1.
Bay (horse)
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Bay is a hair coat color of horses, characterized by a reddish-brown body color with a black mane, tail, ear edges, and lower legs. Bay is one of the most common colors in many horse breeds. The black areas of a bay horses hair coat are called points, and without them. Black points may sometimes be covered by white markings, however such markings do not alter a horses classification as bay, bay horses have dark skin, except under white markings - where the skin is pink. Genetically, bay occurs when a horse carries both the Agouti gene and a base coat. The addition of genes creates many additional coat colors. While the basic concepts behind bay coloring are fairly simple, the genes themselves, the genetics of dark shades of bay are still under study. A DNA test said to detect the seal brown allele was developed, sooty genetics also appear to darken some horse bay coats, and that genetic mechanism is yet to be fully understood. Bay horses range in color from a copper red, to a rich red blood bay to a very dark red or brown called dark bay, mahogany bay, black-bay. The dark, brown shades of bay are referred to in other languages by words meaning black-and-tan. Dark bays/browns may be so dark as to have black coats, with brownish-red hairs visible only under the eyes, around the muzzle, behind the elbow. Dark bay should not be confused with Liver chestnut, which is also a dark brown color, but a liver chestnut has a brown mane, tail and legs. The pigment in a bay coat, regardless of shade, is rich. This makes bays particularly lustrous in the sun if properly cared for, some bay horses exhibit dappling, which is caused by textured, concentric rings within the coat. Dapples on a bay horse suggest good condition and care, though many well-cared for horses never dapple, the tendency to dapple may also be, to some extent, genetic. Bays often have a hair shaft, which, if shaved too closely, may cause the horse to appear several shades lighter. However, as the hair out, it will darken again to the proper shade. This phenomenon is part of bay color genetics, but usually not seen in shades of bay because there is less red in the hair shaft
2.
Horse markings
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Markings on horses usually are distinctive white areas on an otherwise dark base coat color. Most horses have some markings, and they help to identify the horse as a unique individual, Markings are present at birth and do not change over the course of the horses life. Most markings have pink skin underneath most of the white hairs, Markings may appear to change slightly when a horse grows or sheds its winter coat, however the difference is simply a factor of hair coat length, the underlying design does not change. Recent studies have examined the genetics behind white markings and have located certain genetic loci that influence their expression, facial markings are usually described by shape and location. There may be more than one distinct facial marking and if so, occasionally, when a white marking extends over an eye, that eye may be blue instead of brown, though this is not consistently seen in all cases. Common facial markings are, Blaze, a white stripe down the middle of the face. Strip, stripe, or race, a white stripe down the middle of the face. Bald Face, a wide blaze, extending to or past the eyes. Some, but not all, bald faced horses also have blue eyes, star, a white marking between or above the eyes. If a stripe or blaze is present, a star must be wider than the vertical marking to be designated separately. Snip, a marking on the muzzle, between the nostrils. Additional terms used to describe facial markings include the following, Faint, A small, interrupted, A marking, usually a strip or blaze, that is broken and not solid for the entire length of the face. Lip markings, have no specialized names, usually are described by location, such as lower lip, chin, lip markings may indicate presence of the sabino color pattern. Leg markings are described by the highest point of the horses leg that is covered by white. As a general rule, the horses hoof beneath a white marking at the line will also be light-colored. If a horse has a marking or ermine spots at the coronary band. Where the Leopard gene is present, the hoof may be striped even if markings are not visible at the coronary band. From tallest to shortest, common leg markings are, Stocking, white marking that extends at least to the bottom of the knee or hock, Sock, white marking that extends higher than the fetlock but not as high as the knee or hock
3.
