1.
ICAO airport code
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The ICAO airport code or location indicator is a four-character alphanumeric code designating aerodromes around the world. ICAO codes are used to identify other aviation facilities such as weather stations, International Flight Service Stations or Area Control Centers. Flight information regions are identified by a unique ICAO-code. Code selections in North America were based on existing radio station identifiers, for example, radio stations in Canada were already starting with C, so it seemed logical to begin Canadian airport identifiers with Cxxx. The United States had many pre-existing airports with established mnemonic codes and their ICAO codes were formed simply by prepending a K to the existing codes, as half the radio station identifiers in the US began with K. Most ICAO codes outside the US and Canada have a geographical structure. Most of the rest of the world was classified in a more planned top-down manner, thus Uxxx referred to the Soviet Union with the second letter denoting the specific region within it, and so forth. Europe had too many locations for one starting letter, so it was split into Exxx for northern Europe. The second letter was more specific, EGxx was the United Kingdom, EDxx was West Germany, ETxx was East Germany, LExx was Spain, LAxx was Albania, France was designated LFxx, as the counterpart EFxx was the unambiguously northern Finland. ICAO codes are separate and different from IATA codes, which are used for airline timetables, reservations. For example, the IATA code for Londons Heathrow Airport is LHR, in general IATA codes are usually derived from the name of the airport or the city it serves, while ICAO codes are distributed by region and country. Far more aerodromes have ICAO codes than IATA codes, and to add to the confusion IATA codes are assigned to railway stations. Unlike the IATA codes, the ICAO codes generally have a structure and are comprehensive. In general, the first letter is allocated by continent and represents a country or group of countries within that continent, the second letter generally represents a country within that region, and the remaining two are used to identify each airport. The exception to rule is larger countries that have single-letter country codes. In either case, ICAO codes generally provide geographical context unlike IATA codes, for example, if one knows that the ICAO code for Heathrow is EGLL, then one can deduce that the airport EGGP is somewhere in the UK. On the other hand, knowing that the IATA code for Heathrow is LHR does not enable one to deduce the location of the airport LHV with any greater certainty, there are a few exceptions to the regional structure of the ICAO code made for political or administrative reasons. Similarly Saint Pierre and Miquelon is controlled by France, and airports there are assigned LFxx as though they were in Europe, further, in region L, all available 2-letter prefixes have been exhausted and thus no additional countries can be added
2.
Kochi
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Kochi, also known as Cochin, is a major port city on the south-west coast of India by the Arabian Sea and the Laccadive Sea and is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. It is often called Ernakulam, which refers to the specific district, occupied by the Portuguese in 1503, Kochi was the first of the European colonies in colonial India. It remained the seat of Portuguese India until 1530, when Goa was chosen instead. The city was occupied by the Dutch and the British. Kochi ranks first in the number of international and domestic tourist arrivals in Kerala. Kochi has been ranked the sixth best tourist destination in India according to a survey conducted by the Nielsen Company on behalf of the Outlook Traveller magazine. Kochi is the home to Southern Naval Command of the Indian Navy, Kochi is also home for Keralas National Law School, The National University of Advanced Legal Studies. Ancient travellers and tradesmen referred to Kochi in their writings, variously alluding to it as Cocym, Cochym, Cochin, the Cochin Jewish community called Cochin as Kogin, which is seen in the seal of the synagogue which is still owned by the community. The origin of the name Kochi is thought to be from the Malayalam word kochu azhi, yet another theory is that Kochi is derived from the word Kaci, meaning harbour. The name Cochin implies co-chin, meaning like-China and it looked like China when the Chinese came to the region during the 14th century and installed Chinese nets. Accounts by Italian explorers Nicolo Conti, and Fra Paoline in the 17th century say that it was called Kochchi, after the arrival of the Portuguese, and later the British, the name Cochin stuck as the official appellation. The city reverted to a closer Anglicization of its original Malayalam name, Kochi and this change in name was challenged by the city municipal corporation but court has later dismissed the plea. Kochi was the centre of Indian spice trade for centuries, and was known to the Yavanas as well as Jews, Syrians, Arabs. Kochi rose to significance as a trading centre after the port Muziris around Kodungallur was destroyed by flooding of Periyar in 1341. The earliest documented references to Kochi occur in books written by Chinese voyager Ma Huan during his visit to Kochi in the 15th century as part of Admiral Zheng Hes treasure fleet. There are also references to Kochi in accounts written by Italian traveller Niccolò Da Conti, according to many historians, the precursor state to Kingdom of Kochi came into existence in early 12th century, after the fall of the Chera Kingdom. The reign of the Kingdom was hereditary, and the family ruled over the region was known as the Perumpadappu Swaroopam in the local vernacular. Portuguese navigator, Pedro Álvares Cabral founded the first European settlement in India at Kochi in 1500, from 1503 to 1663, Fort Kochi was ruled by Portugal
3.
Kerala
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Kerala historically known as Keralam, is an Indian state in South India on the Malabar Coast. It was formed on 1 November 1956 following the States Reorganisation Act by combining Malayalam-speaking regions, spread over 38,863 km2, it is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to the east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33,387,677 inhabitants as per the 2011 Census, Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The region has been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE, the Chera Dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala, though it frequently struggled against attacks by the neighbouring Cholas and Pandyas. In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, after independence, Travancore and Cochin joined the Republic of India and Travancore-Cochin was given the status of a state in 1949. In 1956, Kerala state was formed by merging Malabar district, Travancore-Cochin, Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity. The culture is a synthesis of Aryan and Dravidian cultures, developed over millennia, under influences from other parts of India, the production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, the states coastline extends for 595 kilometres, and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry which contributes 3% to the states income. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly English, Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with backwaters, beaches, Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The name Kerala has an uncertain etymology, One popular theory derives Kerala from Kera and alam is land, thus land of coconuts, this also happens to be a nickname for the state due to abundance of coconut trees and its use by the locals. The word Kerala is first recorded in a 3rd-century BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka, the inscription refers to the local ruler as Keralaputra, or son of Chera. This contradicts the theory that Kera is from coconut tree, at that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil, Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and is derived from the Proto-Tamil-Malayalam word for lake, the earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the Rigveda. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the two Hindu epics, the Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar, synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam or chera alam, the Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Keralaputra as Celobotra. According to Hindu mythology, the lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the warrior sage Parasurama. Parasurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached, according to legend, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari. The land which rose from sea was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation, so Parasurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki, out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land
4.
Airline hub
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Airline hubs or hub airports are used by one or more airliners to concentrate passenger traffic and flight operations at a given airport. They serve as points to get passengers to their final destination. It is part of the hub-and-spoke system, an airline operates flights from several non-hub cities to the hub airport, and passengers traveling between spoke cities need to connect through the hub. This paradigm creates economies of scale that allow an airline to serve city-pairs that could not be economically served on a non-stop basis. This system contrasts with the point-to-point model, in there are no hubs. Hub airports also serve origin and destination traffic, the hub-and-spoke system allows an airline to serve fewer routes, so fewer aircraft are needed. The system also increases passenger loads, a flight from a hub to a spoke carries not just passengers originating at the hub, additional employees and facilities are needed to cater to connecting passengers. To serve spoke cities of varying populations and demand, an airline requires several aircraft types, in addition, airlines may experience capacity constraints as they expand at their hub airports. For the passenger, the system offers one-stop air service to a wide array of destinations. However, having to make connections en route to their final destination increases travel time. Additionally, airlines can come to monopolise their hubs, allowing them to increase fares. Airlines may operate banks of flights at their hubs, in several flights arrive. The banks may be known as peaks of activity at the hubs, banking allows for short connection times for passengers. In addition, banking could result in inefficient aircraft utilisation, with aircraft waiting at spoke cities for the next bank, instead, some airlines have debanked their hubs, introducing a rolling hub in which flight arrivals and departures are spread throughout the day. This phenomenon is known as depeaking. While costs may decrease, connection times are longer at a rolling hub, American Airlines was the first to depeak its hubs, trying to improve profitability following the September 11 attacks. It rebanked its hubs in 2015, however, feeling the gain in connecting passengers would outweigh the rise in costs, the hub-and-spoke system is also used by some cargo airlines. FedEx Express established its main hub in Memphis in 1973, prior to the deregulation of the air industry in the United States
5.
Air India Express
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Air India Express is an Indian low-cost carrier headquartered in Kochi. It is operated by Air India Charters Limited, an owned subsidiary of flag carrier airline Air India. It operates around 550 flights per week to 29 destinations including the Middle East and Southeast Asia, Air India Express came to being on 29 April 2005, with the launch of three flights that took off simultaneously from Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi and Kozhikode. Air India Express was Air India’s response to the popularity of LCCs worldwide. Being an LCC, the airline operates point-to-point flights without any hub, in December 2012, Air India ratified the proposal to move the headquarters to Kochi in January 2013 and for establishing a new MRO base at Thiruvananthapuram. Presently, the airline carries out 596 weekly departures, involving about 1400 flight hours at an average length of about 3.75 hours. In terms of capacity, the airline offers about 170 million ASKMs per week and its distribution system is entirely web-based. The company also launched the Air India Express Mobile App for making and modifying bookings and other customer, on 3 September 2016 the company announced that it had earned a net profit for the first time since its inception. As per the accounts placed and approved by airline’s Board of Directors, the airline made a net profit of Rs.361.68 Cr. in FY 2015-16 against the loss of Rs.61 Cr. registered in FY 2014-15. In the FY 2015-16, the airline witnessed a passenger load factor of 82. 3% against 81. 4% in the previous year, the airline carried around 2.80 million passengers against 2.62 million carried in the previous year. The airline has carried 1.64 million passengers during the period, Air India Express focuses on providing international flights from Tier II cities in India, to the Gulf and South East Asia. It maintains aircraft bases at Dubai International Airport and at Mumbais Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, as of November 2016, the airline flies to 14 international destinations from 15 Indian cities. It expanded operations to Delhi beginning May 2016, on the domestic front, the airline operates around 200 flights per week, from the southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Kerala. The airline has increased its focus on the Kozhikode market, the largest revenue centre of the airline, on 15 September 2016, Air India Express became the first airline to connect Chandigarh directly to an international destination by the introduction of a new thrice-weekly service to Sharjah. Air India Express has also introduced direct flights to Sharjah from Tiruchirappalli. On 2 December 2016, Air India Express launched its first flight to Riyadh from Kozhikkode Karipur International Airport, kozhikode-Riyadh is the longest service in Air India Express’ network. Air India Express now operates 134 services per week between Kozhikode and the Middle East, making Kozhikode the single largest on-line destination for the Airline, the airline enhanced its frequency on this sector to five days a week, from Feb 18,2017. The aircraft crashed into a valley at the end of the runway
6.
