1.
Atlantic cod
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The Atlantic cod is a benthopelagic fish of the family Gadidae, widely consumed by humans. It is also known as cod or codling. Dry cod may be prepared as unsalted stockfish or as cured salt cod or clipfish, the largest individual on record was 6 feet long and weighed 211 lb, however usually the cod is between 24 inches and 4 feet long, and weighs 88 lb. There is generally no difference in weight or size between sexes of Atlantic Cod, Atlantic Cod can live for 25 years, and usually attains sexual maturity between ages two and four, although cod in the northeast Arctic can take as long as eight years to fully mature. Colouring is brown or green, with spots on the dorsal side, a stripe along its lateral line is clearly visible. Its habitat ranges from the shoreline down to the continental shelf, several cod stocks collapsed in the 1990s and have failed to recover even with the cessation of fishing. This absence of the predator has led to a trophic cascade in many areas. Many other cod stocks remain at risk, the Atlantic cod is labelled vulnerable on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Adult cod form squirting aggregations from late winter to spring, females release their eggs in batches, and males compete to fertilize them. Fertilized eggs drift with currents and develop into larvae. Age of maturation varies between cod stocks, from two to four in the west Atlantic, but as late as eight years in the northeast Arctic. Cod can live for 13 years or more, the Atlantic cod is one of three cod species in the genus Gadus along with Pacific cod and Greenland cod. A variety of species are colloquially known as cod, but they are not strictly classified within the Gadus genus, though some are in the Atlantic cod family. Atlantic cod are a species and move in large, size-structured aggregations. Larger fish act as scouts and lead the shoals direction, particularly during post spawning migrations inshore for feeding, Cod actively feed during migration and changes in shoal structure occur when food is encountered. Shoals are generally thought to be leaderless, with all fish having equal status. However, some studies suggest that leading fish gain certain feeding benefits, one study of a migrating Atlantic cod shoal showed significant variability in feeding habits based on size and position in the shoal. Larger scouts consumed a more variable, higher quantity of food, while trailing fish had less variable diets, Atlantic cod are apex predators in the Baltic and adults are generally free from the concerns of predation
2.
Predatory fish
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Predatory fish are fish that prey upon other fish or animals. Some predatory fish include perch, muskie, pike, walleye, levels of large predatory fish in the global oceans were estimated to be about 10% of their pre-industrial levels by 2003. Large predatory fish are most at risk of extinction, there was a level of large predatory fish extinctions during the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 million years ago. Creation of marine reserves has been found to restore populations of predatory fish such as the Serranidae — groupers. Predatory fish switch between types of prey in response to variations in their abundance, such changes in preference are disproportionate and are selected for as evolutionarily efficient. Predatory fish may become a pest if they are introduced into an ecosystem in which they become a new top predator, an example, which has caused much trouble in Maryland and Florida, is the snakehead fish. Predators are an important factor to consider in managing fisheries, and methods for doing so are available, feeding frenzy Scale eating Shark attack Shark feeding Predatory fish on AquaticCommunity. com Predator fish in oceans on alarming decline, experts say Washington Post,21 February 2011
3.
Billfish
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The term billfish refers to a group of predatory fish characterised by prominent bills, or rostra, and by their large size, some are longer than 4 m. Billfish include sailfish and marlin, which make up the family Istiophoridae and they are apex predators which feed on a wide variety of smaller fish, crustaceans, and cephalopods. Billfish are pelagic and highly migratory and they are found in all oceans, although they usually inhabit tropical and subtropical waters, swordfish are found in temperate waters, as well. Billfish use their long spears or sword-like upper beaks to slash at and their bills can also be used to spear prey, and have been known to spear boats, but they are not normally used in that way. They are highly valued as gamefish by sports fishermen, the term billfish refers to the fishes of the families Xiphiidae and Istiophoridae. These large fishes are characterized by the prolongation of the jaw, much beyond the lower jaw into a long rostrum which is flat and sword-like or rounded. The 12 species of true billfish are divided into two families and five genera, one family, Xiphiidae, contains only one species, the swordfish Xiphias gladius, and the other family, Istiophoridae contains 11 species in four genera, including marlin, spearfish, and sailfish. Controversy exists about whether the Indo-Pacific blue marlin, Makaira mazara, is the species as the Atlantic blue marlin. FishBase follows Nakamura in recognizing M. mazara as a distinct species, a number of other fishes have pronounced bills or beaks, and are sometimes referred to as billfish. However, they are not true billfish, halfbeaks look somewhat like miniature billfish, and the sawfish and sawshark, which are cartilaginous fishes with spectacular rostrums shaped like a chain saw. Paddlefish have elongated rostrums containing electroreceptors that can detect weak electrical fields, paddlefish are filter feeders and may use their rostrum to detect zooplankton. Billfish have a long, bony, spear-shaped bill, sometimes called a snout, the swordfish has the longest bill, about one-third its body length. Like a true sword, it is smooth, flat, pointed, the bills of other billfish are shorter and rounder, more like spears. Billfish normally use their bills to slash at schooling fish and they swim through the fish school at high speed, slashing left and right, and then circle back to eat the fish they stunned. Adult swordfish have no teeth, and other billfish have only small file-like teeth and they swallow their catch whole, head-first. Billfish dont normally spear with their bills, though occasionally a marlin will flip a fish into the air, given the speed and power of these fish, when they do spear things the results can be dramatic. Predators of billfish, such as white and mako sharks, have been found with billfish spears embedded in them. Pelagic fish generally are fascinated by floating objects, and congregate about them, Billfish can accidentally impale boats and other floating objects when they pursue the small fish that aggregate around them
4.
Bonito
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Bonitos are a tribe of medium-sized, ray-finned predatory fish in the family Scombridae – a family it shares with the mackerel, tuna, and Spanish mackerel tribes, and also the butterfly kingfish. Also called the Sardini tribe, it consists of eight species across four genera, bonito is an adjective that means pretty applied to males or masculine objects both in Portuguese and Spanish, but it is unclear whether the name of the fish is related to this. However, it is said to be derived of the Italian buono, the bonito has a moderate fat content. Bonito may not be marketed as tuna in all countries, however, the Atlantic bonito is also found in the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, where it is a popular food fish, eaten grilled, pickled, or baked. Other fish sometimes called bonito include skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis Sardini
5.
Mackerel
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Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of pelagic fish, mostly, but not exclusively, from the family Scombridae. They are found in temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment. Mackerel typically have stripes on their backs and deeply forked tails. Many species are restricted in their ranges, and live in separate populations or fish stocks based on geography. Some stocks migrate in schools along the coast to suitable spawning grounds. After spawning they return the way they came, in smaller schools, from there they may move offshore into deeper waters and spend the winter in relative inactivity. Smaller mackerel are forage fish for larger predators, including larger mackerel, flocks of seabirds, as well as whales, dolphins, sharks and schools of larger fish such as tuna and marlin follow mackerel schools and attack them in sophisticated and cooperative ways. Mackerel is high in oils and is intensively harvested by humans. In 2009, over five tons were landed by commercial fishermen. Sport fishermen value the fighting abilities of the king mackerel, over thirty different species, principally belonging to the family Scombridae, are commonly referred to as mackerel. The term mackerel means marked or spotted, the term mackerel derives from the Old French maquerel, c.1300, meaning a pimp or procurer. The connection is not altogether clear, but mackerel spawn enthusiastically in shoals near the coast, about 21 species in the family Scombridae are commonly called mackerel. The type species for the mackerel is the Atlantic mackerel. Until recently, it was thought that Atlantic chub mackerel and Indo-Pacific chub mackerel were subspecies of the same species, in 1999 Collette established, on molecular and morphological considerations, that these are separate species. Mackerel are smaller with shorter life cycles than their relatives, the tuna. The true mackerels belong to the tribe Scombrini, the tribe consists of seven species, each belonging to one of two genera, Scomber and Rastrelliger. The Spanish mackerels belong to the tribe Scomberomorini, which is the tribe of the true mackerels. This tribe consists of 21 species in all—18 of those are classified into the genus Scomberomorus, in addition, a number of species with mackerel-like characteristics in the families Carangidae, Hexagrammidae and Gempylidae are commonly referred to as mackerel
6.
Salmon
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Salmon /ˈsæmən/ is the common name for several species of ray-finned fish in the family Salmonidae. Other fish in the family include trout, char, grayling. Salmon are native to tributaries of the North Atlantic and Pacific Ocean, many species of salmon have been introduced into non-native environments such as the Great Lakes of North America and Patagonia in South America. Salmon are intensively farmed in parts of the world. Typically, salmon are anadromous, they are born in water, migrate to the ocean. However, populations of species are restricted to fresh water through their lives. Various species of salmon display anadromous life strategies while others display freshwater resident life strategies, folklore has it that the fish return to the exact spot where they were born to spawn, tracking studies have shown this to be mostly true. A portion of a salmon run may stray and spawn in different freshwater systems. The percent of straying depends on the species of salmon, homing behavior has been shown to depend on olfactory memory. The term salmon comes from the Latin salmo, which in turn may have originated from salire, the nine commercially important species of salmon occur in two genera. The genus Salmo contains the Atlantic salmon, found in the north Atlantic, the genus Oncorhynchus contains eight species which occur naturally only in the North Pacific. As a group, these are known as Pacific salmon, Chinook salmon have been introduced in New Zealand and Patagonia. Coho, freshwater sockeye, and Atlantic salmon have established in Patagonia. † Both the Salmo and Oncorhynchus genera also contain a number of species referred to as trout, within Salmo, additional minor taxa have been called salmon in English, i. e. the Adriatic salmon and Black Sea salmon. The steelhead anadromous form of the rainbow trout migrates to sea, also a number of other species have common names which refer to them as being salmon. The British Columbia salmon fossil provides evidence that the divergence between Pacific and Atlantic salmon had not yet occurred 40 million years ago, Both the fossil record and analysis of mitochondrial DNA suggest the divergence occurred by 10 to 20 million years ago. This independent evidence from DNA analysis and the fossil record rejects the theory of salmon divergence. Atlantic salmon reproduce in northern rivers on both coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, landlocked salmon live in a number of lakes in eastern North America and in Northern Europe, for instance in lakes Sebago, Onega, Ladoga, Saimaa, Vänern, and Winnipesaukee
7.