Horse
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The horse is one of two extant subspecies of Equus ferus. It is an ungulate mammal belonging to the taxonomic family Equidae. The horse has evolved over the past 45 to 55 million years from a small multi-toed creature, Eohippus, into the large, humans began to domesticate horses around 4000 BC, and their domestication is believed to have been widespread by 3000 BC. Horses in the subspecies caballus are domesticated, although some domesticated populations live in the wild as feral horses. There is an extensive, specialized vocabulary used to describe equine-related concepts, covering everything from anatomy to life stages, size, colors, markings, breeds, locomotion, and behavior. Horses anatomy enables them to use of speed to escape predators and they have a well-developed sense of balance. Related to this need to flee from predators in the wild is an unusual trait, female horses, called mares, carry their young for approximately 11 months, and a young horse, called a foal, can stand and run shortly following birth. Most domesticated horses begin training under saddle or in harness between the ages of two and four and they reach full adult development by age five, and have an average lifespan of between 25 and 30 years. There are more than 300 breeds of horse in the world today, horses were historically used in warfare, from which a wide variety of riding and driving techniques developed, using many different styles of equipment and methods of control. Many products are derived from horses, including meat, milk, hide, hair, bone, humans provide domesticated horses with food, water and shelter, as well as attention from specialists such as veterinarians and farriers. Specific terms and specialized language are used to describe equine anatomy, different life stages, colors, depending on breed, management and environment, the modern domestic horse has a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years. Uncommonly, a few animals live into their 40s and, occasionally, the oldest verifiable record was Old Billy, a 19th-century horse that lived to the age of 62. In modern times, Sugar Puff, who had listed in Guinness World Records as the worlds oldest living pony. The exception is in endurance riding, where the age to compete is based on the animals actual calendar age. The following terminology is used to describe horses of various ages, Colt, a common terminology error is to call any young horse a colt, when the term actually only refers to young male horses. Filly, A female horse under the age of four, foal, A horse of either sex less than one year old. A nursing foal is sometimes called a suckling and a foal that has been weaned is called a weanling, most domesticated foals are weaned at five to seven months of age, although foals can be weaned at four months with no adverse physical effects. Gelding, A castrated male horse of any age, mare, A female horse four years old and older
4.
Draft horse
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Draft horses and draft crossbreds are versatile breeds used today for a multitude of purposes, including farming, draft horse showing, logging, recreation, and other uses. They are also used for crossbreeding, especially to light riding breeds such as the Thoroughbred. While most draft horses are used for driving, they can be ridden, Draft horses are recognizable by their tall stature and extremely muscular build. In general, they tend to have an upright shoulder, producing more upright movement. They tend to have broad, short backs with powerful hindquarters, additionally, the draft breeds usually have heavy bone, and a good deal of feathering on their lower legs. Many have a profile or Roman nose. Draft breeds range from approximately 16 to 19 hands high and from 1,400 to 2,000 lb, Draft horses crossbred on light riding horses adds height and weight to the ensuing offspring, and may increase the power and scope of the animals movement. The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire named Mammoth and he stood 21.2 hands high, and his peak weight was estimated at 1,524 kilograms. At over 19 hands, a Shire gelding named Goliath was the Guinness Book of World Records record holder for the worlds tallest horse until his death in 2001, humans domesticated horses and needed them to perform a variety of duties. One type of horse-powered work was the hauling of heavy loads, plowing fields, a heavy, calm, patient, well-muscled animal was desired for this work. Conversely, a light, more energetic horse was needed for riding, thus, to the extent possible, a certain amount of selective breeding was used to develop different types of horse for different types of work. The reality was that the high-spirited, quick-moving Destrier was closer to the size, build, there also were working farm horses of more phlegmatic temperaments used for pulling military wagons or performing ordinary farm work also provided bloodlines of the modern draft horse. Records indicate that even medieval drafts were not as large as those today, of the modern draft breeds, the Percheron probably has the closest ties to the medieval war horse. By the 19th century, horses weighing more than 1,600 pounds that also moved at a quick pace were in demand. Even in the 20th century, draft horses were used for practical work, in the late 19th century and early 20th century, thousands of draft horses were imported from Western Europe into the United States. Percherons came from France, Belgians from Belgium, Shires from England, many American draft registries were founded in the late 19th century. The Percheron, with 40,000 broodmares registered as of 1915, was America’s most numerous draft breed at the turn of the 20th century. A breed developed exclusively in the U. S. was the American Cream Draft, many were sold to slaughter for horsemeat and a number of breeds went into significant decline
5.