GoAir
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GoAir is a low-cost carrier based in Mumbai, India. It is owned by the Indian business conglomerate Wadia Group, in 2016 it was the fifth largest airline in India with an 8% passenger market share. It commenced operations in November 2005 and operates a fleet of Airbus A320 aircraft in all economy configuration, as of April 2017, the airline operates over 140 daily flights to 23 cities from its hubs at Mumbai, Delhi and Kolkata. GoAir was founded in 2005 by Jehangir Wadia, son of Indian industrialist Nusli Wadia, the airline is a wholly owned subsidiary of the Wadia Group. GoAir commenced its operations using an Airbus A320 aircraft and operated its inaugural flight from Mumbai to Ahmedabad on 4 November 2005, the airline initially operated with a single aircraft to four destinations including Goa and Coimbatore with plans to induct 36 aircraft by 2008. In March 2008, the airline announced revised plans to operate 11 aircraft and service new destinations in North East, but increasing fuel prices forced GoAir to cut down the existing number of flights in June 2008. In January 2009, British Airways was interested in buying a stake in the airline, in November 2009, GoAir entered into talks with Indian airline SpiceJet over a possible merger which ended in a no deal. In April 2012, GoAir became the fifth largest airline in India in terms of market share following the demise of Kingfisher Airlines, in 2013, the airline appointed investment bank JP Morgan to scout for potential investors. The airlines growth has been compared to other airlines established at the same time such as IndiGo and SpiceJet. As of February 2016, it remains the fifth largest carrier in the country with an 8% market share, the airline is planning for an Initial Public Offering in 2016. The airline took delivery of its 20th aircraft in June 2016, the airline is headquartered in Mumbai, India. Jehangir Wadia has served as the Managing Director of the airline since its inception in November 2005, in April 2016, Wolfgang Prock-Schauer, the CEO of the airline, also became the joint Managing Director. GoAir aircraft are painted in different colour such as blue. In 2011, the announced that all its aircraft will convert to a new grey colour scheme. As of April 2016, GoAir operates to 22 destinations in India, the airline maintains hubs at Delhis Indira Gandhi International Airport and Mumbais Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport. In June 2016, GoAir became eligible for international operations but does not yet operate any, GoAir operates a fleet of Airbus A320 aircraft in an all economy configuration. As of March 2017, the fleet of GoAir consists of the following aircraft, in June 2011, GoAir placed an order for 72 Airbus A320neo aircraft worth ₹32,400 crore. Deliveries will begin from 2016, with a rate of 12–15 aircraft per year
7.
Focus city
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In the airline industry, a focus city is a destination from which an airline operates several point-to-point routes. Thus, a city primarily caters to the local market rather than to connecting passengers. However, with the terms expanded usage, a city may also function as a small-scale hub. Allegiant Air, JetBlue and Frontier Airlines are examples of airlines that consider some of their destinations to be focus cities
8.
Air India
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Air India is the flag carrier airline of India and the third-largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried, after IndiGo and Jet Airways. It is owned by Air India Limited, a Government of India enterprise and it is headquartered in New Delhi. Air India has its hub at Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi. Air India became the 27th member of Star Alliance on 11 July 2014, after World War II, it became a public limited company and was renamed as Air India. On 21 February 1960, it took delivery of its first Boeing 707–420 named Gauri Shankar, in 2000–01, attempts were made to privatise Air India and from 2006 onwards, it suffered losses after its merger with Indian Airlines. Air India also operates flights to domestic and Asian destinations through its subsidiaries Alliance Air and Air India Express, Air India uses the Airbus A320 family and Boeing 787 aircraft for selected domestic routes while long distance services use the Boeing 777-300ER, Boeing 777-200LR,747 and 787 aircraft. Air Indias mascot is the Maharajah and the logo consists of a swan with the wheel of Konark inside it. Air India had its origin in Tata Sons, founded by J. R. D. Tata, in April 1932, Tata won a contract to carry mail for Imperial Airways and the aviation department of Tata Sons was formed with two single-engine de Havilland Puss Moths. On 15 October 1932, Tata flew a Puss Moth carrying air mail from Karachi to Bombay and the continued to Madras piloted by Nevill Vintcent. The airline fleet consisted of a Puss Moth aircraft and a Leopard Moth, initial service included weekly airmail service between Karachi and Madras via Ahmedabad and Bombay. In its first year of operation, the airline flew 160,000 miles, carrying 155 passengers and 9.72 tonnes of mail, later, the airline launched a domestic flight from Bombay to Trivandrum with a six-seater Miles Merlin. In 1938, it was re-christened as Tata Air Services and later as Tata Airlines, Delhi and Colombo were added to the destinations in 1938. During the Second World War, the airline helped the Royal Air Force with troop movements, shipping of supplies, rescue of refugees and maintenance of planes. After World War II, regular service was restored in India. After the Indian independence in 1947, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India in 1948, on 8 June 1948, a Lockheed Constellation L-749A named Malabar Princess took off from Bombay bound for London Heathrow marking the airlines first international flight. In 1953, the Government of India passed the Air Corporations Act, the company was renamed as Air India International Limited and the domestic services were transferred to Indian Airlines as a part of restructuring. From 1948 to 1950, the airline introduced services to Nairobi in Africa and to major European destinations Rome, Paris, the airline took delivery of its first Lockheed Constellation L-1049 named Rani of Jhansi and inaugurated services to Bangkok, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Singapore. On 21 February 1960, Air India International inducted its first Boeing 707–420 named Gauri Shankar, the airline inaugurated services to New York on 14 May 1960
9.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
10.
Runway
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According to the International Civil Aviation Organization, a runway is a defined rectangular area on a land aerodrome prepared for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. Runways may be a surface or a natural surface. Runways are named by a number between 01 and 36, which is generally the magnetic azimuth of the heading in decadegrees. This heading differs from true north by the magnetic declination. A runway numbered 09 points east, runway 18 is south, runway 27 points west, when taking off from or landing on runway 09, a plane would be heading 90°. A runway can normally be used in both directions, and is named for each separately, e. g. runway 33 in one direction is runway 15 when used in the other. The two numbers usually differ by 18, Runway Zero Three Left becomes Runway Two One Right when used in the opposite direction. In some countries, if parallel runways are too close to each other, at large airports with four or more parallel runways some runway identifiers are shifted by 10 degrees to avoid the ambiguity that would result with more than three parallel runways. For example, in Los Angeles, this results in runways 6L, 6R, 7L. At Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport, there are five parallel runways, named 17L, 17C, 17R, 18L, for clarity in radio communications, each digit in the runway name is pronounced individually, runway three six, runway one four, etc. A leading zero, for example in runway zero six or runway zero one left, is included for all ICAO, however, most U. S. civil aviation airports drop the leading zero as required by FAA regulation. This also includes some military airfields such as Cairns Army Airfield and this American anomaly may lead to inconsistencies in conversations between American pilots and controllers in other countries. It is very common in a such as Canada for a controller to clear an incoming American aircraft to, for example, runway 04. In flight simulation programs those of American origin might apply U. S. usage to airports around the world, for example, runway 05 at Halifax will appear on the program as the single digit 5 rather than 05. Runway designations change over time because the magnetic poles slowly drift on the Earths surface, depending on the airport location and how much drift takes place, it may be necessary over time to change the runway designation. As runways are designated with headings rounded to the nearest 10 degrees, for example, if the magnetic heading of a runway is 233 degrees, it would be designated Runway 23. If the magnetic heading changed downwards by 5 degrees to 228, if on the other hand the original magnetic heading was 226, and the heading decreased by only 2 degrees to 224, the runway should become Runway 22. Because the drift itself is slow, runway designation changes are uncommon
11.
Asphalt
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Asphalt, also known as bitumen is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of petroleum. It may be found in deposits or may be a refined product. Until the 20th century, the term asphaltum was also used, the word is derived from the Ancient Greek ἄσφαλτος ásphaltos. The primary use of asphalt/bitumen is in construction, where it is used as the glue or binder mixed with aggregate particles to create asphalt concrete. Its other main uses are for bituminous waterproofing products, including production of roofing felt, the terms asphalt and bitumen are often used interchangeably to mean both natural and manufactured forms of the substance. In American English, asphalt is the carefully refined residue from the process of selected crude oils. Outside the United States, the product is often called bitumen, geologists often prefer the term bitumen. Common usage often refers to forms of asphalt/bitumen as tar. Naturally occurring asphalt/bitumen is sometimes specified by the crude bitumen. Its viscosity is similar to that of cold molasses while the material obtained from the distillation of crude oil boiling at 525 °C is sometimes referred to as refined bitumen. The Canadian province of Alberta has most of the reserves of natural bitumen, covering 142,000 square kilometres. Additionally, most natural bitumens contain organosulfur compounds, resulting in a sulfur content of up to 4%. Nickel and vanadium are found in the <10 ppm level, as is typical of some petroleum, the substance is soluble in carbon disulfide. It is commonly modelled as a colloid, with asphaltenes as the dispersed phase, and it is almost impossible to separate and identify all the different molecules of asphalt, because the number of molecules with different chemical structure is extremely large. Asphalt/bitumen can sometimes be confused with tar, which is a visually similar black. During the early and mid-20th century when town gas was produced, coal tar was a readily available byproduct, the addition of tar to macadam roads led to the word tarmac, which is now used in common parlance to refer to road-making materials. However, since the 1970s, when natural gas succeeded town gas, other examples of this confusion include the La Brea Tar Pits and the Canadian oil sands, both of which actually contain natural bitumen rather than tar. Pitch is another term used at times to refer to asphalt/bitumen
12.