Shark
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Sharks are a group of elasmobranch fish characterized by a cartilaginous skeleton, five to seven gill slits on the sides of the head, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the clade Selachimorpha and are the group to the rays. Under this broader definition, the earliest known sharks date back to more than 420 million years ago, acanthodians are often referred to as spiny sharks, though they are not part of Chondrichthyes proper, they are a paraphyletic assemblage leading to cartilaginous fish as a whole. Since then, sharks have diversified into over 500 species, Sharks are found in all seas and are common to depths of 2,000 metres. They generally do not live in freshwater although there are a few exceptions, such as the bull shark and the river shark. Sharks have a covering of dermal denticles that protects their skin from damage and they have numerous sets of replaceable teeth. Well-known species such as the white shark, tiger shark, blue shark, mako shark. Many shark populations are threatened by human activities, until the 16th century, sharks were known to mariners as sea dogs. The etymology of the shark is uncertain. One theory is that it derives from the Yucatec Maya word xok, however, the Middle English Dictionary records an isolated occurrence of the word shark in a letter written by Thomas Beckington in 1442, which rules out a New World etymology. Evidence for the existence of sharks dates from the Ordovician period, 450–420 million years ago, before land vertebrates existed and before many plants had colonized the continents. Only scales have been recovered from the first sharks and not all agree that these are from true sharks. The oldest generally accepted shark scales are from about 420 million years ago, the first sharks looked very different from modern sharks. The majority of sharks can be traced back to around 100 million years ago. Most fossils are of teeth, often in large numbers, partial skeletons and even complete fossilized remains have been discovered. Estimates suggest that sharks grow tens of thousands of teeth over a lifetime, the teeth consist of easily fossilized calcium phosphate, an apatite. When a shark dies, the decomposing skeleton breaks up, scattering the apatite prisms, preservation requires rapid burial in bottom sediments. Among the most ancient and primitive sharks is Cladoselache, from about 370 million years ago, which has been found within Paleozoic strata in Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee
8.
Tuna
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A tuna is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a sub-grouping of the mackerel family – which together with the tunas, also includes the bonitos, mackerels, and Spanish mackerels. Thunnini comprises fifteen species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, the bluefin averages 2 m, and is believed to live for up to 50 years. Tuna and mackerel sharks are the species of fish that can maintain a body temperature higher than that of the surrounding water. An active and agile predator, the tuna has a sleek, streamlined body, found in warm seas, it is extensively fished commercially, and is popular as a game fish. As a result of over-fishing, stocks of tuna species such as the southern bluefin tuna have been reduced dangerously close to the point of extinction. The term tuna ultimately derives from Thunnus, the Middle Latin form of the Ancient Greek, θύννος tunny-fish – which is in turn derived from θύνω, rush, the following cladogram illustrates the relationship between the tunas and other tribes of the family Scombridae. The true tunas are those that belong to the genus Thunnus, until recently, it was thought that there were seven Thunnus species, and that Atlantic bluefin tuna and Pacific bluefin tuna were subspecies of a single species. In 1999, Collette established that based on molecular and morphological considerations, they are in fact distinct species. The genus Thunnus is further classified into two subgenera, Thunnus, and Thunnus, the Thunnini tribe also includes seven additional species of tuna across four genera. They are, The tuna is a sleek and streamlined fish and it has two closely spaced dorsal fins on its back, The first is depressible – it can be laid down, flush, in a groove that runs along its back. Seven to ten yellow finlets run from the fins to the tail. The caudal peduncle, to which the tail is attached, is quite thin, the tunas dorsal side is generally a metallic dark blue, while the ventral side, or underside, is silvery or whitish, for camouflage. Thunnus are widely but sparsely distributed throughout the oceans of the world, generally in tropical, all tunas are able to maintain the temperature of certain parts of their body above the temperature of ambient seawater. For example, bluefin can maintain a body temperature of 25–33 °C. However, unlike typical endothermic creatures such as mammals and birds, tunas achieve endothermy by conserving the heat generated through normal metabolism. In all tunas, the heart operates at ambient temperature, as it receives cooled blood, also unlike most fish, which have white flesh, the muscle tissue of tuna ranges from pink to dark red. The red myotomal muscles derive their color from myoglobin, an oxygen-binding molecule, the oxygen-rich blood further enables energy delivery to their muscles. For powerful swimming animals like dolphins and tuna, cavitation may be detrimental, even if they have the power to swim faster, dolphins may have to restrict their speed, because collapsing cavitation bubbles on their tail are too painful
9.
Forage fish
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Forage fish, also called prey fish or bait fish, are small pelagic fish which are preyed on by larger predators for food. Predators include other fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Typical ocean forage fish feed near the base of the chain on plankton. They include particularly fishes of the family Clupeidae, but also small fish, including halfbeaks, silversides, smelt such as capelin. Forage fish compensate for their size by forming schools. Some swim in synchronised grids with their mouths open so they can efficiently filter plankton and these schools can become immense shoals which move along coastlines and migrate across open oceans. The shoals are concentrated fuel resources for the marine predators. The ocean primary producers, mainly contained in plankton, produce energy from the sun and are the raw fuel for the ocean food webs. Forage fish transfer this energy by eating the plankton and becoming food themselves for the top predators, in this way, forage fish occupy the central positions in ocean and lake food webs. The fishing industry catches forage fish primarily for feeding to farmed animals, some fisheries scientists are expressing concern that this will affect the populations of predator fish that depend on them. Herrings are a preeminent forage fish, often marketed as sardines or pilchards, the term “forage fish” is a term used in fisheries, and is applied also to forage species that are not true fish, but play a significant role as prey for predators. Thus invertebrates such as squid and shrimp are also referred to as forage fish, even the tiny shrimp-like creatures called krill, small enough to be eaten by other forage fish, yet large enough to eat the same zooplankton as forage fish, are often classified as forage fish. Forage fish utilise the biomass of copepods, mysids and krill in the zone to become the dominant converters of the enormous ocean production of zooplankton. They are, in turn, central prey items for higher trophic levels, Forage fish may have achieved their dominance because of the way they live in huge, and often extremely fast cruising schools. Though forage fish are abundant, there are few species. There are more species of primary producers and apex predators in the ocean there are forage fish. Forage fish occupy central positions in the food webs. The position that a fish occupies in a web is called its trophic level
10.
Anchovy
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An anchovy is a small, common salt-water forage fish of the family Engraulidae. The 144 species are placed in 17 genera, they are found in the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, and in the Black Sea, Anchovies are usually classified as oily fish. Anchovies are small, green fish with blue reflections due to a longitudinal stripe that runs from the base of the caudal fin. They range from 2 to 40 cm in length. The snout is blunt with tiny, sharp teeth in both jaws, the snout contains a unique rostral organ, believed to be sensory in nature, although its exact function is unknown. The mouth is larger than that of herrings and silversides, two fish which anchovies closely resemble in other respects, the anchovy eats plankton and recently hatched fish. Anchovies are found in scattered areas throughout the oceans, but are concentrated in temperate waters. They are generally accepting of a wide range of temperatures. Large schools can be found in shallow, brackish areas with muddy bottoms, as in estuaries and they are abundant in the Mediterranean, particularly in the Alboran Sea, Aegean Sea and the Black Sea. The species is caught along the coasts of Crete, Greece, Sicily, Italy, France, Turkey. They are also found on the coast of northern Africa, the range of the species also extends along the Atlantic coast of Europe to the south of Norway. Spawning occurs between October and March, but not in water colder than 12 °C, the anchovy appears to spawn at least 100 km from the shore, near the surface of the water. The anchovy is a significant food source for almost every predatory fish in its environment, including the California halibut, rock fish, yellowtail, shark, chinook, and coho salmon. It is also important to marine mammals and birds, for example, breeding success of California brown pelicans. Anchovies, like most clupeoids, are filter-feeders that open their mouths as they swim, as water passes through the mouth and out the gills, food particles are sieved by gill rakers and transferred into the esophagus. * Type species On average, the Turkish commercial fishing fleet catches around 300,000 tons per year, the largest catch is in November and December. The Peruvian anchovy fishery is one of the largest in the world, in 1973 it collapsed catastrophically due to the combined effects of overfishing and El Niño and did not recover fully for two decades. A traditional method of processing and preserving anchovies is to gut and salt them in brine, allow them to mature and this results in a characteristic strong flavor and the flesh turns deep grey
11.
Herring
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Herring are forage fish, mostly belonging to the family Clupeidae. Herring often move in schools around fishing banks and near the coast. Three species of Clupea are recognised, and provide about 90% of all captured in fisheries. Most abundant of all is the Atlantic herring, providing half of all herring capture. Fishes called herring are found in India, in the Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean. Herring played a role in the history of marine fisheries in Europe. These oily fish also have a history as an important food fish. A number of different species, most belonging to the family Clupeidae, are referred to as herrings. The origins of the herring is somewhat unclear, though it may derive from the Old High German heri meaning a host, multitude. The type genus of the herring family Clupeidae is Clupea, Clupea contains three species, the Atlantic herring found in the north Atlantic, the Pacific herring found in the north Pacific, and the Araucanian herring found off the coast of Chile. Subspecific divisions have been suggested for both the Atlantic and Pacific herrings, but their biological basis remain unclear, in addition, a number of related species, all in the family Clupeidae, are commonly referred to as herrings. The table immediately below includes those members of the Clupeidae family referred to by FishBase as herrings which have been assessed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. There are also a number of other species called herrings, which may be related to clupeids or just share some characteristics of herrings. Just which of these species are called herrings can vary with locality, some examples, The species of Clupea belong to the larger family Clupeidae, which comprises some 200 species that share similar features. These silvery-coloured fish have a dorsal fin, which is soft. They have no lateral line and have a lower jaw. At least one stock of Atlantic herring spawns in every month of the year, each spawns at a different time and place. Greenland populations spawn in 0–5 metres of water while North Sea herrings spawn at up to 200 metres in autumn
12.
