes, hotels, and health clubs. Special swimming pools are used for diving, specialized water sports, physical therapy as well as for the training of lifeguards. Swimming pools may be heated or unheated, the Great Bath at the site of Mohenjo-Daro in modern-day Pakistan was most likely the first swimming pool, dug during the 3rd millennium BC. This pool is 12 by 7 metres, is lined with bricks, ancient Greeks and Romans built artificial pools for athletic training in the palaestras, for nautical games and for military exercises. Roman emperors had private swimming pools in which fish were also kept, the first heated swimming pool was built by Gaius Maecenas of Rome in the 1st century BC. Gaius Maecenas was a rich Roman lord and considered one of the first patrons of arts, ancient Sinhalese built pairs of pools called Kuttam Pokuna in the kingdom of Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka in the 4th century BC. They were decorated with flights of steps, punkalas or pots of abundance, Swimming pools became popular in Britain in the mid-19th century. As early as 1837, six indoor pools with diving boards existed in London, the Maidstone Swimming Club in Maidstone, Kent is believed to be the oldest surviving swimming club in Britain. It was formed in 1844, in response to concerns over drownings in the River Medway, the club used to swim in the River Medway, and would hold races, diving competitions and water polo matches. The South East Gazette July 1844 reported an aquatic breakfast party, coffee, the coffee was kept hot over a fire, club members had to tread water and drink coffee at the same time. The last swimmers managed to overturn the raft, to the amusement of 150 spectators, the Amateur Swimming Association was founded in 1869 in England, and the Oxford Swimming Club in 1909. The presence of indoor baths in the area of Merton Street might have persuaded the less hardy of the aquatic brigade to join. So, bathers gradually became swimmers, and bathing pools became swimming pools, in 1939, Oxford created its first major public indoor pool at Temple Cowley. The modern Olympic Games started in 1896 and included swimming races, in the US, the Racquet Club of Philadelphia clubhouse boasts one of the worlds first modern above-ground swimming pools. The first swimming pool to go to sea on an ocean liner was installed on the White Star Lines Adriatic in 1907, the oldest known public swimming pool in America, Underwood Pool, is located in Belmont, Massachusetts
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Arena
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An arena is an enclosed area, often circular or oval-shaped, designed to showcase theater, musical performances, or sporting events. The word derives from Latin harena, a particularly fine/smooth sand used to absorb blood in ancient arenas such as the Colosseum in Rome and it is composed of a large open space surrounded on most or all sides by tiered seating for spectators. The key feature of an arena is that the event space is the lowest point, arenas are usually designed to accommodate a large number of spectators. The term arena is used as a synonym for a very large venue such as Pasadenas Rose Bowl. The use of one term over the other has mostly to do with the type of event, the home of the Duke University mens and womens basketball teams would qualify as an arena, but the facility is called Cameron Indoor Stadium. Domed stadiums, which, like arenas, are enclosed but have the larger playing surfaces, such examples of these would be terms such as the arena of war or the arena of love or the political arena. In many fighting games, the stage that opponents are fought in is called an arena. Ice hockey arena Amphitheatre List of indoor arenas by capacity List of stadiums by capacity
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Indoor soccer
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Indoor soccer, or arena soccer, is a game derived from association football adapted for play in a walled indoor arena. In those countries, areas such as hockey rinks or basketball courts are adapted for indoor soccer play, in other countries the game is played in either indoor or outdoor arenas surrounded by walls, and is referred to by different names. Indoor soccer has different regulations from other versions of association football designed for play, such as futsal. Unlike futsal, which is played on surfaces, indoor soccer is played on synthetic turf. Indoor soccer courts are delimited by walls instead of lines, Indoor soccer is most popular in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, with several amateur, collegiate and professional leagues functioning. While internationally less popular than futsal, indoor soccer is played at the league level in many countries outside North America. The World Minifootball Federation is the body of indoor soccer at the international level. The term minifootball, which was coined in Europe, has been adopted by the WMF as a standard international name for the sport. Indoor soccer is played throughout the world, currently, the international federation dedicated to promoting the sport is the World Minifootball Federation based in the Czech Republic. The WMF replaced the International Fast Football Federation, which had based in Mexico and later. During its existence, FIFRA organized several indoor soccer tournaments for national teams, the only edition of this tournament took place in Mexico in 1997, with the host team winning the title. No other indoor soccer championship was held until 2015, when the WMF organized the first WMF World Cup in the United States. The first edition of the tournament was won by the USA. Indoor soccer is a sport in the United States and especially Canada. Due to the season for outdoor soccer in Canada and the Northern United States. It is especially popular in Northern Canada due to the often unplayable outdoor conditions, Indoor soccer or futbol rapido has also become a popular sport in Mexico, being included as part of the Universiada and the CONADEIP, in which university school teams from all over Mexico compete. In Mexico, indoor soccer fields are built outdoors. Indoor soccer is known in Brazil as showbol, with several current regional leagues, formal national leagues have also formed in Bolivia, Colombia, Uruguay, Ecuador and Peru