Helipad
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A helipad is a landing area or platform for helicopters and powered lift aircraft. Larger helipads, intended for use by helicopters and other vertical take-off and landing aircraft, an example is Vertiport Chicago, which opened in 2015. Helipads may be located at a heliport or airport where fuel, air traffic control, some basic helipads are built on highrise buildings for evacuation in case of a major fire outbreak. Major police departments may use a dedicated helipad at heliports as a base for police helicopters, large ships and oil platforms usually have a helipad on board for emergency use. In such a case, the term helideck or helodeck has been used in the meaning of a helipad on board. In urban environments, these heliports are typically located on the roof of the hospital, rooftop helipads sometimes display a large two-digit number, representing the weight limit of the pad. In addition, a number may be present, representing the maximum rotor diameter in feet. Location identifiers are often, but not always, issued for helipads and they may be issued by the appropriate aviation authority. Some helipads may have location identifiers from multiple sources, and these identifiers may be of different format, helipads are usually constructed out of concrete and are marked with a circle and/or a letter H, so as to be visible from the air. However, they are not always constructed out of concrete, sometimes wildfire fighters will construct a temporary helipad out of timbers to receive supplies in remote areas, rig mats may be used to build helipads. Landing pads may also be constructed in extreme conditions such as on ice, the worlds highest helipad, built by India, is located on the Siachen Glacier at a height of 21,000 feet above sea level. The worlds largest heliport is in Morgan City, Louisiana, and has a total of 46 helipads, used mostly to support offshore oil platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. A portable helipad is a structure with a rugged frame that can be used to land helicopters in any areas with slopes of up to 30 degrees, such as hillsides, riverbeds. Portable helipads can be transported by helicopter or powered-lift to place them where a VTOL needs to land, helicopter deck Heliport de Voogt, A. J
13.
Airport Authority of India
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The Airports Authority of India or AAI under the Ministry of Civil Aviation is responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India. It provides Air traffic management services over Indian airspace and adjoining oceanic areas and it also manages a total of 125 Airports, including 18 International Airports,7 Customs Airports,78 Domestic Airports and 26 Civil enclaves at Military Airfields. AAI also has ground installations at all airports and 25 other locations to ensure safety of aircraft operations, AAI covers all major air-routes over Indian landmass via 29 Radar installations at 11 locations along with 700VOR/DVOR installations co-located with Distance Measuring Equipment. 52 runways are provided with Instrument landing system installations with Night Landing Facilities at most of these airports, performance Based Navigation procedures have already been implemented at Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports and are likely to be implemented at other Airports in a phased manner. AAI is implementing the GAGAN project in collaboration with the Indian Space Research Organisation. The navigation signals thus received from the GPS will be augmented to achieve the requirement of aircraft. First phase of technology demonstration system was completed in February 2008, AAI has four training establishments viz. The Civil Aviation Training College at Allahabad, National Institute of Aviation Management and Research at Delhi, an Aerodrome Visual Simulator has been provided at CATC and non-radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being supplied to CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport. AAI has a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit with a fleet of three aircraft fitted with flight inspection system to inspect Instrument Landing Systems up to Cat-III, VORs, DMEs, NDBs, VGSI and RADAR. AAI has entered into Joint Ventures at Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore, the organisations were merged in April 1995 by an Act of Parliament and was named as Airports Authority of India. This new organisation was to be responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country, design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic airports and civil enclaves. Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the limits of the country. Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals, Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic airports. Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the terminals at airports. Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar etc. Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes provision of DVOR / DME, ILS, ATCt radars, AAI is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation. NIAMAR & CATC are members of ICAO TRAINER programme under which they share Standard Training Packages from a pool for imparting training on various subjects. Both CATC & NIAMAR have also contributed a number of STPs to the Central pool under ICAO TRAINER programme, the AAI was involved in a tussle with the Ministry of Civil Aviation over the issue of privatisation of its two most profitable airports at Delhi and Mumbai
14.
India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
15.
Solar power
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Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics, or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam, Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect. Most solar installations would be in China and India, Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive, low-carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun. The current largest photovoltaic power station in the world is the 850 MW Longyangxia Dam Solar Park, in Qinghai, commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in the world, long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption. Solar power plants use one of two technologies, Photovoltaic systems use solar panels, either on rooftops or in ground-mounted solar farms, concentrated solar power plants use solar thermal energy to make steam, that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a device that converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect, the first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery, following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4. 5–6%, the array of a photovoltaic power system, or PV system, produces direct current power which fluctuates with the sunlights intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current, multiple solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied to an inverter, which produces power at the voltage, and for AC. Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available, in these grid-connected PV systems, use of energy storage is optional. In certain applications such as satellites, lighthouses, or in developing countries, batteries or additional power generators are often added as back-ups, such stand-alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight. Concentrated solar power, also called concentrated solar thermal, uses lenses or mirrors, contrary to photovoltaics – which converts light directly into electricity – CSP uses the heat of the suns radiation to generate electricity from conventional steam-driven turbines. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists, among the best known are the trough, the compact linear Fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish. Various techniques are used to track the sun and focus light, in all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. Thermal storage efficiently allows up to 24-hour electricity generation, a parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflectors focal line. The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the mirror and is filled with a working fluid
16.
Willingdon Island
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Willingdon Islands is the largest artificial man-made island in India, which forms part of the city of Kochi, in the state of Kerala, India. Much of the present Willingdon Island was claimed from the Lake of Kochi, filling in dredged soil around a previously existing, the Island was created during construction of modern Kochi Port in 1936 with the soil dredged out while deepening the Vembanad Lake to accommodate the new Kochi Port. It was named after The 1st Earl of Willingdon, the Viceroy of India at the time, Robert Bristow, the chief protagonist and engineer for the project, owned the first building on the island. Today the entire land belongs to Cochin Port Trust and Indian Navy, location, Cochin Highlights, Willingdons Island links Kochi with other seaports of the world and hosts some of the states best hotels, commercial and industrial offices. How to Reach, Willingdon Island is connected to Kochis mainland by road, Willingdon Island contains the modern port, serving South India. The island is an artificial island created from the sand dug out while deepening Kochi port. It has been named after Lord Willingdon, the former Madras governor, the main engineer spearheading this project, however, was Robert Bristow. A port hostel was built to accommodate passengers who wished to halt for a short while, as per the projects draft, a basic port structure was completed by 1939, just prior the Second World War. A deep wharf, a bridge and a road bridge connecting to the mainland were made to provide valuable infrastructure for the local war effort. A naval works was built on the adjacent Venduruthy Island. When the war ended, those working on island projects were employed to construct landing craft for the invasion of Japan. In 1940, a jetty and customs house were constructed adjoining the hotel. The other buildings constructed include a passenger platform and rail siding. A huge expanse of territory was soon procured by the Royal Air Force. This man-made isle near Cochin City, thus, became a military base. The Malabar Hotel served to provide quarters to all wartime staff, a new post office, a swanky open-air swimming pool and an adjoining bank completed the facilities. When the British withdrew from India after independence, in 1947, they left behind an indispensable, during its short colonial tenure, the Willingdon Island in Cochin handled almost one million tons of freight. By the year 1960, the traffic had almost doubled and it is an all-weather natural harbour and a landmark in the Kochi city of Kerala
17.
Kingdom of Cochin
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Kingdom of Cochin was a late medieval Hindu kingdom and later princely state on the Malabar Coast, South India. Once controlling much of the territory between Ponnani and Thottappally, the Cochin kingdom shrank to its minimal extent as a result of invasions by the Zamorin of Calicut. When Portuguese armadas arrived in India, Cochin was in vassalage to Zamorin and was looking for an opportunity to break away, Cochin became a long-time Portuguese protectorate providing assistance against native overlords. After the Portuguese, the Dutch East India Company followed by the English East India Company, even today, the full official designation of the Raja of Cochin is “Perumpadappu Gangadhara Veera Kerala Thrikkovil Adhikarikal”. The Kingdom of Cochin, originally known as Perumpadappu Swarupam, was under the rule of the Later Cheras in the Middle Ages, after the fall of the Mahodayapuram Cheras in the 12th century, along with numerous other provinces Perumpadappu Swarupam became a free political entity. However, it was only after the arrival of Portuguese colonizers on the Malabar Coast did the Perumpadappu Swarupam acquire any political importance, Perumpadappu rulers had family relationships with the Nambudiri rulers of Edappally. After the transfer of Kochi and Vypin from Edappally rulers to the Perumpadappu rulers, ma Huan, the Muslim voyager and translator who accompanied Admiral Zheng He on three of his seven expeditions to the Western Oceans, describes the king of Cochin as being a Buddhist. There is no extant written evidence about the emergence of the Kingdom of Cochin or of the Cochin Royal Family, all that is recorded are folk tales and stories, and a somewhat blurred historical picture about the origins of the ruling dynasty. The surviving manuscripts, such as Keralolpathi, Keralamahatmyam, and Perumpadapu Grandavari, are collections of myths and legends that are less than reliable as conventional historical sources. There is a legend that the last Perumal who ruled the Chera dynasty divided his kingdom between his nephews and his sons, converted to Islam and traveled to Mecca on a hajj. The Keralolpathi recounts the narrative in the following fashion, The last. He left for Mecca by ship with some Muslims who arrived at Kodungallur port, before leaving for Mecca, he divided his kingdom between his nephews and sons. The Perumpadapu Grandavari contains an account of the dynastic origins. Cheraman Perumal divided the land in half,17 amsa north of Neelaeswaram and 17 amsa south, totaling 34 amsa, thirty-four kingdoms between Kanyakumari and Gokarna were given to the thampuran who was the daughter of the last niece of Cheraman Perumal. Keralolpathi recorded the division of his kingdom in 345 AD, Perumpadapu Grandavari in 385 AD, historians, including Robin Jeffry, Faucett and Samuel Mateer, are of the opinion that as with all other Kings of Malabar, the Cochin Raja was also of Nair origin. Cochin kingdom ruled over a vast area in central Kerala before the Portuguese arrival and their state stretched up to Ponnani and Pukkaitha in the north, Anamalais in the east, and Cochin and Porakkad in the south, with capital at Perumpadappu on the northern border. Later, Calicut conquered large parts of Perumpadappu Kingdom, and made them a tributary state, Cochin was the scene of the first European settlement in India. In the year 1500, the Portuguese Admiral Pedro Álvares Cabral landed at Cochin after being repelled from Calicut, the king of Cochin welcomed the Portuguese and a treaty of friendship was signed
18.