Scotland
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Scotland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and covers the northern third of the island of Great Britain. It shares a border with England to the south, and is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, with the North Sea to the east. In addition to the mainland, the country is made up of more than 790 islands, including the Northern Isles, the Kingdom of Scotland emerged as an independent sovereign state in the Early Middle Ages and continued to exist until 1707. By inheritance in 1603, James VI, King of Scots, became King of England and King of Ireland, Scotland subsequently entered into a political union with the Kingdom of England on 1 May 1707 to create the new Kingdom of Great Britain. The union also created a new Parliament of Great Britain, which succeeded both the Parliament of Scotland and the Parliament of England. Within Scotland, the monarchy of the United Kingdom has continued to use a variety of styles, titles, the legal system within Scotland has also remained separate from those of England and Wales and Northern Ireland, Scotland constitutes a distinct jurisdiction in both public and private law. Glasgow, Scotlands largest city, was one of the worlds leading industrial cities. Other major urban areas are Aberdeen and Dundee, Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third-largest city in Scotland, the title of Europes oil capital, following a referendum in 1997, a Scottish Parliament was re-established, in the form of a devolved unicameral legislature comprising 129 members, having authority over many areas of domestic policy. Scotland is represented in the UK Parliament by 59 MPs and in the European Parliament by 6 MEPs, Scotland is also a member nation of the British–Irish Council, and the British–Irish Parliamentary Assembly. Scotland comes from Scoti, the Latin name for the Gaels, the Late Latin word Scotia was initially used to refer to Ireland. By the 11th century at the latest, Scotia was being used to refer to Scotland north of the River Forth, alongside Albania or Albany, the use of the words Scots and Scotland to encompass all of what is now Scotland became common in the Late Middle Ages. Repeated glaciations, which covered the land mass of modern Scotland. It is believed the first post-glacial groups of hunter-gatherers arrived in Scotland around 12,800 years ago, the groups of settlers began building the first known permanent houses on Scottish soil around 9,500 years ago, and the first villages around 6,000 years ago. The well-preserved village of Skara Brae on the mainland of Orkney dates from this period and it contains the remains of an early Bronze Age ruler laid out on white quartz pebbles and birch bark. It was also discovered for the first time that early Bronze Age people placed flowers in their graves, in the winter of 1850, a severe storm hit Scotland, causing widespread damage and over 200 deaths. In the Bay of Skaill, the storm stripped the earth from a large irregular knoll, when the storm cleared, local villagers found the outline of a village, consisting of a number of small houses without roofs. William Watt of Skaill, the laird, began an amateur excavation of the site, but after uncovering four houses
6.
Sabino horse
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Sabino is a group of white spotting patterns in horses that affect the skin and hair. A wide variety of color patterns are accepted as sabino. In the strictest sense, sabino refers to the patterns produced by the Sabino 1 gene. However, other horse enthusiasts also refer to patterns that are similar to SB1 as sabino. Use of the term to describe non-SB1 sabino patterns in breeds that apparently do not carry the gene is hotly debated by researchers and horse breeders. Some sabinos have patches of roan patterning on part of the body, especially the barrel, some sabinos may have a dark leg or two, but many have four white legs. Both blue and brown eyes are seen, at one end of the sabino spectrum, the SB1 gene, when homozygous, can produce a horse that is almost completely white with pink or only partially pigmented skin. The most generous definition of sabino can include horses with as little white as a chin or lower lip spot, even though horses with the Sabino 1 gene can be completely white, no forms of sabino are linked to lethal white syndrome. Sabino 1 was identified in 2005 by researchers at the University of Kentucky, SB1 is notably absent from the Arabian horse, Thoroughbred, Standardbred horse, Shire horse and Clydesdale. There are many proposed genes responsible for the white spotting in these. Researchers gave the allele they discovered the name Sabino 1 with the expectation of finding genes yet to be named Sabino 2, Sabino 3, and so on. Even though horses with the Sabino 1 gene can be completely white, foals afflicted with LWS are born white or near-white, but have a defective colon and invariably die within 72 hours of birth. A DNA test exists for Lethal White Syndrome to identify carriers, Horses with one copy of the Sabino 1 gene are said to be heterozygous for that gene, and have a distinctive white spotting pattern. The areas of white hair are rooted in pigmentless pink skin. Horses with the Sabino 1 pattern typically have irregular, rough-edged white patches on the extremities and these white patches also often include the midsection as belly spots. Interspersed white hairs around the white markings or on the body, typically, Sabino 1 horses have two or more white feet or legs, a blaze, spots or roaning on the belly or flanks, and jagged margins to white markings. Modest Sabino 1 markings are often difficult to tell apart from other white markings, blue eyes are not associated with Sabino 1, though horses with Sabino 1 may have blue eyes from an unrelated genetic factor. Horses with two copies of the Sabino 1 gene - one from each parent - are said to be homozygous for that gene, homozygous Sabino 1 horses are typically at least 90% pink-skinned and white-coated at birth
7.