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Paddle
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A paddle is a tool used for pushing against liquids, either as a form of propulsion in a boat or as an implement for mixing. Paddles commonly used in canoes consist of a wooden, fibreglass, carbon fibre or metal rod with a handle on one end, paddles for use in kayaks are longer, with a blade on each end, they are handled from the middle of the shaft. Kayak paddles having blades in the plane are called un-feathered. Paddles with blades in different planes are called feathered, feathered paddles are measured by the degree of feather, such as 30,45, or even 90 degrees. Many modern paddles are made of two pieces which can be snapped together in either feathered or unfeathered settings, the shaft is normally straight but in some cases a crank is added with the aim of making the paddle more comfortable and reducing the strain on the wrist. In addition, weight savings are more desirable at the ends of the rather than in the middle. Cheaper kayak paddles have a shaft while more expensive ones use a lighter fibreglass or carbon fibre shaft. Some paddles have a smaller diameter shaft for people with smaller hands, Paddle length varies with a longer paddle being better suited for stronger people, taller people, and people using the paddle in a wider kayak. Some paddle makers have an online paddle size calculator, blades vary in size and shape. A blade with a surface area may be desirable for a strong person with good shoulder joints. Some paddle makers offer blades in three sizes, for this reason white or yellow blades may offer a safety advantage over black or blue blades. Of course, kayakers should wear a headlamp or have other lighting on their kayak under conditions of limited lighting. However, if an operator must look straight into a sun low in the sky to see a kayaker. Highly reflective water resistant tape may be affixed to the paddle blades, the paddle is held with two hands, some distance apart from each other. For normal use, it is drawn through the water front to back to drive the boat forwards. The two blades of a paddle are dipped alternately on either side of the kayak. Gloves may be worn to prevent blistering for long periods of paddling, on mechanical paddle steamers, the motorized paddling is not done with a mass of paddles or oars but by rotating one or a few paddle wheels. Racing paddles also have special designs and they are generally less flat and are curved to catch more water which will enable racing paddlers to maximize the efficiency of their stroke
35.
Gym
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A gym, short for gymnasium, is an open air or covered location for gymnastics, athletics, and gymnastic services. The word is derived from the ancient Greek gymnasium and they are commonly found in athletic and fitness centers, and as activity and learning spaces in educational institutions. Gym is also slang for fitness center, which is often an indoor facility, gymnasia apparatus such as bar-bells, parallel bars, jumping board, running path, tennis-balls, cricket field, fencing area, and so forth are used as exercises. In safe weather, outdoor locations are the most conducive to health, gyms were popular in ancient Greece. These gymnasia also had teachers of wisdom and philosophy, community gymnastic events were done as part of the celebrations during various village festivals. In ancient Greece there was a phrase of contempt, He can neither swim nor write, after a while, however, Olympic athletes began training in buildings just for them. Community sports never became as popular among ancient Romans as it had among the ancient Greeks, gyms were used more as a preparation for military service or spectator sports. During the Roman Empire, the art was forgotten. In the Dark Ages there were sword fighting tournaments and of chivalry, there were schools of dagger fighting and wrestling and boxing. Then in the 18th century, Salzmann, German clergyman, opened a gym in Thuringia teaching bodily exercises, clias and Volker established gyms in London, and in 1825, Doctor Beck, a German immigrant, established the first gymnasium in the United States. It was found that gym pupils lose interest in doing the same exercises, variety in exercises included skating, dancing, and swimming. Some gym activities can be done by 6 to 8 year olds while age 16 has been considered mature enough for boxing, in Ancient Greece the gymnasion was a locality for both physical and intellectual education of young men. For the Greeks, physical education was considered as important as cognitive learning, most Greek gymnasia had libraries that could be utilized after relaxing in the baths. The first gymnasiums in history can be dated to over 3000 years ago in ancient Persia, they were known as zurkhaneh, the larger Roman Baths often had attached fitness facilities, the baths themselves sometimes being decorated with mosaics of local champions of sport. The first indoor gymnasium in Germany was probably the one built in Hesse in 1852 by Adolph Spiess, through worldwide colonization Great Britain expanded their interest in sports and games to many countries. In the 1800s programs were added to schools and college curricula that emphasized health, sports drawn from European and British cultures thrived as college students and upper-class clubs financed competition. As a result, towns began building playgrounds that furthered interest in sports, in the United States, the Turner movement thrived in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The first Turners group was formed in London in 1848, the Turners built gymnasia in several cities like Cincinnati and St. Louis which had large German American populations