Cochin Port
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Cochin Port is a major port on the Laccadive Sea – Indian Ocean sea-route and is one of the largest ports in India. The port lies on two islands in the Lake of Kochi, Willingdon Island and Vallarpadam, towards the Fort Kochi river mouth opening onto the Laccadive Sea, the International Container Transshipment Terminal, part of the Cochin Port, is the largest container transshipment facility in India. The port is governed by the Cochin Port Trust, a government of India establishment, the modern port was established in 1926 and has completed 86 years of active service. The Kochi Port is one of a line of maritime-related facilities based in the port-city of Kochi, the Cochin port was formed naturally due to the great floods of Periyar in 1341 AD, which choked the Muziris port, one of the greatest ports in ancient world. Ever since, Kochi became one of the ports with extensive trading relations Romans, Greeks and Arabs. The port further attracted European colonialists like Portuguese, Dutch and finally British who extended their supremacy over the Kingdom of Cochin, the traditional port was near Mattancherry. The need of a port was first felt by Lord Willingdon during his governorship of Madras Province of British India. The opening of the Suez Canal made several ships pass near the west coast and he selected the newly joined Sir Robert Bristow who was a leading British harbor engineer with extensive experience with maintenance of the Suez Canal. Bristow took the charge of engineer of Kochi Kingdoms Port Department in 1920. Ever since then, he and his team were involved in making a greenfield port. After studying the sea currents, observing tidal conditions and conducting experiments and he believed that Kochi could become the safest harbour if the ships entered the inner channel. The challenge before the engineers was a rock-like sandbar that stood across the opening of the Kochi backwaters into the sea and it was a formidable ridge of heavy and densely packed sand that prevented the entry of all ships requiring more than eight or nine feet of water. It was thought that the removal of the sandbar was a technical impossibility, the potential consequence on the environment was beyond estimation. The harm could be anything like the destruction of the Vypeen foreshore or the destruction of the Vembanad lake, Bristow, after a detailed study, concluded that such data was history. He addressed the problem of erosion of the Vypeen foreshore by building of rubble granite groynes nearly parallel with the shores. The groynes first produced an automatic reclamation which naturally protected the shore from the monsoon seas, confident at the initial success, Bristow planned out a detailed proposal of reclaiming part of the backwaters at a cost of ₹25 million. An ad-hoc committee appointed by the Madras government examined and approved the plans submitted by Bristow, the construction of the dredger Lord Willingdon was completed in 1925. It arrived at Kochi in May 1926 and it was estimated that the dredger had to be put to use for at least 20 hours a day for the next two years
19.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
20.
Independence Day (India)
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Independence Day, is annually observed on 15 August as a national holiday in India commemorating the nations independence from the British Empire on 15 August 1947. India attained independence following an Independence Movement noted for nonviolent resistance. On 15 August 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, who had become the first Prime Minister of India that day, on each subsequent Independence Day, the prime minister has raised the flag and given a speech. European traders had established outposts in the Indian subcontinent by the 17th century, through overwhelming military strength, the British East India company subdued local kingdoms and established themselves as the dominant force by the 18th century. Following the First War of Independence of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led the British Crown to assume control of India. In the decades following, civic society gradually emerged across India, most notably the Indian National Congress Party, the discontent of this period crystallised into nationwide non-violent movements of non-cooperation and civil disobedience, led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. During the 1930s, reform was gradually legislated by the British, the escalating political tension was capped by Independence in 1947. The jubilation was tempered by the partition of the subcontinent into India. At the 1929 Lahore session of the Indian National Congress, the Purna Swaraj declaration, or Declaration of the Independence of India was promulgated, and 26 January was declared as Independence Day. The Congress called on people to themselves to civil disobedience. Celebration of such an Independence Day was envisioned to stoke nationalistic fervour among Indian citizens, the Congress observed 26 January as the Independence Day between 1930 and 1946. The celebration was marked by meetings where the attendants took the pledge of independence, Jawaharlal Nehru described in his autobiography that such meetings were peaceful, solemn, and without any speeches or exhortation. Gandhi envisaged that besides the meetings, the day would be spent, in doing some constructive work, whether it is spinning, or service of untouchables, or reunion of Hindus and Mussalmans, or prohibition work, or even all these together. Following actual independence in 1947, the Constitution of India came into effect on and from 26 January 1950, in February 1947, Prime Minister Clement Attlee announced that the British government would grant full self-governance to British India by June 1948 at the latest. He chose the anniversary of Japans surrender in World War II,15 August. The Act received royal assent on 18 July 1947, millions of Muslim, Sikh and Hindu refugees trekked the newly drawn borders in the months surrounding independence. In Punjab, where the borders divided the Sikh regions in halves, massive bloodshed followed, in Bengal and Bihar, where Mahatma Gandhis presence assuaged communal tempers, the violence was mitigated. In all, between 250,000 and 1,000,000 people on both sides of the new borders died in the violence, while the entire nation was celebrating the Independence Day, Gandhi stayed in Calcutta in an attempt to stem the carnage
21.
Business cycle
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The business cycle or economic cycle is the downward and upward movement of gross domestic product around its long-term growth trend. The length of a cycle is the period of time containing a single boom. These fluctuations typically involve shifts over time periods of relatively rapid economic growth, and periods of relative stagnation or decline. Business cycles are usually measured by considering the rate of real gross domestic product. Despite the often-applied term cycles, these fluctuations in economic activity do not exhibit uniform or predictable periodicity, the common or popular usage boom-and-bust cycle refers to fluctuations in which the expansion is rapid and the contraction severe. Prior to that point classical economics had either denied the existence of cycles, blamed them on external factors, notably war. Sismondi found vindication in the Panic of 1825, which was the first unarguably international economic crisis and they advocated government intervention and socialism, respectively, as the solution. He devoted hundreds of pages of Das Kapital to crises, in Progress and Poverty, Henry George focused on lands role in crises – particularly land speculation – and proposed a single tax on land as a solution. In 1860 French economist Clement Juglar first identified economic cycles 7 to 11 years long, interest in the different typologies of cycles has waned since the development of modern macroeconomics, which gives little support to the idea of regular periodic cycles. There were great increases in productivity, industrial production and real per capita product throughout the period from 1870 to 1890 that included the Long Depression, there were also significant increases in productivity in the years leading up to the Great Depression. Both the Long and Great Depressions were characterized by overcapacity and market saturation, the effect of technological progress can be seen by the purchasing power of an average hours work, which has grown from $3 in 1900 to $22 in 1990, measured in 2010 dollars. There were similar increases in wages during the 19th century. See Financial crisis, 19th century for listing and details, the first of these crises not associated with a war was the Panic of 1825. Business cycles in OECD countries after World War II were generally more restrained than the business cycles. This was particularly true during the Golden Age of Capitalism, in this period, the economic cycle – at least the problem of depressions – was twice declared dead. The first declaration was in the late 1960s, when the Phillips curve was seen as being able to steer the economy, however, this was followed by stagflation in the 1970s, which discredited the theory. The second declaration was in the early 2000s, following the stability, notably, in 2003, Robert Lucas, in his presidential address to the American Economic Association, declared that the central problem of depression-prevention been solved, for all practical purposes. Unfortunately, this was followed by the 2008–2012 global recession, various regions have experienced prolonged depressions, most dramatically the economic crisis in former Eastern Bloc countries following the end of the Soviet Union in 1991
22.
Airports Authority of India
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The Airports Authority of India or AAI under the Ministry of Civil Aviation is responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure in India. It provides Air traffic management services over Indian airspace and adjoining oceanic areas and it also manages a total of 125 Airports, including 18 International Airports,7 Customs Airports,78 Domestic Airports and 26 Civil enclaves at Military Airfields. AAI also has ground installations at all airports and 25 other locations to ensure safety of aircraft operations, AAI covers all major air-routes over Indian landmass via 29 Radar installations at 11 locations along with 700VOR/DVOR installations co-located with Distance Measuring Equipment. 52 runways are provided with Instrument landing system installations with Night Landing Facilities at most of these airports, performance Based Navigation procedures have already been implemented at Mumbai, Delhi and Ahmedabad Airports and are likely to be implemented at other Airports in a phased manner. AAI is implementing the GAGAN project in collaboration with the Indian Space Research Organisation. The navigation signals thus received from the GPS will be augmented to achieve the requirement of aircraft. First phase of technology demonstration system was completed in February 2008, AAI has four training establishments viz. The Civil Aviation Training College at Allahabad, National Institute of Aviation Management and Research at Delhi, an Aerodrome Visual Simulator has been provided at CATC and non-radar procedural ATC simulator equipment is being supplied to CATC Allahabad and Hyderabad Airport. AAI has a dedicated Flight Inspection Unit with a fleet of three aircraft fitted with flight inspection system to inspect Instrument Landing Systems up to Cat-III, VORs, DMEs, NDBs, VGSI and RADAR. AAI has entered into Joint Ventures at Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Bangalore, the organisations were merged in April 1995 by an Act of Parliament and was named as Airports Authority of India. This new organisation was to be responsible for creating, upgrading, maintaining and managing civil aviation infrastructure both on the ground and air space in the country, design, Development, Operation and Maintenance of international and domestic airports and civil enclaves. Control and Management of the Indian airspace extending beyond the limits of the country. Construction, Modification and Management of passenger terminals, Development and Management of cargo terminals at international and domestic airports. Provision of passenger facilities and information system at the terminals at airports. Expansion and strengthening of operation area, viz. Runways, Aprons, provision of Communication and Navigation aids, viz. ILS, DVOR, DME, Radar etc. Provision of Communication, Navigation and Surveillance which includes provision of DVOR / DME, ILS, ATCt radars, AAI is a full member of the Civil Air Navigation Services Organisation. NIAMAR & CATC are members of ICAO TRAINER programme under which they share Standard Training Packages from a pool for imparting training on various subjects. Both CATC & NIAMAR have also contributed a number of STPs to the Central pool under ICAO TRAINER programme, the AAI was involved in a tussle with the Ministry of Civil Aviation over the issue of privatisation of its two most profitable airports at Delhi and Mumbai
23.