Budweiser Clydesdales
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The Budweiser Clydesdales are a group of Clydesdale horses used for promotions and commercials by the Anheuser-Busch Brewing Company. Louis, Missouri, or at Merrimack, New Hampshire, at St. Louis, they are housed in a historic brick and stained-glass stable built in 1885. There are eight horses driven at any one time, but ten horses are on each team to provide alternates for the hitch when needed, assorted Clydesdales are also used as animal actors in television commercials for Budweiser beer, particularly in Super Bowl ads. Many of the Clydesdales owned by Anheuser-Busch are raised at Grants Farm near St. Louis, the Budweiser Clydesdale Stables at Grants Farm house approximately 35 mares, stallions and foals, with an average of 15 foals produced each year. Anheuser-Busch owns a total of about 250 Clydesdales, kept at locations throughout the United States. The largest breeding facility is at Warm Springs Ranch near Boonville, InBev consolidated operations there in 2008. More than half of the herd is kept there. The Ranch offers tours of its facilities, another breeding ranch was near Romoland, California, about 60 miles southeast of Los Angeles, but it was closed. The three Clydesdale teams that tour the world are based near the companys brewing facilities in St. Louis, Fort Collins, Colorado, the company also buys high-quality Clydesdales from other sources on occasion. The Clydesdales were fixtures at Busch Gardens, however, after InBev sold the amusement parks, the link to the Budweiser Clydesdales ended in 2009. The new owners have brought back Clydesdales but they are not the Budweiser Clydesdales, the Budweiser Clydesdales were first introduced to the public on April 7,1933, to celebrate the repeal of Prohibition. The hitch proceeded to carry the first case of beer from the St. Louis brewery in a special journey down Pestalozzi Street in St. Louis. Recognizing the advertising and promotional potential of a beer wagon, Busch. In addition, each horse must be bay in color, have four white stocking feet, originally the Clydesdales were transported by train. Cross-country truck transport was introduced in 1940, today, the traveling hitches are on the road at least 10 months every year, based out of St. Louis, Missouri, Merrimack, New Hampshire and Fort Collins, Colorado. And Fort Collins is the home to the Clydesdales West Coast Team, when the horses are not touring, they can be seen as part of a tour and visitors can have a picture taken with them. There are ten horses that travel on each team, eight are in harness when performing at any one time and the other two horses provide alternates for the hitch as needed. Several professional handlers accompany each team, often, one handler has night duty to provide round-the-clock care for the horses
8.