Menhaden
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Menhaden, also known as mossbunker and bunker, are forage fish of the genera Brevoortia and Ethmidium, two genera of marine fish in the family Clupeidae. Menhaden is a blend of poghaden and an Algonquian word akin to Narragansett munnawhatteaûg, derived from munnohquohteau ‘he fertilizes’ and it is generally thought that Pilgrims were advised by Tisquantum to plant menhaden with their crops. Menhaden are flat, have soft flesh, and a forked tail. They rarely exceed 15 inches in length, and have a weight range. Gulf menhaden and Atlantic menhaden are small oily-fleshed fish, bright silver and they tend to have larger scales than Yellowfin menhaden and Finescale menhaden. In addition, Yellowfin menhaden tail rays are a yellow in contrast to those of the Atlantic menhaden. Recent taxonomic work using DNA comparisons have organized the North American menhadens into large-scaled and small-scaled designations, Menhaden have two main sources of food, phytoplankton and zooplankton. A menhaden’s diet varies considerably over the course of its lifetime, the smallest menhaden, typically those under one year old, eat primarily phytoplankton. After that age, adult menhaden gradually shift to a diet comprised almost exclusively of zooplankton, Menhaden are omnivorous filter feeders, feeding by straining plankton and algae from water. Along with oysters, which water on the sea bed, menhaden play a key role in the food chain in estuaries. Atlantic menhaden are an important link between plankton and upper level predators, because of their filter feeding abilities, menhaden consume and redistribute a significant amount of energy within and between Chesapeake Bay and other estuaries, and the coastal ocean. Because they play this role, and their abundance, menhaden are a prey species for many predatory fish, such as striped bass, bluefish, mackerel, flounder, tuna, drums. They are also an important food source for many birds, including egrets, ospreys, seagulls, northern gannets, pelicans. In 2012 the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission declared that the Atlantic menhaden was depleted due to overfishing, the decision was driven by issues with water quality in the Chesapeake Bay and failing efforts to re-introduce predator species, due to lack of menhaden on which they could feed. Menhaden are not used directly for food and they are processed into fish oil and fish meal that are used as food ingredients, animal feed, and dietary supplements. It has a high fat content. Fish oil made from menhaden also is used as a raw material for such as lipstick. According to James Kirkley of the Virginia Institute of Marine Science, the first is known as a reduction fishery
13.
Sardine
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Sardine and pilchard are common names used to refer to various small, oily fish within the herring family of Clupeidae. The term sardine was first used in English during the early 15th century and may come from the Mediterranean island of Sardinia, the terms sardine and pilchard are not precise, and what is meant depends on the region. The United Kingdoms Sea Fish Industry Authority, for example, classifies sardines as young pilchards, one criterion suggests fish shorter in length than 15 cm are sardines, and larger fish are pilchards. Typically, sardines are caught with encircling nets, particularly purse seines, many modifications of encircling nets are used, including traps or weirs. The latter are stationary enclosures composed of stakes into which schools of sardines are diverted as they swim along the coast, the fish are caught mainly at night, when they approach the surface to feed on plankton. After harvesting, the fish are submerged in brine while they are transported to shore, sardines are commercially fished for a variety of uses, for bait, for immediate consumption, for drying, salting, or smoking, and for reduction into fish meal or oil. The chief use of sardines is for consumption, but fish meal is used as animal feed, while sardine oil has many uses, including the manufacture of paint, varnish. Sardines are commonly consumed by human beings, fresh sardines are often grilled, pickled or smoked, or preserved in cans. Sardines are rich in vitamins and minerals, a small serving of sardines once a day can provide 13 percent of vitamin B2, roughly one-quarter of niacin, and about 150 percent of the recommended daily value of vitamin B12. All B vitamins help to support proper nervous system function and are used for energy metabolism, also, sardines are high in the major minerals such as phosphorus, calcium, potassium, and some trace minerals including iron and selenium. Sardines are also a source of marine omega-3 fatty acids. Recent studies suggest that consumption of omega-3 fatty acids reduces the likelihood of developing Alzheimers disease. These fatty acids can also lower blood sugar levels and they are also a good source of vitamin D, calcium, vitamin B12, and protein. Because they are low in the chain, sardines are very low in contaminants such as mercury. Pilchard fishing and processing became an industry in Cornwall from around 1750 to around 1880. Catches varied from year to year and, in 1871 the catch was 47,000 hogsheads while in 1877 only 9,477 hogsheads, a hogshead contained 2,300 to 4,000 pilchards and, when filled with pressed pilchards, weighed 476 lbs. The pilchards were exported to Roman Catholic countries such as Italy. The chief market for the oil was Bristol where it is used on machinery, as of 2007, however, stocks are improving
14.
Alosinae
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The Alosinae, or the shads, are a subfamily of fishes in the herring family Clupeidae. The subfamily comprises seven genera worldwide, and about 30 species, the shads are pelagic schooling fish, of which many are anadromous or even landlocked. Several species are of importance, e. g. in the genus Alosa, Brevoortia. The Shad Foundation Shad Planking, a Virginia political gathering featuring the consumption of shad
15.
Sprat
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A sprat is the common name applied to a group of forage fish belonging to the genus Sprattus in the family Clupeidae. The term is applied to a number of other small sprat-like forage fish. Like most forage fishes, sprats are highly active small oily fish and they travel in large schools with other fish and swim continuously throughout the day. They are also recognized for their value as they contain high levels of polyunsaturated fats. Sprats are sometimes passed for other fish, products sold as having been prepared from anchovies and sardines are sometimes prepared from sprats and they are known for their smooth flavour and are easy to mistake for baby sardines. True sprats belong to the genus Sprattus in the family Clupeidae, * Type species The term is also commonly applied to a number of other small sprat-like forage fish which share characteristics of the true sprat. Apart from the true sprats, FishBase list another 48 species whose common names ends with sprat, the development of young larval sprat and reproductive success of the sprat have been largely influenced by environmental factors. Some of these factors that are affecting the sprat can be seen in the Baltic Sea, where specific gravity, water temperature, depth, and other such factors play a role in the success of the sprat. The amount of sprat over the last two decades has fluctuated due primarily to availability of zooplankton, a food source. Although the overall survival rates of the sprat decreased in the late 1980s and early 1990s, recent studies suggesting that there is a progression in the reproductive success of the sprat acknowledge that there has been a significant increase in spawning stock biomass. The metabolic rate of the sprat is highly influenced by factors such as water temperature. Several related fish such as the Atlantic Herring have a lower metabolic rate than that of the sprat. Fish of the different species of sprat are found in parts of the world including New Zealand, Australia. By far, the most highly studied location where the sprat, most commonly Sprattus sprattus, resides is the Baltic Sea, the Baltic Sea provides the sprat with a highly diverse environment, with spatial and temporal potential allowing for successful reproduction. One of the most well-known locations in the Baltic Sea where they forage for their food is the Bornholm Basin, although the Baltic Sea has undergone several ecological changes during the last two decades, the sprat has dramatically increased in population. In the Baltic Sea, cod, herring, and sprat are considered the most important species, cod is the top predator while the herring and sprat are recognized primarily as prey. This has been proven by many studies that analyze the contents of such fish. Although cod primarily feed on adult sprat, sprat tend to feed on cod before they have fully developed
16.
Demersal fish
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Demersal fish live and feed on or near the bottom of seas or lakes. They occupy the sea floors and lake beds, which usually consist of mud, sand, in coastal waters they are found on or near the continental shelf, and in deep waters they are found on or near the continental slope or along the continental rise. They are not generally found in the deepest waters, such as abyssal depths or on the abyssal plain, the word demersal comes from the Latin demergere, which means to sink. They can be contrasted with fish which live and feed away from the bottom in the open water column. Demersal fish fillets contain little fish oil, whereas pelagic fish can contain up to 30 percent. Demersal fish can be divided into two types, strictly benthic fish which can rest on the sea floor, and benthopelagic fish which can float in the water column just above the sea floor. As with other bottom feeders, a mechanism to deal with substrate is often necessary, with demersal fish the sand is usually pumped out of the mouth through the gill slit. Most demersal fish exhibit a ventral region so as to more easily rest their body on the substrate. The exception may be the flatfish, which are laterally depressed, also, many exhibit what is termed an inferior mouth, which means that the mouth is pointed downwards, this is beneficial as their food is often going to be below them in the substrate. Those bottom feeders with upward-pointing mouths, such as stargazers, tend to seize swimming prey, benthic fish, sometimes called groundfish, are denser than water, so they can rest on the sea floor. They either lie-and-wait as ambush predators, maybe covering themselves with sand or otherwise camouflaging themselves, benthic fish which can bury themselves include dragonets, flatfish and stingrays. Flatfish are an order of ray-finned benthic fishes which lie flat on the ocean floor, examples are flounder, sole, turbot, plaice, and halibut. The adult fish of many species have eyes on one side of the head. When the fish hatches, one eye is located on side of its head. But as the fish grows from the stage, one eye migrates to the other side of the body as a process of metamorphosis. The flatfish then changes its habits, and camouflages itself by lying on the bottom of the floor with both eyes facing upwards. The side on which the eye migrates depends on the species, flounder ambush their prey, feeding at soft muddy area of the sea bottom, near bridge piles, docks, artificial and coral reefs. Their diet consists mainly of fish spawn, crustaceans, polychaetes, the great hammerhead swings its head in broad angles over the sea floor to pick up the electrical signatures of stingrays buried in the sand
17.