Kocheril Raman Narayanan
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Kocheril Raman Narayanan was the tenth President of India. He served as ambassador to Japan, United Kingdom, Thailand, Turkey, Peoples Republic of China, elected as the ninth Vice President in 1992, Narayanan went on to become President in 1997. He was the first – and, so far, only – member of the Dalit community, Narayanan is regarded as an independent and assertive President who set several precedents and enlarged the scope of the highest constitutional office. His family was poor, but his father was respected for his medical acumen, Narayanan had his early schooling in Uzhavoor at the Government Lower Primary School, Kurichithanam and Our Lady of Lourdes Upper Primary School, Uzhavoor. He walked to school for about 15 kilometres daily through paddy fields and he often listened to school lessons while standing outside the classroom, having been barred from attending because tuition fees were outstanding. He matriculated from St. Marys High School, Kuravilangad and he completed his intermediate at C. M. S. College, Kottayam, aided by a scholarship from the Travancore Royal family. Narayanan obtained his B. A. and M. A. in English literature from the University of Travancore, with his family facing grave difficulties, he left for Delhi and worked for some time as a journalist with The Hindu and The Times of India. During this time he once interviewed Mahatma Gandhi in Bombay on his own volition, Narayanan then went to England and studied political science under Harold Laski at the London School of Economics, he also attended lectures by Karl Popper, Lionel Robbins, and Friedrich Hayek. He obtained the degree of B. Sc. with a specialisation in political science, helped by a scholarship from J. R. D. Tata, during his years in London, he was active in the India League under V. K. Krishna Menon. He was also the London correspondent of the Social Welfare Weekly published by K. M. Munshi and he shared lodgings with K. N. Raj and Veerasamy Ringadoo, another close friend was Pierre Trudeau. When Narayanan returned to India in 1948, Laski gave him a letter of introduction to Prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru. Years later, he narrated how he began his career in the service, When I finished with LSE, Laski, of his own. On reaching Delhi I sought an appointment with the PM, I suppose, because I was an Indian student returning home from London, I was given a time-slot. It was here in Parliament House that he met me and we talked for a few minutes about London and things like that and I could soon see that it was time for me to leave. So I said goodbye and as I left the room I handed over the letter from Laski, when I was half way round, I heard the sound of someone clapping from the direction I had just come. I turned to see Panditji beckoning me to come back and he had opened the letter as I left his room and read it. Why didnt you give this to me earlier, I thought it would be enough if I just handed it over while leaving
24.
Jet bridge
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Depending on building design, sill heights, fueling positions, and operational requirements, a jet bridge may be fixed or movable, swinging radially and/or extending in length. The jetway was invented by Frank Der Yuen, before the introduction of jet bridges, passengers normally boarded an aircraft by walking along the ground-level ramp and climbing a set of movable stairs, or up airstairs on aircraft so equipped. Mobile staircases or ramp stairs are employed at many airports around the world, particularly smaller airports, united Airlines tested an early prototype Air Dock in 1954. The first operational jet bridges were installed in 1959, although sources disagree as to which airport installed jet bridges first, jet bridges provide all-weather dry access to aircraft and enhance the security of terminal operations. They are often attached at one end by a pivot to the terminal building and have the ability to swing left or right. The cabin, at the end of the bridge, may be raised or lowered, extended or retracted. These motions are controlled by a station in the cab. The cab is provided with a canopy, which allows the bridge to dock with aircraft with differing shapes. Some airports with international gates have two or three bridges for larger aircraft with multiple entrances, faster loading can lead to lower airport charges, less delays and more passenger throughput for the airport, all factors which impact an airlines bottom line. King Shaka International Airport and Edmonton International Airport have A380 jet bridges, though loading bridges are usually permanently attached at their terminal-building end, leaving only the cab free to move, this is not always the case. Loading bridges restrict aircraft parking to spots immediately adjacent to the terminal, thus, airports use mobile staircases to facilitate disembarking at hardstands. Loading bridges may pose hazards to aircraft if handled improperly, if the bridge is not retracted fully before departure, it may contact protruding parts of the taxiing aircraft, requiring repair and delays. Furthermore, during cold weather, the bridge may become frozen to the aircraft. In this case, when the jet bridge retracts, it could damage the aircraft if that area has not been properly de-iced, loading bridges usually cost more to use than remote stands, so many low cost carriers prefer not to use them. When regional jets are used, jet bridges have another disadvantage, several airlines have removed jet bridges at regional jet gates at airports such as Atlanta which are short on gates. When having passengers disembark on the tarmac or the ramp, airlines can fit two or more regional jets per gate. In many other places like Beijing Capital Airport and Paris Charles de Gaulle Airport, several incidents of jet bridges collapsing include Sydney, Hong Kong Chep Lap Kok, Seattle and Los Angeles. Jet bridges are used at smaller, single-story airports
25.
Government of Kerala
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The Government of Kerala headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram is a democratically elected body that governs the State of Kerala, India. The state government is headed by the Governor of Kerala as the head of state. The state government maintains its capital at Thiruvananthapuram and is seated at the Kerala Government Secretariat or the Hajur Kutcheri. The Government of Kerala was formed on November 1,1956 after merging of State of Travancore-Cochin with the Malabar district of the Madras state as part of States Reorganisation Act,1956, the Governor is appointed by the President for a term of five years. The executive and legislative powers lie with the Chief Minister and his council of ministers, the Governors of the states and territories of India have similar powers and functions at the state level as that of the President of India at Union level. Only Indian citizens above 35 years of age are eligible for appointment, P Sathasivam is the present governor. The Governor enjoys many different types of powers, Executive powers related to administration, appointments, Legislative powers related to lawmaking and the state legislature. Discretionary powers to be carried out according to the discretion of the Governor, the legislature comprises the governor and the legislative assembly, which is the highest political organ in state. The governor has the power to summon the assembly or to close the same, all members of the legislative assembly are directly elected, normally once in every five years by the eligible voters who are above 18 years of age. The current assembly consists of 140 elected members and one nominated by the governor from the Anglo-Indian Community. The elected members one of its own members as its chairman who is called the speaker. The speaker is assisted by the deputy speaker who is elected by the members. The conduct of meeting in the house is the responsibility of the Speaker, the main function of the assembly is to pass laws and rules. Every bill passed by the house has to be approved by the governor before it becomes applicable. The normal term of the assembly is five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. But while a proclamation of state of emergency is in operation, the High Court of Kerala is the apex court for the state, it also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep. It is a court of record and has all the powers of such a court including the authority to punish an individual for contempt of court. Like all other High Courts of India, this court also consists of a Chief Justice, at present, the sanctioned Judge strength of the High Court of Kerala is 27 Permanent Judges including the Chief Justice H. L. Dattu and two additional judges
26.
Bharat Petroleum
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Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited is an Indian state-controlled oil and gas company headquartered in Mumbai, Maharashtra. The Corporation operates two large refineries of the located at Mumbai and Kochi. The company is ranked 358th on the Fortune Global 500 list of the worlds biggest corporations as of 2016, in 1889 during vast industrial development, an important player in the South Asian market was the Burmah Oil Company. In 1928, Asiatic Petroleum Company started cooperation with Burma oil company and this alliance led to the formation of Burmah-Shell Oil Storage and Distributing Company of India Limited. Burmah Shell began its operations with import and marketing of Kerosene, on 24 January 1976, the Burmah Shell was taken over by the Government of India to form Bharat Refineries Limited. On 1 August 1977, it was renamed Bharat Petroleum Corporation Limited and it was also the first refinery to process newly found indigenous crude Bombay High. As counsel for the CPIL, Rajinder Sachar and Prashant Bhushan said that the way to disinvest in the companies would be to repeal or amend the Acts by which they were nationalized in the 1970s. As a result, the government would need a majority in both houses to push through any privatization, the business of the Company grew substantially given the international backing of Shell and it achieved the leadership position in India. In 1952, Shell and Burmah Oil Company set up Burmah Shell Refineries to set up a refinery in Mumbai, the entire operations of Burmah Shell in India were nationalised in 1976 and the Refinery and Marketing Companies were merged to form BPCL. 1952 - The Company was incorporated on 3 November 1952 under the name Burmahshell Refineries Limited,1955 - The Company has a well established refinery at Mahul, Chembur which has commissioned in January. - The companys refinery in Bombay was commissioned in 1955 and it introduced LPG as a cooking fuel to the Indian home and all along, it went beyond selling petroleum, to educate the customer. 1976 - The companies name changed to Bharat Refineries Limited on 12th,1977 - Companies name changed to its present name on 1 August. Simultaneously also acquired the right to title and interest and liabilities of BSM in relation to its undertakings in India,1992 - During the year the company commissioned 50 retail outlets including 9 in rural areas and 7 superior kerosene oil/light deisel oil dealerships. The total number of retail outlets/light diesel oil dealership at the end of the year stood at 4,090 and 928 respectively, - During the year, 20% of the shares were sold by the govt. to various financial institutions and Mutual Funds. Thus presently the President of India holds 80% of the paid up capital, also installed advanced control system for catalytic control unit. 1994 - During the year, the corporation commissioned 124 retail outlets and 10 oil/light diesel oil dealership, - On 25 February, a joint venture company Bharat Oman Refineries Ltd was incorporated. And was set up as a joint venture between Omen oil Co, - During the year, Bharat Shell Ltd. was promoted by the company and Shell Overseas Investments, B V Netherlands for marketing shell branded lubricants in the country. 1995 - During 95-96, a 6 MMTPA joint venture refinery being set up with Oman Oil Company Ltd. at Bina in M. P
27.