Household Cavalry
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The Household Cavalry is made up of the two most senior regiments of the British Army, the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals. The Household Cavalry is part of the Household Division and is the Queens official bodyguard, the British Household Cavalry is classed as a corps in its own right, and consists of two regiments, the Life Guards and the Blues and Royals. They are the regular regiments in the British Army, with traditions dating from 1660. They are guards regiments and, with the five foot guard regiments, the Household Cavalry as a whole is split into two different units that fulfil very distinct roles. These are both joint units, consisting of personnel from both regiments, like other Cavalry formations, the Household Cavalry is divided into regiments and squadrons. The whole corps is under the command of the Commander Household Cavalry and he is a Colonel, and is assisted by a retired lieutenant colonel as Regimental Adjutant. The current Commander is Colonel S H Cowen RHG/D, the first unit is the Household Cavalry Regiment. It has an operational role as a Formation Reconnaissance Regiment, serving in armoured fighting vehicles. The regiment serves as part of the Royal Armoured Corps, one of HCRs squadrons is assigned to the airborne role with 16 Air Assault Brigade as of 2003. The Regiment is based at Combermere Barracks, Windsor, one mile from Windsor Castle, the men of the Household Division have sometimes been required to undertake special tasks as the Sovereign’s personal troops. The Household Cavalry were called to Windsor Castle on 20 November 1992 to assist with salvage operations following the Great Fire, the second unit is the Household Cavalry Mounted Regiment, which is horsed and carries out mounted ceremonial duties on State and Royal occasions. These include the provision of a Sovereigns Escort, most commonly seen on The Queens Birthday Parade in June each year, other occasions include state visits by visiting heads of state, or whenever required by the British monarch. The regiment also mounts the guard at Horse Guards, the Regiment has been based at Hyde Park Barracks, Knightsbridge, since 1795. This is three-quarters of a mile from Buckingham Palace, new troopers and officers are generally first assigned to London upon completion of horsemanship training and remain there for up to three years. Like the five Foot Guards regiments they rotate between the unit and ceremonial duties. However, this origin may be apocryphal, since serjeant was a used by some offices of comparative seniority, such as Serjeants at Arms. Uniquely, non-commissioned officers and warrant officers of the Household Cavalry do not wear insignia on their full dress uniforms. Rank is indicated by a system of aiguillettes, Second Lieutenants in The Blues and Royals are known as Cornets
9.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
10.
Equine conformation
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Equine conformation evaluates the degree of correctness of a horses bone structure, musculature, and its body proportions in relation to each other. Undesirable conformation can limit the ability to perform a specific task, Although there are several universal faults, a horses conformation is usually judged by what its intended use may be. Thus form to function is one of the first set of traits considered in judging conformation, a horse with poor form for a Grand Prix show jumper could have excellent conformation for a World Champion cutting horse, or to be a champion draft horse. Every horse has good and bad points of its conformation and many horses excel even with conformation faults. The standard of the head varies dramatically from breed to breed based on a mixture of the role the horse is bred for and what breeders, owners. Breed standards frequently cite large eyes, a broad forehead and a dry head-to-neck connection as important to correctness about the head, traditionally, the length of head as measured from poll to upper lip should be two-thirds the length of the neck topline. Presumably, the construction of the horses head influences its breathing, historically, a width of 4 fingers or 7.2 cm was associated with an unrestricted airflow and greater endurance. However, a study in 2000 which compared the intermandibular width-to-size ratio of Thoroughbreds with their racing success showed this to be untrue, the relationship between head conformation and performance are not well-understood, and an appealing head may be more a matter of marketability than performance. Among mammals, morphology of the head often plays a role in temperature regulation, Many ungulates have a specialized network of blood vessels called the carotid rete, which keeps the brain cool while the body temperature rises during exercise. Horses lack a carotid rete and instead use their sinuses to cool blood around the brain and these factors suggest that the conformation of a horses head influences its ability to regulate temperature. A horse with a face or dished head has a muzzle with a concave profile on top. Dished heads are associated with Arabians and Arabian-influenced breeds, which excel at Endurance riding and were bred in the arid Arabian desert. There are several theories regarding the role of the dished head. It may be an adaptation to reduce resistance and increase aerobic endurance. Dished head is not considered a deformity, a Roman nose is a muzzle with a convex profile. Convex heads are associated with Draft horses, Baroque horse breeds and this trait likely plays a role in warming air as it is inhaled, but may also influence aerobic capacity. Roman nose is not considered a deformity, a horse with small nostrils or small nares can be found in any breed and often accompanies a narrow jaw and muzzle. Small nostrils limit the ability to breathe hard while exerting itself
11.