Cod
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Cod is the common name for the genus Gadus of demersal fishes, belonging to the family Gadidae. Cod is also used as part of the name for a number of other fish species. Gadus morhua was named by Linnaeus in 1758, Cod is popular as a food with a mild flavour and a dense, flaky, white flesh. Cod livers are processed to make cod liver oil, an important source of vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, young Atlantic cod or haddock prepared in strips for cooking is called scrod. In the United Kingdom, Atlantic cod is one of the most common ingredients in fish and chips, along with haddock, at various times in the past, taxonomists included many species in the genus Gadus. Most of these are now classified in other genera, or have been recognized as simply forms of one of three species. All these species have a number of names, most of them ending with the word cod, whereas other species. However, many other, unrelated species also have names ending with cod. The usage often changes with different localities and at different times, three species in the Gadus genus are currently called cod, Cod forms part of the common name of many other fish no longer classified in the genus Gadus. The tadpole cod family has now placed in Gadidae. Gadiformes include, Some fish have common names derived from cod, such as codling, Some fish commonly known as cod are unrelated to Gadus. Part of this confusion is market-driven. Severely shrunken Atlantic cod stocks have led to the marketing of cod replacements using culinary names of the form x cod, the common names for the following species have become well established, note that all inhabit the Southern Hemisphere. Most are better known as groupers, and belong to the family Serranidae, Some fish that do not have cod in their names are sometimes sold as cod. Haddock and whiting belong to the family, the Gadidae. Haddock Melanogrammus aeglefinus Whiting Merlangius merlangus Cods of the genus Gadus have three rounded dorsal and two anal fins, the pelvic fins are small, with the first ray extended, and are set under the gill cover, in front of the pectoral fins. The upper jaw extends over the jaw, which has a well-developed chin barbel. The eyes are medium-sized, approximately the same as the length of the chin barbel, Cod have a distinct white lateral line running from the gill slit above the pectoral fin, to the base of the caudal or tail fin
18.
Eel
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An eel is any fish belonging to the order Anguilliformes, which consists of four suborders,20 families,111 genera and about 800 species. The term eel is used for some other similarly shaped fish, such as electric eels and spiny eels. Eels are elongated fish, ranging in length from 5 cm in the eel to 4 m in the slender giant moray. Adults range in weight from 30 g to well over 25 kg and they possess no pelvic fins, and many species also lack pectoral fins. The dorsal and anal fins are fused with the caudal fin, eels swim by generating body waves which travel the length of their bodies. They can swim backwards by reversing the direction of the wave, most eels live in the shallow waters of the ocean and burrow into sand, mud, or amongst rocks. A majority of eel species are nocturnal, thus are rarely seen, sometimes, they are seen living together in holes, or eel pits. Some species of eels live in deeper water on the continental shelves. Only members of the Anguilla regularly inhabit fresh water, but they, too, the heaviest true eel is the European conger. The maximum size of species has been reported as reaching a length of 3 m. Other eels are longer, but do not weigh as much, such as the giant moray which reaches 4 m. Eels begin life as flat and transparent larvae, called leptocephali, Eel larvae drift in the surface waters of the sea, feeding on marine snow, small particles that float in the water. Eel larvae then metamorphose into glass eels and then become elvers before finally seeking out their juvenile, freshwater elvers travel upstream and are forced to climb up obstructions, such as weirs, dam walls, and natural waterfalls. Lady Colin Campbell found, at Ballisodare, the eel fisheries were greatly improved by the hanging of loosely plaited grass ladders over barriers and this classification follows FishBase in dividing the eels into 20 families. Additional families included in other classifications are noted below the family with which they are synomized in the Fish Base system, identifying the origin of the freshwater species has been problematic. Genomic studies indicate they are a group which originated among the deep-sea eels. The electric eel of South America is not a true eel, freshwater eels and marine eels are commonly used in Japanese cuisine, foods such as unadon and unajū are popular, but expensive. Eels are also popular in Chinese cuisine, and are prepared in many different ways
19.
Flatfish
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A flatfish is a member of the order Pleuronectiformes of ray-finned demersal fishes, also called the Heterosomata, sometimes classified as a suborder of Perciformes. In many species, both lie on one side of the head, one or the other migrating through. Some species face their left sides upward, some face their right sides upward, many important food fish are in this order, including the flounders, soles, turbot, plaice, and halibut. Some flatfish can camouflage themselves on the ocean floor. Over 700 species are in the 11 families, the largest families are Bothidae, Cynoglossidae, Paralichthyidae, Pleuronectidae, and Soleidae, with more than 100 species each. Some families are the results of relatively recent splits, for example, the Achiridae were classified as a subfamily of Soleidae in the past, and the Samaridae were considered a subfamily of the Pleuronectidae. The Pleuronectidae may be split further still, as some authorities elevate Paralichthodinae, Poecilopsettinae, the taxonomy of some groups is in need of a review, as the last monograph covering the entire order was John Roxborough Normans Monograph of the Flatfishes published in 1934. New species are described with some regularity and undescribed species likely remain, hybrids are well known in flatfishes. The Pleuronectidae, of fishes, have the largest number of reported hybrids. Two of the most famous intergeneric hybrids are between the European plaice and European flounder in the Baltic Sea, and between the English sole and starry flounder in Puget Sound. The offspring of the species pair is popularly known as the hybrid sole and was initially believed to be a valid species in its own right. Flatfishes are found in worldwide, ranging from the Arctic, through the tropics. Most species are found in depths between 0 and 500 m, but a few have been recorded from depths in excess of 1,500 m, none have been confirmed from the abyssal or hadal zones. Among the deepwater species, Symphurus thermophilus lives in congregating around ponds of sulphur at hydrothermal vents on the seafloor, no other flatfish is known from hydrothermal vents. Many species will enter brackish or fresh water, and a number of soles. The most obvious characteristic of the flatfish is its asymmetry, with both eyes lying on the side of the head in the adult fish. In some families, the eyes are usually on the side of the body. The primitive spiny turbots include equal numbers of right- and left-sided individuals, other distinguishing features of the order are the presence of protrusible eyes, another adaptation to living on the seabed, and the extension of the dorsal fin onto the head
20.
Pollock
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Pollock is the common name used for either of the two species of North Atlantic marine fish in the genus Pollachius. Pollachius pollachius is referred to as pollock in both North America and the United Kingdom, while Pollachius virens today is known as coley in the British Isles. Other names for P. pollachius include the Atlantic pollock, European pollock, lieu jaune, the currently recognized species in this genus are, P. pollachius P. virens Both species can grow to 105 centimetres and can weigh up to 21 kilograms. P. virens has a defined, silvery lateral line running down the sides. Above the lateral line, the color is a greenish black, the belly is white, while P. pollachius has a distinctly crooked lateral line, grayish to golden belly, and a dark brown back. P. pollachius also has a strong underbite and it can be found in water up to 180 metres deep over rocks, and anywhere in the water column. One member of the genus Gadus is also referred to as Pollock. While related to the above pollock species, they are not members of the genus Pollachius, Alaska pollock generally spawn in late winter and early spring in the southeastern Bering Sea. The Alaska pollock is a significant part of the fishery in the Gulf of Alaska. Atlantic pollock is considered to be a whitefish, although it is a fairly strongly flavored one. Traditionally a popular source of food in countries, such as Norway, in the United Kingdom it has previously been largely consumed as a cheaper and versatile alternative to cod. However, in recent years, pollock has become popular due to overfishing of cod. It can now be found in most supermarkets as fresh fillets or prepared freezer items, for example, it is used minced in fish fingers or as an ingredient in imitation crab meat. Because of its gray color, pollock is often prepared, as in Norway, as fried fish balls, or if juvenile sized, breaded with oatmeal and fried. Year-old fish are split, salted, and dried over a peat hearth in Orkney. The fish can also be salted and smoked and achieve a salmon-like orange color, as is the case in Germany, in Korea, pollock may be repeatedly frozen and defrosted to create hwangtae, half-dried to create ko-da-ri, or fully dried and eaten as book-o. In 2009, U. K. supermarket Sainsburys briefly renamed pollock colin in a bid to boost ecofriendly sales of the fish as an alternative to cod. Sainsburys, which said the new name was derived from the French for cooked pollock, launched the product under the banner Colin, froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds
21.