Abu Dhabi
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Abu Dhabi is the capital and the second most populous city of the United Arab Emirates, and also capital of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the largest of the UAEs seven emirates. Abu Dhabi lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the Persian Gulf from the western coast. The city proper had a population of 1.5 million in 2014, Abu Dhabi houses federal government offices, is the seat of the United Arab Emirates Government, home to the Abu Dhabi Emiri Family and the President of the UAE, who is from this family. Abu Dhabis rapid development and urbanisation, coupled with the high average income of its population, has transformed the city into a large. Today the city is the center of political and industrial activities. Abu Dhabi accounts for about two-thirds of the roughly $400-billion United Arab Emirates economy, Abu Dhabi is the fourth most expensive city for expatriate employees in the region, and in 2014 was the 68th most expensive big city in the world. Abu Dhabi is full of evidence that points to civilizations, such as the Umm an-Nar Culture. Settlements were also found farther outside the city of Abu Dhabi. There is evidence of civilizations around the mountain of Hafeet and this location is very strategic because it is the UAE’s second tallest mountain, so it would have great visibility. It also contains a lot of moisture in its springs and lakes, origin of the name Abu Dhabi The origin of the name Abu Dhabi is uncertain. Meaning Father of the Gazelle, when translated from Arabic. According to Bilal al-Budoor, assistant under-secretary for Cultural Affairs at the Ministry of Culture, Youth and Community Development, The area had a lot of dhibaa, an old story tells about a man who used to chase deer and was named the father of the animal. Abu Dhabis original name was Milh salt, possibly referring to the salty water of the Persian Gulf, some Bedouins called the city Umm Dhabi, while British records refer to the place as Abu Dhabi. According to some accounts, the name Abu Dhabi was first used more than 300 years ago. The first word of Abu Dhabi is pronounced Bu by inhabitants on the western coast. In the eastern part of the city, the pronunciation is Abu, origins of the Al Nahyan family The Bani Yas bedouin were originally centered on the Liwa Oasis. This tribe was the most significant in the area, having over 20 subsections, in 1793, the Al Bu Falah subsection migrated to the island of Abu Dhabi on the coast of the Persian Gulf due to the discovery of fresh water there. One family within this section was the Al Nahyan family and this family makes up the rulers of Abu Dhabi today
28.
Lulu Hypermarket
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Lulu Hypermarket is a hypermarket chain and retail venture started by Lulu Group International in 2000. M. A. Yousuf Ali is the director of the group that is based in Abu Dhabi. LuLu has over 35,600 employees of various nationalities and it is one of the largest retail chains in Asia and is the biggest in Middle East with 128 outlets in the Gulf Cooperation Council countries. They also have 13 malls all over the GCC and India with a planned to come up in Malaysia which after opening will be the largest mall in Malaysia. Research firm Deloitte, recently placed it amongst the world’s 50 fastest growing retailers, LuLu Group International opened its first supermarket in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, in 1995, when the retail business scenario in the region started to change with the entry of Continent. Later, more LuLu Supermarket stores were opened in different parts of Abu Dhabi There are also several Lulu stores found in the emirate of Dubai, in the late 1990s, the LuLu Center department stores were launched, and the group expanded to other countries in the Middle East. In 2000, the first Lulu Hypermarket store was opened in Dubai, with this launch, the Group embarked on an aggressive expansion plan. It soon grew into a chain with outlets across the UAE, Kuwait, Qatar, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Oman. On March 10,2013, LuLu Hypermarket was opened in Kochi, the group has started construction of the Lulu Mall in Thiruvananthapuram, which upon completion will be the largest shopping mall in India and the 5th largest in Asia. The Group that follows the tagline LuLu, where the world comes to shop is hailed as a one-stop-shop for the community of the region with an international mix of products. As of August 2016, there are 124 LuLu Hypermarkets in the GCC countries, one in India at Kochi, Kerala, in April 2013, LuLu Group launched its UK operations in Birmingham with the inauguration of a logistics and packaging facility under the name, Y International. The 20,000 sq. ft. facility procures and exports food, non-food, chilled, date coding and labeling for different countries, translation of labels, Halal and other relevant certifications are also carried out here. About 60 British nationals are employed at the facility which hopes to create 200 jobs soon, three in the capital city, Riyadh and one each in Khobar and Jubail. Latest outlet opened in Dammam in January 2016, LuLu Hypermarket has partnered with banks in the Middle East to create co-branded cards that help loyal customers gain special privileges and rewards every time they shop. The ADCB LuLu Credit Card in association with the Abu Dhabi Commercial Bank helps users gain points on every AED1 spent at any Lulu outlet in the UAE. The LuLu Doha Bank Shopping Credit Card in association with Doha Bank gives cardholders a 5% rebate on every purchase made from a LuLu outlet in Qatar, Shopping points can also be accumulated and redeemed on purchases. LuLu Hypermarket is involved in corporate social responsibility initiatives. The agreement aims at rehabilitating people with special needs by involving them in a productive, in February 2013, LuLu teamed up with Dubai Cares to adopt schools in Gaza and Nepal thereby improving the infrastructure of primary school classrooms
29.
United Arab Emirates
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In 2013, the UAEs population was 9.2 million, of which 1.4 million are Emirati citizens and 7.8 million are expatriates. The country is a federation of seven emirates, and was established on 2 December 1971, the constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain. Each emirate is governed by a monarch, together, they jointly form the Federal Supreme Council. One of the monarchs is selected as the President of the United Arab Emirates, Islam is the official religion of the UAE and Arabic is the official language. The UAEs oil reserves are the seventh-largest in the world while its natural gas reserves are the worlds seventeenth-largest, Sheikh Zayed, ruler of Abu Dhabi and the first President of the UAE, oversaw the development of the Emirates and steered oil revenues into healthcare, education and infrastructure. The UAEs economy is the most diversified in the Gulf Cooperation Council, while its most populous city of Dubai is an important global city, nevertheless, the country remains principally reliant on its export of petroleum and natural gas. The UAE is criticised for its rights record, including the specific interpretations of Sharia used in its legal system. The UAEs rising international profile has led analysts to identify it as a regional. It appears the land of the Emirates has been occupied for thousands of years, there is no proof of contact with the outside world at that stage, although in time it developed with civilisations in Mesopotamia and Iran. This contact persisted and became wide-ranging, probably motivated by trade in copper from the Hajar Mountains, in ancient times, Al Hasa was part of Al Bahreyn and adjoined Greater Oman. Sassanid groups were present on the Batinah coast, in 637, Julfar was an important port that was used as a staging post for the Islamic invasion of the Sassanian Empire. The area of the Al Ain/Buraimi Oasis was known as Tuam and was an important trading post for camel routes between the coast and the Arabian interior. The earliest Christian site in the UAE was first discovered in the 1990s, a monastic complex on what is now known as Sir Bani Yas Island. Thought to be Nestorian and built in 600 AD, the church appears to have been abandoned peacefully in 750 AD and it forms a rare physical link to a legacy of Christianity which is thought to have spread across the peninsula from 50 to 350 AD following trade routes. Certainly, by the 5th century, Oman had a bishop named John – the last bishop of Oman being Etienne, in 676 AD. This led to a group of travelling to Medina, converting to Islam and subsequently driving a successful uprising against the unpopular Sassanids. Following the death of Prophet Muhammad, the new Islamic communities south of the Persian Gulf threatened to disintegrate, with insurrections against the Muslim leaders. The Caliph Abu Bakr sent an army from the capital Medina which completed its reconquest of the territory with the battle of Dibba in which 10,000 lives are thought to have been lost
30.
Federal Bank
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The Federal Bank Limited is a major private sector commercial bank headquartered at Aluva, Kochi, Kerala. As on 31 March 2016, Federal Bank has 1252 branches spread across 24 states and 1516 ATMs across the country and its balance-sheet stood at Rs 1.37 trillion as of end March 2016 and its net profit stood at Rs 475 crore for the fiscal year. The history of Federal Bank dates back to the pre-independence era, on 7 April 1931 at Pattamukkil Varattisseril Tharavad, the Pattamukkil Varattisseril Brothers gathered together to discuss the necessary steps to be taken to form a bank. It started with the business of auction-chitty and elementary banking transactions related to agriculture, the home functioned as the bank office for nearly 15 years. The founders included Pattamukkil Varattisseril Oommen Geevarghese, and his brothers Oommen Chacko, Oommen Kurian, Oommen Geevarghese was the founder chairman and Oommen Chacko was the managing director. The Travancore Agriculturists Relief Act,1939, and the limitation of interest by the Travancore Debt Relief Act,1941 greatly influenced the functioning of bank. The terms and conditions of this act was supportive to the farmers and it was totally against the interest of the banks. After the bank had functioned for nearly 15 years, the banks day-to-day operations had to be stopped due to Oommen Chackos ill-health, George Union Bank in Puthenpally, and Marthandam Commercial Bank in Thiruvananthapuram. In 1970, Federal Bank became a commercial bank and came out with its initial public offering in 1994. In January 2008, Federal Bank opened its first overseas office in Abu Dhabi. In April 2015, Federal Bank posted its highest ever net profit at Rs 1005.75 crore for the fiscal 2014-15, the net profit grew 20% during the year which saw the deposits and advances of the bank outgrow that of the industry by 40%. In November 2016, Federal Bank opened its second UAE representative office in Dubai as part of a strategy to expand footprints in the Gulf to serve its fast growing overseas clients. In August 2013, Federal Bank introduced FedBook, the first electronic passbook launched by any bank in India, FedBook is a mobile app through which customers can view their passbook details. In May 2015, Federal Bank and SBI Card launched Federal Bank-SBI two co-branded Visa credit cards, namely Platinum and Gold ‘N More, the Federal Bank SBI Platinum Credit Card will offer distinct and exclusive benefits to customers, especially for fuel payments, dining etc. The platinum variant will offer a credit limit up to Rs.5 lakh, the platinum variant of Federal Bank-SBI Credit Card offers reward points for every use at dining, departmental and international stores. International airport lounge access and golf course access are the other options for it. In July 2015, Federal Bank introduced automated chat facility, a first of its kind by an Indian bank, customer wanting to check the bank’s products and services can now visit its website and chat with its Virtual Relationship Officer/Agent. The virtual agent generates personalised responses to customer queries, in August 2015, creating history, Federal Bank launched India’s first Mobile App for Bank Account Opening
31.