Percheron
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The Percheron is a breed of draft horse that originated in the Huisne river valley in western France, part of the former Perche province from which the breed takes its name. Usually gray or black in color, Percherons are well muscled, although their exact origins are unknown, the ancestors of the breed were present in the valley by the 17th century. They were originally bred for use as war horses, over time, they began to be used for pulling stagecoaches and later for agriculture and hauling heavy goods. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Arabian blood was added to the breed, exports of Percherons from France to the United States and other countries rose exponentially in the late 19th century, and the first purely Percheron stud book was created in France in 1883. Before World War I, thousands of Percherons were shipped from France to the United States, but after the war began, the breed was used extensively in Europe during the war, with some horses being shipped from the US back to France to help in the war effort. Beginning in 1918, Percherons began to be bred in Great Britain, after a series of name and studbook ownership changes, the current US Percheron registry was created in 1934. In the 1930s, Percherons accounted for 70 percent of the horse population in the United States. However, the population began to recover and as of 2009, the breed is still used extensively for draft work, and in France they are used for food. They have been crossed with light horse breeds to produce horses for range work. Purebred Percherons are used for work and pulling carriages, as well as work under saddle. The size considered ideal for the Percheron varies between countries, in France, height ranges from 15.1 to 18.1 hands and weight from 1,100 to 2,600 pounds. Percherons in the United States generally stand between 16.2 and 17.3 hands, with a range of 15–19 hands, American Percherons average 1,900 pounds, and their top weight is around 2,600 pounds. They are generally gray or black in coloring, although the American registry also allows the registration of roan, bay, only gray or black horses may be registered in France and Britain. Many horses have white markings on their heads and legs, the head has a straight profile, broad forehead, large eyes and small ears. The chest is deep and wide and the long and level. The feet and legs are clean and heavily muscled, the overall impression of the Percheron is one of power and ruggedness. Enthusiasts describe the temperament as proud and alert, and members of the breed are considered intelligent and they are considered easy keepers and adapt well to many conditions and climates. In the 19th century, they were known to travel up to 60 kilometres a day at a trot, Horses in the French registry are branded on the neck with the intertwined letters SP, the initials of the Société Hippique Percheronne
12.
Selective breeding
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Domesticated animals are known as breeds, normally bred by a professional breeder, while domesticated plants are known as varieties, cultigens, or cultivars. Two purebred animals of different breeds produce a crossbreed, and crossbred plants are called hybrids, flowers, vegetables and fruit-trees may be bred by amateurs and commercial or non-commercial professionals, major crops are usually the provenance of the professionals. There are two approaches or types of selection, or selective breeding. The second is called controlled natural selection, which is natural selection in a controlled environment. In this, the breeder does not choose which individuals being tested survive or reproduce, there are also selection experiments, which is a third approach and these are conducted in order to determine the strength of natural selection in the wild. However, this is often an observational approach as opposed to an experimental approach. In animal breeding, techniques such as inbreeding, linebreeding, in plant breeding, similar methods are used. Charles Darwin discussed how selective breeding had been successful in producing change over time in his 1859 book and its first chapter discusses selective breeding and domestication of such animals as pigeons, cats, cattle, and dogs. Darwin used artificial selection as a springboard to introduce and support the theory of natural selection, the deliberate exploitation of selective breeding to produce desired results has become very common in agriculture and experimental biology. Selective breeding can be unintentional, e. g. resulting from the process of human cultivation, for example, in some grains, an increase in seed size may have resulted from certain ploughing practices rather than from the intentional selection of larger seeds. Most likely, there has been an interdependence between natural and artificial factors that have resulted in plant domestication, Selective breeding was practiced by the Romans. Treatises as much as 2,000 years old give advice on selecting animals for different purposes, the notion of selective breeding was later expressed by the Persian Muslim polymath Abu Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century. He noted the idea in his book titled India, which included various examples, the agriculturist selects his corn, letting grow as much as he requires, and tearing out the remainder. The forester leaves those branches which he perceives to be excellent, the bees kill those of their kind who only eat, but do not work in their beehive. Selective breeding was established as a practice by Robert Bakewell during the British Agricultural Revolution in the 18th century. Arguably, his most important breeding program was with sheep, using native stock, he was able to quickly select for large, yet fine-boned sheep, with long, lustrous wool. The Lincoln Longwool was improved by Bakewell, and in turn the Lincoln was used to develop the subsequent breed, named the New Leicester and it was hornless and had a square, meaty body with straight top lines. Bloodlines of these original New Leicesters survive today as the English Leicester, Bakewell was also the first to breed cattle to be used primarily for beef