Batoidea
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Batoidea is a superorder of cartilaginous fish commonly known as rays. They and their relatives, the sharks, comprise the subclass Elasmobranchii. Rays are the largest group of fishes, with well over 600 species in 26 families. Rays are distinguished by their bodies, enlarged pectoral fins that are fused to the head. Batoids are flat-bodied, and, like sharks, are marine fish, meaning they have a boneless skeleton made of a tough. Most batoids have five ventral slot-like body openings called gill slits that lead from the gills, batoid gill slits lie under the pectoral fins on the underside, whereas a sharks are on the sides of the head. Most batoids have a flat, disk-like body, with the exception of the guitarfishes and sawfishes, many species of batoid have developed their pectoral fins into broad flat wing-like appendages. The eyes and spiracles are located on top of the head, Batoids have a ventrally located mouth and can considerably protrude their upper jaw away from the cranium to capture prey. The jaws have euhyostylic type suspension, which relies completely on the hyomandibular cartilages for support, bottom-dwelling batoids breathe by taking water in through the spiracles, rather than through the mouth as most fishes do, and passing it outward through the gills. Batoids reproduce in a number of ways, as is characteristic of elasmobranchs, batoids undergo internal fertilisation. All skates and some rays are oviparous while other rays are ovoviviparous, meaning that they give birth to young which develop in a womb but without involvement of a placenta. The eggs of oviparous skates are laid in egg cases that are commonly known as mermaids purses. Most species live on the sea floor, in a variety of geographical regions — mainly in coastal waters, most batoids have a cosmopolitan distribution, preferring tropical and subtropical marine environments, although there are temperate and cold-water species. Only a few species, like manta rays, live in the open sea, most batoids have developed heavy, rounded teeth for crushing the shells of bottom-dwelling species such as snails, clams, oysters, crustaceans, and some fish, depending on the species. The classification of batoids is currently undergoing revision, however, molecular evidence refutes the hypothesis that skates, nelsons 2006 Fishes of the World recognizes four orders. The Mesozoic Sclerorhynchoidea are basal or incertae sedis, they show features of the Rajiformes but have snouts resembling those of sawfishes, Rays are basically flattened sharks, adapted for feeding on the bottom. Guitarfish are somewhat between sharks and rays, and show characteristics of both, list of threatened rays Shark references. Database of bibliography of living/fossil sharks and rays with more than 15.000 listed papers, martin, R Aidan, Batoids, Sawfishes, Guitarfishes, Electric Rays, Skates, and Sting Rays, Elasmo research, ReefQuest Centre for Shark Research
22.
Carp
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Carp are various species of oily freshwater fish from the family Cyprinidae, a very large group of fish native to Europe and Asia. The cypriniformes are traditionally grouped with the Characiformes, Siluriformes, and Gymnotiformes to create the superorder Ostariophysi, the third anterior-most pair of ribs is in contact with the extension of the labyrinth and the posterior with the swim bladder. Most cypriniformes have scales and teeth on the pharyngeal bones which may be modified in relation to the diet. Tribolodon is the only cyprinid genus which tolerates salt water, several species move into brackish water but return to fresh water to spawn. All of the other cypriniformes live in waters and have a wide geographical range. Some consider all cyprinid fishes carp, and the family Cyprinidae itself is known as the carp family. Carp have long been an important food fish to humans, several species such as the various goldfish breeds and the domesticated common carp variety known as koi have been popular ornamental fishes. As a result, carp have been introduced to various locations, several species of carp are listed as invasive species by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, and, worldwide, large sums of money are spent on carp control. At least some species of carp are able to survive for months with no oxygen by metabolizing glycogen to form ethanol. Carp are variable in terms of angling value, in Europe, even when not fished for food, they are eagerly sought by anglers, being considered highly prized coarse fish that are difficult to hook. The UK has a thriving carp angling market, in the United States, carp are also classified as a rough fish, as well as damaging to naturalized exotic species, but with sporting qualities. Many states departments of natural resources are beginning to view the carp as a fish instead of a maligned pest. Various species of carp have been domesticated and reared as food fish across Europe and these various species appear to have been domesticated independently, as the various domesticated carp species are native to different parts of Eurasia. Aquaculture has been pursued in China for at least 2,400 years, a tract by Fan Li in the fifth century BC details many of the ways carp were raised in ponds. The common carp, Cyprinus carpio, is originally from Central Europe, several carp species were domesticated in East Asia. Carp that are originally from South Asia, for example catla, rohu and their hardiness and adaptability have allowed domesticated species to be propagated all around the world. Although the carp was an important aquatic food item, as fish species have become readily available for the table. Demand has declined, partly due to the appearance of more desirable fish such as trout and salmon through intensive farming
23.
Tilapia
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Tilapia is the common name for nearly a hundred species of cichlid fish from the tilapiine cichlid tribe. Tilapia are mainly freshwater fish inhabiting shallow streams, ponds, rivers and lakes, historically, they have been of major importance in artisan fishing in Africa and the Middle East, and they are of increasing importance in aquaculture and aquaponics. Tilapia is the fourth most consumed fish in the United States dating back to 2002, the popularity of tilapia came about due to its cheap price, easy preparation, and its mild taste. Tilapia was a symbol of rebirth in Egyptian art, and was in addition associated with Hathor and it was also said to accompany and protect the sun god on his daily journey across the sky. Tilapia were one of the three types of fish caught in Biblical times from the Sea of Galilee. At that time they were called Amnoon, in Arabic the fish is called Musht, which means a comb, as resembled by its backfin or commonly now as St. Peters fish. The name St. Peters fish comes from the story in the Gospel of Matthew about the apostle Peter catching a fish that carried a coin in its mouth and these species have been the target of small-scale artisanal fisheries in the area for thousands of years. The common name tilapia is based on the name of the cichlid genus Tilapia, which is itself a latinisation of thiape, scottish zoologist Andrew Smith named the genus in 1840. Tilapia typically have laterally compressed, deep bodies, like other cichlids, their lower pharyngeal bones are fused into a single tooth-bearing structure. This means they are efficient feeders that can capture and process a variety of food items. Their mouths are protrusible, usually bordered with wide and often swollen lips, typically tilapia have a long dorsal fin, and a lateral line which often breaks towards the end of the dorsal fin, and starts again two or three rows of scales below. Some Nile tilapia can grow as long as two feet, other than their temperature sensitivity, tilapia exist in or can adapt to a very wide range of conditions. One extreme example is the Salton Sea, where tilapia introduced when the water was brackish now live in saltwater so salty that it kills marine fish, Tilapia are also known to be a mouth breeding species. Mouth breeding means they carry the eggs and young fish in their mouths for several days after the yolk sac is absorbed. Tilapia as a name has been applied to various cichlids from three distinct genera, Oreochromis, Sarotherodon and Tilapia. The members of the two genera used to belong to the genus Tilapia but have since been split off into their own genera. However, particular species within are still commonly called tilapia regardless of the change in their actual taxonomic nomenclature, the species remaining in Tilapia in particular still seem to be a paraphyletic assemblage. Tilapia has been used as controls for certain aquatic plant problems
24.
Genus
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A genus is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms in biology. In the hierarchy of classification, genus comes above species. In binomial nomenclature, the name forms the first part of the binomial species name for each species within the genus. Felis catus and Felis silvestris are two species within the genus Felis, Felis is a genus within the family Felidae. The composition of a genus is determined by a taxonomist, the standards for genus classification are not strictly codified, so different authorities often produce different classifications for genera. Moreover, genera should be composed of units of the same kind as other genera. The term comes from the Latin genus, a noun form cognate with gignere, linnaeus popularized its use in his 1753 Species Plantarum, but the French botanist Joseph Pitton de Tournefort is considered the founder of the modern concept of genera. The scientific name of a genus may be called the name or generic epithet. It plays a role in binomial nomenclature, the system of naming organisms. The rules for the names of organisms are laid down in the Nomenclature Codes. The standard way of scientifically describing species and other lower-ranked taxa is by binomial nomenclature, the generic name forms its first half. For example, the gray wolfs binomial name is Canis lupus, with Canis being the name shared by the wolfs close relatives. The specific name is written in lower-case and may be followed by names in zoology or a variety of infraspecific names in botany. Especially with these names, when the generic name is known from context. Because animals are typically only grouped within subspecies, it is written as a trinomen with a third name. Dog breeds, meanwhile, are not scientifically distinguished, there are several divisions of plant species and therefore their infraspecific names generally include contractions explaining the relation. For example, the genus Hibiscus includes hundreds of other species apart from the Rose of Sharon or common garden hibiscus, Rose of Sharon doesnt have subspecies but has cultivars that carry desired traits, such as the bright white H. syriaca Diana. Hawaiian hibiscus, meanwhile, includes several separate species, since not all botanists agree on the divisions or names between species, it is common to specify the source of the name using author abbreviations
25.
Gadus
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Gadus is a genus of demersal fish in the family Gadidae, commonly known as cod, although there are additional cod species in other genera. The best known member of the genus is the Atlantic cod, until recently, three species in the genus were recognized. Modern taxonomy also includes a one, the Alaska pollock. Furthermore, Greenland cod is no longer considered a distinct species but rather a subspecies of Pacific cod
26.
Family (biology)
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In biological classification, family is one of the eight major taxonomic ranks, it is classified between order and genus. A family may be divided into subfamilies, which are intermediate ranks above the rank of genus. In vernacular usage, a family may be named one of its common members, for example, walnuts and hickory trees belong to the family Juglandaceae. What does or does not belong to a family—or whether a family should be recognized at all—are proposed and determined by practicing taxonomists. There are no rules for describing or recognizing a family. Taxonomists often take different positions about descriptions of taxa, and there may be no broad consensus across the community for some time. Some described taxa are accepted broadly and quickly, but others only rarely, if at all, the naming of families is codified by various international codes. In zoological nomenclature, the names of animals end with the suffix -idae. The concept of rank at time was not yet settled, and in the preface to the Prodromus Magnol spoke of uniting his families into larger genera. Carolus Linnaeus used the word familia in his Philosophia botanica to denote groups of plants, trees, herbs, ferns, palms. He used this term only in the section of the book. In zoology, the family as an intermediate between order and genus was introduced by Pierre André Latreille in his Précis des caractères génériques des insectes. He used families in some but not in all his orders of insects, families can be used for evolutionary, palaeontological and generic studies because they are more stable than lower taxonomic levels such as genera and species
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Gadidae
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The Gadidae are a family of marine fish, included in the order Gadiformes, known as the cods, codfishes or true cods. It contains several commercially important fishes, including the cod, haddock, whiting, most gadid species are found in temperate waters of the Northern Hemisphere, but several range into subtropical, Subarctic and Arctic oceans, and a single is found in the Southern Hemisphere. They are generally medium-sized fish, and are distinguished by the presence of three dorsal fins on the back and two fins on the underside. Most species have barbels on their chins, which they use while browsing on the sea floor, gadids are carnivorous, feeding on smaller fish and crustaceans. Gadids are highly prolific, producing several million eggs at each spawning and this contributes to their high population numbers, which, in turn, makes commercial fishing relatively easy. Concepts differ about the contents of the family Gadidae, the system followed by FishBase includes a dozen genera. Alternatively, fishes in the current Lotidae and Phycidae have also included in Gadidae. Diseases and parasites in cod Media related to Gadidae at Wikimedia Commons Data related to Gadidae at Wikispecies
28.