Canara Bank
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Canara Bank is an Indian state-owned bank headquartered in Bangalore, Karnataka. It was established at Mangalore in 1906, making it one of the oldest banks in the country, the government nationalized the bank in 1969. As of September 2016, the bank had a network of 5849 branches, the bank also has offices abroad in London, Hong Kong, Moscow, Shanghai, Doha, Bahrain, South africa, Dubai, Tanzania and New York. Ammembal Subba Rao Pai, a philanthropist, established the Canara Hindu Permanent Fund in Mangalore, India, the bank changed its name to Canara Bank Limited in 1910 when it incorporated. Canara Banks first acquisition took place in 1961 when it acquired Bank of Kerala, Bank of Kerala had been founded in September 1944 and at the time of its acquisition on 20 May 1961 had three branches. The second bank that Canara Bank acquired was Seasia Midland Bank, in 1958, the Reserve Bank of India had ordered Canara Bank to acquire G. Raghumathmul Bank, in Hyderabad. This bank had established in 1870, and had converted to a limited company in 1925. At the time of the acquisition G. Raghumathmul Bank had five branches, the merger took effect in 1961. Later in 1961, Canara Bank acquired Trivandrum Permanent Bank, Trivandrum Permanent Bank had been founded on 7 February 1899 and had 14 branches at the time of the merger. Next, Canara Bank acquired four banks in 1963, the Sree Poornathrayeesa Vilasam Bank, Thrippunithura, Arnad Bank, Tiruchirapalli, Cochin Commercial Bank, Cochin, Sree Poornathrayeesa Vilasam Bank had been established on 21 February 1923 and at the time of its acquisition it had 14 branches. Arnad Bank had been established on 23 December 1942 and at the time of its acquisition had only one branch, Cochin Commercial Bank had been established on 3 January 1936, and at the time of its acquisition had 13 branches. The Government of India nationalised Canara Bank, along with 13 other major banks of India. In 1976, Canara Bank inaugurated its 1000th branch, in 1985, Canara Bank acquired Lakshmi Commercial Bank in a rescue. This brought Canara Bank some 230 branches in northern India, in 1996, Canara Bank became the first Indian Bank to get ISO certification for Total Branch Banking for its Seshadripuram branch in Bangalore. Canara Bank has now stopped opting for ISO certification of branches, Canara Bank established its International Division in 1976. In 1983, Canara Bank opened its first overseas office, a branch in London, two years later, Canara Bank established a subsidiary in Hong Kong, Indo Hong Kong International Finance. In 2008-9, Canara Bank opened its third operation, this one a branch in Shanghai. Later Canara Bank established a branch each in Leicester and Bahrain and it also has a representative office in Sharjah
32.
Initial public offering
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Through this process, a privately held company transforms into a public company. Initial public offerings are used by companies to raise the expansion of capital, possibly to monetize the investments of early private investors. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors, after the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, money passes between public investors. The IPO process is known as going public. Details of the offering are disclosed to potential purchasers in the form of a lengthy document known as a prospectus. Most companies undertake an IPO with the assistance of an investment banking firm acting in the capacity of an underwriter, underwriters provide several services, including help with correctly assessing the value of shares and establishing a public market for shares. Alternative methods such as the dutch auction have also been explored, in terms of size and public participation, the two most notable examples of this method is the Google IPO and Snapchats parent company Snap Inc. China has recently emerged as a major IPO market, with several of the largest IPOs taking place in that country, the earliest form of a company which issued public shares was the case of the publicani during the Roman Republic. Like modern joint-stock companies, the publicani were legal bodies independent of their members whose ownership was divided into shares, there is evidence that these shares were sold to public investors and traded in a type of over-the-counter market in the Forum, near the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The shares fluctuated in value, encouraging the activity of speculators, mere evidence remains of the prices for which partes were sold, the nature of initial public offerings, or a description of stock market behavior. Publicanis lost favor with the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire, the first modern IPO occurred in March 1602 when the Dutch East India Company offered shares of the company to the public in order to raise capital. All the shares were tradable, and the shareholders received receipts for the purchase, a share certificate documenting payment and ownership such as we know today was not issued but ownership was instead entered in the companys share register. In the United States, the first IPO was the offering of Bank of North America around 1783. An IPO, therefore, allows a company to tap into a pool of potential investors to provide itself with capital for future growth, repayment of debt. A company selling shares is never required to repay the capital to its public investors. Those investors must endure the unpredictable nature of the market to price. After the IPO, when shares trade freely in the open market, for early private investors who choose to sell shares as part of the IPO process, the IPO represents an opportunity to monetize their investment. This type of offering is not dilutive, since no new shares are being created, once a company is listed, it is able to issue additional common shares in a number of different ways, one of which is the follow-on offering
33.
Chief Minister of Kerala
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The Chief Minister of Kerala is the chief executive of the south Indian state of Kerala. As per the Constitution of India, the governor is a de jure head. Following elections to the Kerala Legislative Assembly, the governor usually invites the party with a majority of seats to form the government. The governor appoints the chief minister, whose council of ministers are responsible to the assembly. Given that he has the confidence of the assembly, the chief ministers term is for five years and is subject to no term limits, the origins of Kerala lie in the princely states of Travancore and Cochin. Following Indias independence from the British Raj in 1947, these states rulers instituted a measure of government, headed by a Premier. On 1 July 1949 Travancore and Cochin were merged to form Travancore-Cochin state, in 1956, the States Reorganisation Act redrew Indias map along linguistic lines, and the present-day state of Kerala was born, comprising solely Malayalam-speaking districts. Since 1957,12 people have served as the Chief Minister of Kerala, the first was E. M. S. Namboodiripad of the Communist Party of India, whose tenure was cut short by the imposition of Presidents rule. Since 1980 the office has alternated between leaders of the Indian National Congress and of the Communist Party of India, the incumbent chief minister is Pinarayi Vijayan of the CPI, who was sworn in on 25 May 2016. After Indias independence in 1947, Travancore and Cochin were merged to form Travancore-Cochin on 1 July 1949, on 1 January 1950, Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Government of Indias 1 November 1956 States Reorganisation Act inaugurated the new Kerala state, incorporating Malabar District, Travancore-Cochin, a new Legislative Assembly was also created, for which elections were held in 1957. org
34.
Business class
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Business class is a travel class available on many commercial airlines and rail lines, known by brand names which vary by airline or rail company. Business class is distinguished from other classes by the quality of seating, food, drinks, ground service. In commercial aviation, full class is usually denoted J or C with schedule flexibility. Airlines began separating full-fare and discounted economy passengers in the late 1970s. United also cited the difficulty of tracking which passengers should be seated in section of the economy cabin on connecting flights. American Airlines also began separating full-fare economy passengers from discounted economy passengers in 1978, Pan Am announced that it would introduce Clipper Class in July 1978, and both Air France and Pan Am introduced business class in November 1978. Qantas claims to have launched the worlds first Business Class in 1979, on November 1,1981, Scandinavian Airlines System introduced EuroClass with a separate cabin, dedicated check-in counters and lounges for full-fare passengers. Simultaneously, first class disappeared from their European fleet, both Qantas and Virgin Australia offer Business Class on their domestic networks as well as on trans-Tasman flights to New Zealand. Flights between Perth and Sydney typically feature lie-flat seats, with deep recline cradle seats on other routes, on the other hand, Air New Zealand does not offer Business Class on its domestic network. Business Class is available on flights between New Zealand, Australia and the Pacific Islands when operated by Boeing 777 and Boeing 787 family aircraft, both of which have lie-flat seats. On short-haul flights, Air Canada, the carrier of Canada offers recliner seats. However, on some high-capacity routes, such as Vancouver-Toronto, Air Canada utilises its long-haul fleet, such as the Boeing 777, Boeing 787, Boeing 767, on flights using Internationally configured aircraft such as these, the business class product is a lie-flat product. However, on discount carriers, such as Air Transat, and WestJet Airlines, business class is euro-style, in the United States, lie-flat business class is usually only offered on transcontinental flights and flights from the East Coast to Hawaii. On other flights, Business class is typically a recliner seat, US carriers generally designate first class as the front cabin on other domestic two-cabin aircraft. European carriers generally offer a class consisting of enhanced economy seating with better service. There may be a curtain to separate business from economy class, based on demand, Business class has started to disappear from some short/medium haul routes, to be replaced with full fare economy and discount economy. On these routes, the seats are the same for all passengers, only the flexibility of the ticket, on shorter routes many airlines have removed business class entirely and offer only one class of service. British Airways used to offer Business UK on their system, offering the same service as Economy with the addition of expedited check-in, baggage reclaim, lounge access
35.
Oommen Chandy
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Oommen Chandy is an Indian politician of the Indian National Congress who was the Chief Minister of Kerala from 2004 to 2006 and again from 2011 to 2016. He was also Leader of the Opposition in the Kerala Legislative Assembly from 2006 to 2011, Oommen Chandy is a Member of the Kerala Legislative Assembly, representing Puthuppally, since 1970. Oommen Chandy was born at Kumarakom, Kottayam district, Kerala in 1943, Chandy ventured into the political arena as an activist of Kerala Students Union, the student wing of the party. He was the president of KSU at St George High School, Puthupally. Chandy completed his education from CMS College, Kottayam, SB College. Later, he took a degree in law from Government Law College. Chandy started his career through the Kerala Students Union, which he served as president from 1967 to 1969. He was elected as the president of the State Youth Congress in 1970. He has represented the Puthuppally Constituency for decades, having elected to the Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1970,1977,1980,1982,1987,1991,1996,2001,2006,2011 and 2016. During his legislative career he had served as Chairman of the Public Accounts Committee during 1996–98. Chandy has been sworn in as a minister in Kerala four times and he was the Minister for Labour from 11 April 1977 to 25 April 1977 in the first K. Karunakaran Ministry and continued holding the same portfolio in the succeeding first A. K. Antony Ministry till 27 October 1978 and he was in the charge of Home portfolio in the second K. Karunakaran Ministry from 28 December 1981 to 17 March 1982. Again, he was sworn in as a minister in the fourth K. Karunakaran Ministry on 2 July 1991 and he was in charge of Finance Portfolio and resigned from the cabinet on 22 June 1994 due to difference with the Chief Minister. The results of the elections in May 2004 saw the Indian National Congress not winning a single seat in Kerala. Antony, was forced to resign and accept responsibility for the poor results, on 30 August 2004, Oommen was elected the Congress Legislature Party leader at the end of a meeting by AICC observers and clearance by the Congress president, Sonia Gandhi. He resigned as Chief Minister on 12 May 2006 following the defeat of his party in 2006 Assembly Elections, Oommen Chandy was the leader of opposition in the twelfth Kerala Legislative Assembly. Under his leadership UDF marked victories in Lok Sabha Election 2009, gaining 16 out of 20 parliament constituencies in Kerala, in the history of Kerala politics its the first time that the UDF got an upper hand in local body elections. After winning the closely contested 2011 assembly election, Congress legislative party unanimously elected Oommen Chandy as its leader, at the Congress Legislature Party meeting, Chandys name was proposed by Kerala Pradesh Congress Committee president Ramesh Chennithala and seconded by Aryadan Mohammed
36.