Alaska pollock
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The Alaska pollock or walleye pollock is a marine fish species of the cod family Gadidae. It is a schooling fish widely distributed in the North Pacific with largest concentrations found in the eastern Bering Sea. While belonging to the family as the Atlantic pollock, the Alaska pollock is not a member of the same Pollachius genus. Furthermore, Norwegian pollock, a fish of Norwegian waters, is likely the same species as the Alaska pollock. The speckled colouring of Alaska pollock makes it difficult for predators to see them when they are near sandy ocean floors. They are a relatively fast-growing and short-lived species, currently representing a major component of the Bering Sea ecosystem. It has been found that catches of Alaska pollock go up three years after stormy summers, the storms stir up nutrients, and this results in phytoplankton being plentiful for longer, which in turn allows more pollock hatchlings to survive. The Alaska pollock has well-developed drumming muscles that the use to produce sounds during courtship. The primary factor in determining the behavior of the Alaskan pollock is age. Young pollocks can be divided into two sub-groups, with lengths below or above 60 mm, both groups mainly feed on copepods. A limited supply of copepods may lead to food depletion, however, the larger group is also capable of foraging for euphausiids and is able to diversify its food sources. Therefore, food depletion has an effect on smaller pollocks. The variation in size of each subgroup also affects seasonal foraging behavior, during the winter, when food is scarce, foraging can be costly due to the fact that longer hunting time increases the risk of meeting a predator. To maximize their chances of survival, the group increases their calorie intake to gain weight in autumn. Lastly, Alaskan pollock exhibit diel vertical migration, following the movement of their food. Although pollocks exhibit vertical movement during the day, their average depth changes following the seasons, originally, the change in depth was attributed to the amount of light or the ambient water temperature, but currently, it is exclusively connected to the movement of food species. In August, when food is available near the surface, pollocks will be found at lower depths. The Alaska pollock has been said to be the largest remaining source of fish in the world
29.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
30.
Pacific cod
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The Pacific cod, Gadus macrocephalus, is a species of ray-finned fish in the family Gadidae. It is a fish found in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, mainly on the continental shelf and upper slopes. It can grow to a length of a meter or so and is found in large schools and it is an important commercial food species and is also known as gray cod or grey cod, and grayfish or greyfish. Fishing for this species is regulated with quotas being allotted for hook and line fishing, pots and it has three separate dorsal fins, and the catfish-like whiskers on its lower jaw. In appearance, it is similar to the Atlantic cod, may grow up to 1 m and weigh up to 15 kg. It is found in huge schools, molecular genetic analyses strongly suggest that Pacific cod and Greenland cod from Greenland–the Arctic ocean are the same species, G. ogac is then a junior synonym of G. macrocephalus. Nevertheless, ITIS still lists Gadus ogac as a valid name and this change would greatly expand the geographic range of Pacific cod. Today, catches are tightly regulated and the Pacific cod quota is split among fisheries that use hook and line gear, pots, and bottom trawls. The Salish Sea population of Pacific cod is a U. S. National Marine Fisheries Service Species of Concern, froese, Rainer and Pauly, Daniel, eds. Pacific cod-Gadus macrocephalus fishery profiles Status of Pacific cod fisheries, summarised in FisheriesWiki
31.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
32.
Carl Linnaeus
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Carl Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné, was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who formalised the modern system of naming organisms called binomial nomenclature. He is known by the father of modern taxonomy. Many of his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus, Linnaeus was born in the countryside of Småland, in southern Sweden. He received most of his education at Uppsala University. He lived abroad between 1735 and 1738, where he studied and also published a first edition of his Systema Naturae in the Netherlands and he then returned to Sweden, where he became professor of medicine and botany at Uppsala. In the 1740s, he was sent on journeys through Sweden to find and classify plants. In the 1750s and 1760s, he continued to collect and classify animals, plants, and minerals, at the time of his death, he was one of the most acclaimed scientists in Europe. The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau sent him the message, Tell him I know no man on earth. The German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote, With the exception of Shakespeare and Spinoza, Swedish author August Strindberg wrote, Linnaeus was in reality a poet who happened to become a naturalist. Among other compliments, Linnaeus has been called Princeps botanicorum, The Pliny of the North and he is also considered as one of the founders of modern ecology. In botany, the abbreviation used to indicate Linnaeus as the authority for species names is L. In older publications, sometimes the abbreviation Linn. is found, Linnæus was born in the village of Råshult in Småland, Sweden, on 23 May 1707. He was the first child of Nicolaus Ingemarsson and Christina Brodersonia and his siblings were Anna Maria Linnæa, Sofia Juliana Linnæa, Samuel Linnæus, and Emerentia Linnæa. One of a line of peasants and priests, Nils was an amateur botanist, a Lutheran minister. Christina was the daughter of the rector of Stenbrohult, Samuel Brodersonius, a year after Linnæus birth, his grandfather Samuel Brodersonius died, and his father Nils became the rector of Stenbrohult. The family moved into the rectory from the curates house, even in his early years, Linnæus seemed to have a liking for plants, flowers in particular. Whenever he was upset, he was given a flower, which calmed him. Nils spent much time in his garden and often showed flowers to Linnaeus, soon Linnæus was given his own patch of earth where he could grow plants
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Subspecies
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In biological classification, subspecies is either a taxonomic rank subordinate to species, or a taxonomic unit in that rank. A subspecies cannot be recognized independently, a species will either be recognized as having no subspecies at all or at least two, in zoology, under the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, the subspecies is the only taxonomic rank below that of species that can receive a name. In botany and mycology, under the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, in bacteriology and virology, under standard bacterial nomenclature and virus nomenclature, there are recommendations but not strict requirements for recognizing other important infraspecific ranks. A taxonomist decides whether to recognize a subspecies or not, the differences between subspecies are usually less distinct than the differences between species. In zoology, the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature accepts only one rank below that of species, other groupings, infrasubspecific entities do not have names regulated by the ICZN. Such forms have no official ICZN status, though they may be useful in describing altitudinal or geographical clines, pet breeds, transgenic animals, etc. While the scientific name of a species is a binomen, the name of a subspecies is a trinomen - a binomen followed by a subspecific name. A tigers binomen is Panthera tigris, so for a Sumatran tiger the trinomen is, for example, names published before 1992 in the rank of variety are taken to be names of subspecies. In botany, subspecies is one of many ranks below that of species, such as variety, subvariety, form, the subspecific name is preceded by subsp. or ssp. as Schoenoplectus californicus ssp. tatora. A botanical name consists of at most three parts, an infraspecific name includes the species binomial, and one infraspecific epithet, such as subspecies or variety. For example, Motacilla alba alba is the subspecies of the white wagtail. The subspecies name that repeats the name is referred to in botanical nomenclature as the subspecies autonym. When zoologists disagree over whether a population is a subspecies or a full species. A subspecies is a rank below species – the only recognized rank in the zoological code. Botanists and mycologists have the choice of ranks lower than subspecies, such as variety or form, in biological terms, rather than in relation to nomenclature, a polytypic species has two or more subspecies, races, or more generally speaking, populations that need a separate description. These are separate groups that are distinct from one another and do not generally interbreed. These subspecies, races, or populations, can be named as subspecies by zoologists, a monotypic species has no distinct population or races, or rather one race comprising the whole species. A taxonomist would not name a subspecies within such a species, monotypic species can occur in several ways, All members of the species are very similar and cannot be sensibly divided into biologically significant subcategories
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Food
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Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
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Whitefish (fisheries term)
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Whitefish or white fish is a fisheries term referring to several species of demersal fish with fins, particularly cod, Caspian kutum, whiting, and haddock, but also hake, pollock, or others. Whitefish is also the name of species of Atlantic freshwater fish. White fish live on or near the seafloor, and can be contrasted with the oily or pelagic fish live in the water column away from the seafloor. Unlike oily fish, white fish contain oils only in their liver, rather than in their gut, white fish have dry and white flesh. White fish can be divided into benthopelagic fish and benthic fish, white fish is sometimes eaten straight but is often used reconstituted for fishsticks, gefilte fish, lutefisk, surimi, etc. For centuries it was preserved by drying as stockfish and clipfish and it is commonly used as the fish in the classic British dish of fish and chips
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Cod liver oil
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Cod liver oil is a nutritional supplement derived from liver of cod fish. As with most fish oils, it has levels of the omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid. Cod liver oil also contains vitamin A and vitamin D and it has historically been taken because of its vitamin A and vitamin D content. It was once given to children, because vitamin D has been shown to prevent rickets. Cod liver oil has come in many grades. Cod liver oil for human consumption is pale and straw colored, ancient Scandinavian Vikings produced cod liver oil by laying birch tree branches over a kettle of water, and fresh livers were laid over the branches. The water was brought to a boil and as the steam rose, there was also a method for producing fresh raw cod liver oil. In the Industrial Revolution, cod liver oil became popular for industrial purposes, livers placed in barrels to rot, with the oil skimmed off over the season, was the main method for producing this oil. The resulting oil was brown and foul tasting, in the 1800s cod liver oil became popular as a medicine and both pale and brown oils were used. Brown oils were common because they were cheaper to produce, some doctors believed in only using the fresh pale oil, while others believed the brown oil was better. However the brown oils tended to cause intestinal upset, the Möller Process was invented by Peter Möller in 1850. The livers are ground with water into a slurry, then this is gently simmered until the oil rises to the top, the oil is skimmed off and purified. Other methods used in modern times include the Cold Flotation Process, Pressure Extraction and these all require further purification steps to get a pure oil. Fermented Cod Liver Oil is made using a secret process. Testing has shown FCLO has high levels of fatty acids. However, free fatty acids and acid value may not be the marker to reflect the oxidation level of this product. Though similar in composition to fish oil, cod liver oil has higher concentrations of vitamins A and D, according to the United States Department of Agriculture, a tablespoon of cod liver oil contains 4080 μg of retinol and 34 μg of vitamin D. The Dietary Reference Intake of vitamin A is 900 μg per day for men and 700 μg per day for women
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Vitamin A
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Vitamin A is a group of unsaturated nutritional organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal, retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids. Vitamin A has multiple functions, it is important for growth and development, for the maintenance of the immune system and good vision. Vitamin A is needed by the retina of the eye in the form of retinal, which combines with protein opsin to form rhodopsin, Vitamin A also functions in a very different role as retinoic acid, which is an important hormone-like growth factor for epithelial and other cells. In foods of animal origin, the form of vitamin A is an ester, primarily retinyl palmitate. The retinol form functions as a form of the vitamin. All forms of vitamin A have a ring to which an isoprenoid chain is attached, called a retinyl group. Both structural features are essential for vitamin activity, the orange pigment of carrots can be represented as two connected retinyl groups, which are used in the body to contribute to vitamin A levels. Alpha-carotene and gamma-carotene also have a single group, which give them some vitamin activity. None of the other carotenes have vitamin activity, the carotenoid beta-cryptoxanthin possesses an ionone group and has vitamin activity in humans. Vitamin A can be found in two forms in foods, Retinol, the form of vitamin A absorbed when eating animal food sources, is a yellow. Since the pure form is unstable, the vitamin is found in tissues in a form of retinyl ester. It is also produced and administered as esters such as retinyl acetate or palmitate. Vitamin A deficiency is estimated to approximately one third of children under the age of five around the world. It is estimated to claim the lives of 670,000 children under five annually, approximately 250, 000–500,000 children in developing countries become blind each year owing to vitamin A deficiency, with the highest prevalence in Southeast Asia and Africa. Vitamin A deficiency is the cause of preventable childhood blindness. It also increases the risk of death from common childhood conditions such as diarrhea, UNICEF regards addressing vitamin A deficiency as critical to reducing child mortality, the fourth of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Vitamin A deficiency can occur as either a primary or a secondary deficiency, early weaning from breastmilk can also increase the risk of vitamin A deficiency. Vitamin A is a vitamin and depends on micellar solubilization for dispersion into the small intestine
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Omega-3 fatty acid
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Omega-3 fatty acids—also called ω-3 fatty acids or n-3 fatty acids—are polyunsaturated fatty acids with a double bond at the third carbon atom from the end of the carbon chain. One way in which a fatty acid is named is determined by the location of the first double bond, counted from the end, that is. However, the chemical nomenclature system starts from the carbonyl end. The three types of fatty acids involved in human physiology are α-linolenic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid. Marine algae and phytoplankton are primary sources of fatty acids. Dietary supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids does not appear to affect the risk of death, furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. Omega-3 fatty acids are important for normal metabolism, the ability to make the longer-chain omega-3 fatty acids from ALA may be impaired in aging. In foods exposed to air, unsaturated fatty acids are vulnerable to oxidation, supplementation does not appear to be associated with a lower risk of all-cause mortality. The evidence linking the consumption of fish to the risk of cancer is poor, supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids does not appear to affect this either. A2006 review concluded there was no link between omega-3 fatty acids consumption and cancer. In those with advanced cancer and cachexia, omega-3 fatty acids supplements may be of benefit, improving appetite, weight, there is tentative evidence that marine omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids reduce the risk of breast cancer but this is not conclusive. The effect of consumption on cancer is not conclusive. There is a risk with higher blood levels of DPA. Evidence, in the population generally, does not support a role for omega-3 fatty acid supplementation in preventing cardiovascular disease or stroke. No protective effect against the development of stroke or all-cause mortality was seen in this population, eating a diet high in fish that contain long chain omega-3 fatty acids does appear to decrease the risk of stroke. Fish oil supplementation has not been shown to benefit revascularization or abnormal heart rhythms and has no effect on heart failure hospital admission rates, furthermore, fish oil supplement studies have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. Evidence suggests that omega-3 fatty acids modestly lower blood pressure in people with hypertension, Omega-3 fatty acids reduce blood triglyceride levels but do not significantly change the level of LDL cholesterol or HDL cholesterol in the blood. ALA does not confer the cardiovascular benefits of EPA and DHAs
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Eicosapentaenoic acid
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Eicosapentaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid. In physiological literature, it is given the name 20,5 and it also has the trivial name timnodonic acid. In chemical structure, EPA is an acid with a 20-carbon chain and five cis double bonds. EPA is a fatty acid that acts as a precursor for prostaglandin-3, thromboxane-3. Studies of fish oil supplements, which contain EPA, have failed to support claims of preventing heart attacks or strokes. It is obtained in the diet by eating oily fish or fish oil, e. g. cod liver, herring, mackerel, salmon, menhaden and sardine. It is also found in human breast milk, however, fish can either synthesize EPA from fatty acids precursors found in their alimentation or obtain it from the algae they consume. It is available to humans from some non-animal sources, EPA is not usually found in higher plants, but it has been reported in trace amounts in purslane. In 2013, it was reported that a modified form of the plant Camelina produced significant amounts of EPA. The human body converts alpha-linolenic acid to EPA, ALA is itself an essential fatty acid, an appropriate supply of which must be ensured. The efficiency of the conversion of ALA to EPA, however, is lower than the absorption of EPA from food containing it. Medical conditions like diabetes or certain allergies may significantly limit the human capacity for metabolization of EPA from ALA. The US National Institute of Healths MedlinePlus lists medical conditions for which EPA is known or thought to be an effective treatment, most of these involve its ability to lower inflammation. It appears that both EPA and DHA lower triglycerides, however DHA appears to raise low-density lipoprotein and LDL-C values, EPA and DHA ethyl esters may be absorbed less well, thus work less well, when taken on an empty stomach or with a low-fat meal. EPA bound to proteins in the PDB
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Docosahexaenoic acid
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Docosahexaenoic acid is an omega-3 fatty acid that is a primary structural component of the human brain, cerebral cortex, skin, and retina. It can be synthesized from alpha-linolenic acid or obtained directly from maternal milk, fish oil, dHAs structure is a carboxylic acid with a 22-carbon chain and six cis double bonds, with the first double bond located at the third carbon from the omega end. Its trivial name is cervonic acid, its name is all-cis-docosa-4,7,10,13,16, 19-hexa-enoic acid. DHA is also manufactured from microalgae, Crypthecodinium cohnii and another of the genus Schizochytrium. DHA manufactured using microalgae is vegetarian, some animals with access to seafood make little DHA through metabolism, but obtain it in the diet. However, in strict herbivores, and carnivores that do not eat seafood, DHA is manufactured internally from α-linolenic acid, rates of conversion are 15% higher for women, with those taking oral contraceptives demonstrating 10% higher DHA levels. DHA is a fatty acid in brain phospholipids and the retina. DHA is the most abundant omega-3 fatty acid in the brain, DHA comprises 40% of the polyunsaturated fatty acids in the brain and 60% of the PUFAs in the retina. Fifty percent of the weight of a plasma membrane is composed of DHA. DHA is richly supplied during breastfeeding, and DHA levels are high in breastmilk regardless of dietary choices, DHA deficiency is associated with cognitive decline. Phosphatidylserine controls apoptosis, and low DHA levels lower neural cell PS, DHA levels are reduced in the brain tissue of severely depressed patients. In humans, DHA is either obtained from the diet or may be converted in small amounts from eicosapentaenoic acid via docosapentaenoic acid as an intermediate and this synthesis had been thought to occur through an elongation step followed by the action of Δ4-desaturase. It is now considered likely that DHA is biosynthesized via a C24 intermediate followed by beta oxidation in peroxisomes. Thus, EPA is twice elongated, yielding 24,5 ω-3, then desaturated to 24,6 ω-3 and this pathway is known as Sprechers shunt. The enzyme CYP2C9 metabolizes DHA to epoxydocosapentaenoic acids, large-scale human trials showed that DHA did not slow decline of mental function in elderly people with mild to moderate Alzheimers disease. In one preliminary study, algal DHA taken for six months decreased heart rate and improved memory and learning in healthy, older adults with mild memory complaints. In another early-stage study, higher DHA levels in middle-aged adults was related to performance on tests of nonverbal reasoning and mental flexibility, working memory. One study found that the use of DHA-rich fish oil capsules did not reduce postpartum depression in mothers or improve cognitive, another systematic review found that DHA had no significant benefits in improving visual field in individuals with retinitis pigmentosa
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Haddock