Indira Gandhi International Airport
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Indira Gandhi International Airport serves as the primary civilian aviation hub for the National Capital Region of Delhi, India. The airport, spread over an area of 5,106 acres, is situated in Palam,15 km south-west of the New Delhi railway station and 16 km from New Delhi city centre. Named after Indira Gandhi, a former Prime Minister of India and it is busiest airport in the country in terms of cargo traffic in the recent year overtaking Mumbai during late 2015. With the commencement of operations at Terminal 3 in 2010, it became Indias and South Asias largest aviation hub, the planned expansion program will increase the airports capacity to handle 100 million passengers by 2030. The airport handled over 48 million passengers in the fiscal year 2015–16, in calendar year 2016, the airport was the 21st busiest airport in the world by passenger traffic and 10th busiest airport in Asia handling over 55 million passengers. The airport was operated by the Indian Air Force before its management was transferred to the Airports Authority of India, in May 2006, the management of the airport was passed over to Delhi International Airport Limited, a consortium led by the GMR Group. In September 2008, the airport inaugurated a 4,430 m runway, the Terminal 3 building, which commenced operations in 2010, has a capacity to handle 34 million passengers annually. Terminal 3 is the worlds 8th largest passenger terminal, the airport uses an advanced system called Airport Collaborative Decision Making to help keep takeoffs and landings timely and predictable. In 2010, IGIA was conferred the fourth best airport award in the world in the 15–25 million category, the airport was rated as the Best airport in the world in the 25–40 million passengers category in 2015, by Airports Council International. Delhi Airport was awarded The Best Airport in Central Asia and Best Airport Staff in Central Asia at the Skytrax World Airport Awards 2015, IGI also stood first in the new rankings for 2015 Airport Service Quality Awards. Safdarjung Airport was built in 1930 and was the airport for Delhi until 1962. Due to increasing passenger traffic at Safdarjung, civilian operations were moved to Palam Airport in 1962, Palam Airport had been built during World War II as RAF Station Palam and after the British left, it served as an Air Force Station for the Indian Air Force. Palam Airport had a capacity of around 1,300 passengers per hour. Owing to an increase in air traffic in the 1970s, a terminal with nearly four times the area of the old Palam terminal was constructed. With the inauguration of a new terminal, on 2 May 1986. On 2 May 2006, the management of Delhi and Mumbai airports were handed over to the private consortia, Delhi International Airport Limited is a consortium of the GMR Group, Fraport and Malaysia Airports, and the Airports Authority of India retains a 26% stake. Nine years later, in May 2015, Malaysia Airports chose it exit from DIAL venture, following this GMR Groups stake at DIAL increased to 64%. Earlier GMR indicated that it was interested in buying out the 10% stake of Fraport, the old domestic airport is known as Terminal 1 and handles domestic flights for all budget airlines
37.
Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport
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Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport, formerly known as Sahar International Airport, is the primary international airport serving the Mumbai Metropolitan Area, India.68 million passengers. The airport is the second busiest in the country in terms of cargo traffic also, the airport has three operating terminals spread over an operational area of 750 hectares and handles about 850 aircraft movements per day. It handled a record 51 movements in one hour on 16 September 2014 and it won the 2015 ASQ Best Airport Award in the 25-40 million passengers per annum category by Airports Council International. It has also won the Best Airport in India and Central Asia award at the Skytrax 2016 World Airport Awards and it is one of the three airports in India to have implemented Airport Collaborative Decision Making to ensure timely takeoffs and landings. The new integrated terminal T2 was inaugurated on 10 January 2014, a dedicated six lane, elevated road connecting the new terminal with the main arterial Western Express Highway was also opened to the public the same day. The airport is named after the 17th-century Maratha emperor, Chhatrapati Shivaji and it was re-renamed Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport, adding Maharaj to the name, by the Government of Maharashtra on 8 December 2016. CSIAs IATA airport code – BOM – is derived from Bombay and it is situated across the suburbs of Santacruz, Vile Parle and Sahar village in Andheri with the PIN code 400099. RAF Santacruz was set up in 1942 and it was a bigger airfield than Juhu and was home to several RAF squadrons during World War II from 1942 to 1947. The Airport covered an area of about 1,500 acres, one hangar was used as a domestic terminal and the other for international traffic. It had counters for customs and immigration checks on either side, Air India handled its passengers in its own terminal adjoining the two hangars. In its first year, it handled six civilian services a day, named after the neighbourhood in which it stood and initially under the aegis of the Public Works Department, the new airport was subsequently run by the Ministry of Civil Aviation. A major fire gutted the International section of the building on 21 September 1979. A temporary departure extension or Gulf Terminal was made functional in October that year until the terminal was repaired, with the dawning of the Jumbo Jet era in the 1970s, Santacruz, despite several extensions, began suffering from insufficient operational capacity. The Tata committee, set up in 1967 to examine the issues concerning the airport, had recommended the construction of a new terminal to meet the requirements of traffic in the seventies. The Santa Cruz terminal was to be used for domestic traffic alone, accordingly, construction of the new International terminal at Sahar to the north-east of Santacruz in Andheri was taken up at an estimated cost of ₹110 million. AAI had been considering the modernisation of Mumbai airport in 1996 although the AAI board approved a proposal only in 2003. By then, Mumbai and Delhi airports were handling 38% of the aircraft movement. At that time, Mumbai airport handled 13.3 million passengers, the airport faced severe congestion for both aircraft and passengers as it was handling twice as many aircraft movements per day than it was originally designed for
38.
Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport
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Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose International Airport is an international airport located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India, serving the Kolkata metropolitan area. It is located approximately 17 km from the city center, the airport was earlier known as Dum Dum Airport before being renamed after Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose, a prominent leader of the Indian independence movement. Spread over an area of 2,460 acres, Kolkata airport is the largest hub for air traffic in the part of the country. And one of two airports operating in West Bengal, the other one being in Bagdogra. The airport handled over 14.6 million passengers in 2016 making it the fifth busiest airport in India in terms of traffic after Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore. The Airport is a centre for flights to Northeast India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China. In 2014 &2015, Kolkata Airport won the titles of Best Improved Airport in the Asia-Pacific region by the Airport Council International, Kolkata airport traditionally served as a strategic stopover on the air route from Europe to Indochina and Australia. Many pioneering flights passed through the airport, including that of Amelia Earhart in 1937, the airport began as an open ground next to the Royal Artillery Armoury in Dum Dum. Sir Stanley Jackson, Governor of Bengal, opened the Bengal Flying Club at Calcutta aerodrome in February 1929, in 1930, the airfield was made fit for use throughout the year, and other airlines began to utilise the airport. Air Orient began scheduled stops as part of a Paris to Saigon route and this began a trend that drew many airlines to Calcutta airport. Calcutta played an important role in the Second World War, in 1942, the United States Army Air Forces 7th Bombardment Group flew B-24 Liberator bombers from the airport on combat missions over Burma. The airfield was used as an aerial port for the Air Transport Command. Passenger services grew after the Second World War, Calcutta became a destination for the world’s first jet-powered passenger aircraft, the de Havilland Comet, on a British Overseas Airways Corporation route to London. Furthermore, in 1964 Indian Airlines introduced the first Indian domestic jet service, due to the introduction of longer haul aircraft and the poor political climate of Calcutta during the 1960s, several airlines discontinued their service to the airport. The 1971 Bangladesh Liberation War saw an increase of both refugees and disease in Calcutta, causing more airlines to cease services to the city. In 1975, the airport opened the first dedicated cargo terminal in India, in the early 1980s, plans emerged to connect the airport with the city center by tram. The proposed route went to the airport from Maniktala, via Vivekananda Road, Ultadanga, the line partly completed 1985, but further expansion to the airport was cancelled due to the financial downing of Calcutta Tramways Company. The extension proposal re-appeared in 1999, but was cancelled, the 1990s saw new growth for Calcutta airport, as the Indian aviation industry saw the arrival of new airlines such as Jet Airways and Air Sahara
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India Post
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The Department of Posts, trading as India Post, is a government-operated postal system in India. Generally referred to within India as the post office, it is the most widely distributed system in the world. The postal service is under the Department of Posts, which is part of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology of the Government of India. As of 31 March 2015, the Indian Postal Service had 154,939 post offices and it had 25,560 departmental Post Offices and 129,379 Gramin Dak Sevak, Branch Post Offices. On average, a post office serves an area of 21.22 square kilometres, because of its reach and presence in remote areas, the Indian postal service is also involved in other services such as small-savings banking and financial services. The country has been divided into 22 postal circles, each headed by a Chief Postmaster General. Each circle is divided into regions, headed by a Postmaster General and these divisions are further divided into subdivisions. In addition to the 22 circles, there is a circle to provide postal services to the Armed Forces of India headed by a Director General. The highest post office in the world is in Hikkim, Himachal Pradesh operated by India Post at a height of 15,500 ft, the British Raj was instituted in 1858, when the rule of the East India Company was transferred to the Crown. By 1861, there were 889 post offices handling nearly 43 million letters, the first superintendent of the post office was appointed in 1870 and based in Allahabad and in 1876, British India became the first non-founding member of the General Postal Union. On 1 April 1882, Post Office Savings Banks opened throughout India, in Madras Presidency, it was limited, in the Bengal Presidency, no POSBs were established in Calcutta or Howrah. Telegraph Act,1885 The Indian Post Office Act 1898, passed by the legislature on 22 March 1898 and it was preceded by Act III of 1882 and Act XVI of 1896. The Indian Wireless Telegraphy Act 1933 The worlds first official flight took place in India on 18 February 1911. Henri Pequet, a French pilot, carried about 15 kilograms of mail across the Ganges from Allahabad to Naini, India Post inaugurated a floating post office in August 2011 at Dal Lake in Srinagar, Kashmir. Telegraphy and telephony made their appearance as part of the service before becoming separate departments. The Posts and Telegraphs Departments merged in 1914, dividing on 1 January 1985, since Indian independence in 1947, the postal service continues to function on a nationwide basis, providing a variety of services. The structure of the organization has the directorate at its apex, below it are circle offices, regional offices, in April 1959, the Indian Postal Department adopted the motto Service before Self, it revised its logo in September 2008. The first adhesive stamps in Asia were issued in the Indian district of Scinde in July 1852 by Bartle Frere
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