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The haddock is a saltwater fish, found in the North Atlantic Ocean and associated seas. Haddock is most commonly found at depths of 40 to 133 m and it thrives in temperatures of 2 to 10 °C. Juveniles prefer shallower waters and larger adults deeper water, generally, adult haddock do not engage in long migratory behaviour as do the younger fish, but seasonal movements have been known to occur across all ages. Haddock feed primarily on invertebrates, although larger members of the species may occasionally consume fish. Haddock range in size between 38 and 69 centimeters in length and 0.9 to 1.8 kilograms in weight, growth rates of haddock have changed significantly over the past 30 to 40 years. Presently, growth is rapid, with haddock reaching their adult size much earlier than previously noted. However, the degree to which these younger fish contribute to success of the population is unknown. Growth rates of haddock, however, had slowed in recent years, some evidence indicates it may be the result of an exceptionally large year class in 2003. One Spawning occurs between January and June, peaking during late March and early April, the most important spawning grounds are in the waters off middle Norway, near southwest Iceland, and Georges Bank. An average-sized female produces approximately 850,000 eggs, and larger females are capable of producing up to 3 million eggs each year, cod and related species are plagued by parasites. For example, the cod worm, Lernaeocera branchialis, starts life as a copepod, the first host used by cod worm is a flatfish or lumpsucker, which they capture with grasping hooks at the front of their bodies. They penetrate the lumpsucker with a filament which they use to suck its blood. The nourished cod worms then mate on the lumpsucker, the female worm, with her now fertilized eggs, then finds a cod, or a cod-like fish such as a haddock or whiting. There, the worm clings to the gills while it metamorphoses into a plump, sinusoidal, wormlike body, the front part of the worms body penetrates the body of the cod until it enters the rear bulb of the hosts heart. There, firmly rooted in the circulatory system, the front part of the parasite develops like the branches of a tree. In this way, the worm extracts nutrients from the cods blood, reaching sizes up to 1.1 m, haddock is fished for year-round. Some of the methods used are Danish seine nets, trawlers, long lines, in 2010, Greenpeace International has added the haddock to its seafood red list. The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are sold in supermarkets around the world
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Scrod
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Scrod or schrod is any of various whitefish, such as young cod or haddock, that are prepared and eaten as food, often the preparation involves the whitefish being split and boned before cooking. The term scrod may derive from the Dutch schrod, implying cutting or shredding, or from Cornish scrawed, where it connotes splitting and drying of the fish. A method of preparation of scrod that appears historically, as early as the 19th century, is scrawing, Scrod refers to young cod, haddock, or other whitefish that are prepared and eaten as food, often after preparation that involves splitting and boning the fish. Weights of scrod are typically less than 3 lb, a variant escrod, a word used in a publication by Daniel Webster, is referred to by the same source as difficult to explain. Alternatively, its probably from British dialect scrawed, past participle of scraw, scrawl to split, salt. The term has been credited to chefs at Boston’s Parker House Hotel, the originator of Boston cream pie and Parker House rolls, and a number of further apocryphal folk etymologies have appeared. Origin of scrod in shorthands or acronyms has also been proffered, including to mean Sacred Cod, Scrod appears in a cookbook published in 1851 in reference to cooking a young cod or the split tail of a large cod after preparation by scrawing. In scrawing, fish are split open, dried in the sun or salted overnight, Boston scrod is listed as a featured item of the buffet for the Boston-New York run of the New Haven Railroad in the early 20th century, alongside Cotuit oysters, and Krug champagne. Most typically, young cod is the mainstay on modern menus presenting scrod, ive fixed him more than a thousand. American humorist poet Ogden Nash voiced that I lunch and sup on schrod and soup in his 1949 collection, Versus. When spoken, scrod is a pun on the word screwed, slang for sexual intercourse, and thus is the basis for many jokes, david L. 555–558, see, accessed 22 January 2014. Melanie Crowley and Mike Crowley,2014, Query From Cosmo Cavicchio, in Words to the Wise, Your Etymologic Queried Answered, Take our Word For It, Issue 128, p.2, see, accessed 22 January 2014. 2014, Origin Of Scrod, at Celebrate Boston, see, accessed 22 January 2014
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Fish and chips
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Fish and chips is a hot dish of English origin consisting of fried battered fish and hot chips. It is a common food and an early example of culinary fusion. First appearing in the 1860s, in 1910 there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the UK, fried fish was first brought to England by Spanish Jews, and is considered the model for the fish element of the dish. Originally, Spanish Jews settling in England in the 17th century would have prepared fried fish in a similar to Pescado frito. Battered fish is first coated in flour then dipped into a batter consisting of flour mixed with liquid, usually water, some newer modifications to the recipe may have cornflour added, and instead of beer sometimes soda water is added. In 1860, the first fish and chip shop was opened in London by Joseph Malin who sold fish fried in the Jewish fashion, the modern fish-and-chip shop originated in the United Kingdom, although outlets selling fried food occurred commonly throughout Europe. Early fish-and-chip shops had only basic facilities. Usually these consisted principally of a cauldron of cooking fat. The fish-and-chip shop later evolved into a standard format, with the food served, in paper wrappings, to queuing customers. By 1910, there were more than 25,000 fish and chip shops across the country, in 1928, Harry Ramsdens fast food restaurant chain opened in the UK. On a single day in 1952, his fish and chip shop in Guiseley, West Yorkshire served 10,000 portions of fish and chips, during World War II fish and chips remained one of the few foods in the United Kingdom not subject to rationing. Prime Minister Winston Churchill referred to the combination of fish and chips as the good companions, British fish and chips were originally served in a wrapping of old newspapers but this practice has now largely ceased, with plain paper, cardboard or plastic being used instead. In the United Kingdom the Food Standards Agency guidance excludes caterers from this, the first chip shop stood on the present site of Oldhams Tommyfield Market. It remains unclear exactly when and where these two combined to become the fish-and-chip shop industry we know. A Jewish immigrant, Joseph Malin, opened the first recorded combined fish-and-chip shop in London in 1860 or in 1865, a Mr Lees pioneered the concept in the North of England, in Mossley, in 1863. Isaacs first restaurant opened in London in 1896 serving fish and chips, bread and butter, and tea for nine pence, and its popularity ensured a rapid expansion of the chain. The restaurants were carpeted, had table service, tablecloths, flowers, china and cutlery, menus were expanded in the early 20th century to include meat dishes and other variations as their popularity grew to a total of thirty restaurants. Sam Isaacs trademark was the phrase This is the Plaice, combined with a picture of the fish in question
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Trophic level
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The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The word trophic derives from the Greek τροφή referring to food or feeding, a food chain represents a succession of organisms that eat another organism and are, in turn, eaten themselves. The number of steps an organism is from the start of the chain is a measure of its trophic level. Food chains start at trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants, move to herbivores at level 2, predators at level 3, the path along the chain can form either a one-way flow or a food web. Ecological communities with higher biodiversity form more complex trophic paths, the three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers and decomposers. Producers are typically plants or algae, Plants and algae do not usually eat other organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers, in this way, it is energy from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight, here primary producers manufacture food through a process called chemosynthesis. Consumers are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers are called herbivores, animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plant and other animals are called omnivores. Decomposers break down plant and animal material and wastes and release it again as energy. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, feed on waste and dead matter, Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic levels are numbered according to how far the organism is along the food chain. Level 1, Plants and algae make their own food and are called primary producers, level 2, Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers. Level 3, Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers, level 4, Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. Level 5, Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chain. In real world ecosystems, there is more than one chain for most organisms. A diagram that sets out the network of intersecting and overlapping food chains for an ecosystem is called its food web
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FishBase
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FishBase is a global species database of fish species. It is the largest and most extensively accessed online database on adult finfish on the web, over time it has evolved into a dynamic and versatile ecological tool that is widely cited in scholarly publications. The site has about 700,000 unique visitors per month, hypotheses, such as this one, could be tested only if large amounts of empirical data were available. At the time, fisheries management used analytical models which required estimates for fish growth and it can be particularly difficult for people in developing countries who need such information. Such a database would be useful if the data has also been standardised and validated. Pauly recruited Rainer Froese, and the beginnings of a software database along these lines was encoded in 1988 and this database, initially confined to tropical fish, became the prototype for FishBase. FishBase was subsequently extended to cover all finfish, and was launched on the Web in August 1996 and it is now the largest and most accessed online database for fish in the world. In 1995 the first CD-ROM was released as FishBase 100, subsequent CDs have been released annually. The software runs on Microsoft Access which operates only on Microsoft Windows, FishBase covers adult finfish, but does not detail the early and juvenile stages of fish. In 1999 a complimentary database, called LarvalBase, went online under the supervision of Bernd Ueberschär. It covers ichthyoplankton and the stage of fishes, with detailed data on fish eggs and larvae, fish identification. Given FishBases success, there was a demand for a database covering forms of life other than finfish. This resulted, in 2006, in the birth of SeaLifeBase, altogether, there are about 300,000 known species in this category. As awareness of FishBase has grown among fish specialists, it has attracted over 1,700 contributors and collaborators, since 2000 FishBase has been supervised by a consortium consisting of nine international institutions. The Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences in Kiel, Germany, functions as the coordinating body, Catalog of Fishes List of online encyclopedias Bailly N Why there may be discrepancies in the assessment of scientific names between the Catalog of Fishes and FishBase Version 2,6 May 2010. Bailly N, Reyes Jr R, Atanacio R and Froese R Simple Identification Tools in FishBase In, Nimis PL and Vignes Lebbe R. Tools for Identifying Biodiversity, Progress and Problems, pages 31–36. Froese R The science in Fishbase In, Villy Christensen and Jay Maclean Ecosystem Approaches to Fisheries, A Global Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Froese R and Pauly D FishBase 2000, concepts, design and data sources ICLARM, Philippines. Froese R and Pauly D Fishbase as a tool for comparing the life patterns of flatfish Netherlands Journal of Sea Research,32
Vulnerable[5]
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Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cod". Encyclopædia Britannica. 6 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 632.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
Presentation by Mark Kurlansky on Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World, August 15, 1998, C-SPAN
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