1.
Coca-Cola
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Coca-Cola is a carbonated soft drink produced by The Coca-Cola Company. The drinks name refers to two of its ingredients, which were kola nuts and coca leaves. The current formula of Coca-Cola remains a secret, although a variety of reported recipes. The Coca-Cola Company produces concentrate, which is sold to licensed Coca-Cola bottlers throughout the world. The bottlers, who hold exclusive territory contracts with the company, produce the product in cans and bottles from the concentrate, in combination with filtered water. A typical 12-US-fluid-ounce can contains 38 grams of sugar, the bottlers then sell, distribute and merchandise Coca-Cola to retail stores, restaurants and vending machines throughout the world. The Coca-Cola Company also sells concentrate for soda fountains of major restaurants, the Coca-Cola Company has on occasion introduced other cola drinks under the Coke name. Based on Interbrands best global brand study of 2015, Coca-Cola was the third most valuable brand. In 2013, Coke products were sold in over 200 countries worldwide, confederate Colonel John Pemberton, who was wounded in the American Civil War and became addicted to morphine, began a quest to find a substitute for the problematic drug. The prototype Coca-Cola recipe was formulated at Pembertons Eagle Drug and Chemical House and he may have been inspired by the formidable success of Vin Mariani, a French coca wine. It is also worth noting that a Spanish drink called Kola Coca was presented at a contest in Philadelphia in 1885, the patent for this Spanish drink was bought by Coca-Cola in 1953. In 1885, Pemberton registered his French Wine Coca nerve tonic, in 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County passed prohibition legislation, Pemberton responded by developing Coca-Cola, a nonalcoholic version of French Wine Coca. The first sales were at Jacobs Pharmacy in Atlanta, Georgia, Pemberton claimed Coca-Cola cured many diseases, including morphine addiction, indigestion, nerve disorders, headaches, and impotence. Pemberton ran the first advertisement for the beverage on May 29 of the year in the Atlanta Journal. By 1888, three versions of Coca-Cola – sold by three separate businesses – were on the market, a co-partnership had been formed on January 14,1888 between Pemberton and four Atlanta businessmen, J. C. Mayfield, A. O. Not codified by any signed document, a statement given by Asa Candler years later asserted under testimony that he had acquired a stake in Pembertons company as early as 1887. John Pemberton declared that the name Coca-Cola belonged to his son, Charley, Charleys exclusive control over the Coca Cola name became a continual thorn in Asa Candlers side. Candlers oldest son, Charles Howard Candler, authored a book in 1950 published by Emory University, in this definitive biography about his father, Candler specifically states
2.
Lemon
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The lemon, Citrus limon Osbeck, is a species of small evergreen tree in the flowering plant family Rutaceae, native to Asia. The trees ellipsoidal yellow fruit is used for culinary and non-culinary purposes throughout the world, primarily for its juice, the pulp and rind are also used in cooking and baking. The juice of the lemon is about 5% to 6% citric acid, the distinctive sour taste of lemon juice makes it a key ingredient in drinks and foods such as lemonade and lemon meringue pie. The origin of the lemon is unknown, though lemons are thought to have first grown in Assam, a study of the genetic origin of the lemon reported it to be hybrid between bitter orange and citron. Lemons entered Europe near southern Italy no later than the second century AD, however, they were not widely cultivated. They were later introduced to Persia and then to Iraq and Egypt around 700 AD, the lemon was first recorded in literature in a 10th-century Arabic treatise on farming, and was also used as an ornamental plant in early Islamic gardens. It was distributed throughout the Arab world and the Mediterranean region between 1000 and 1150. The first substantial cultivation of lemons in Europe began in Genoa in the middle of the 15th century, the lemon was later introduced to the Americas in 1493 when Christopher Columbus brought lemon seeds to Hispaniola on his voyages. Spanish conquest throughout the New World helped spread lemon seeds and it was mainly used as an ornamental plant and for medicine. In the 19th century, lemons were increasingly planted in Florida, in 1747, James Linds experiments on seamen suffering from scurvy involved adding lemon juice to their diets, though vitamin C was not yet known. The origin of the lemon may be Middle Eastern. The word draws from the Old French limon, then Italian limone, from the Arabic laymūn or līmūn, and from the Persian līmūn, a term for citrus fruit. The Bonnie Brae is oblong, smooth, thin-skinned, and seedless, the Eureka grows year-round and abundantly. This is the common supermarket lemon, also known as Four Seasons because of its ability to produce fruit and this variety is also available as a plant to domestic customers. There is also a pink-fleshed Eureka lemon, with a green, the Femminello St. Teresa, or Sorrento is native to Italy. This fruits zest is high in lemon oils and it is the variety traditionally used in the making of limoncello. The Meyer is a cross between a lemon and possibly an orange or a mandarin, and was named after Frank N. Meyer, who first introduced it to the USA in 1908. Thin-skinned and slightly less acidic than the Lisbon and Eureka lemons, Meyer lemons often mature to a yellow-orange color
3.
Soft drink
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A soft drink is a drink that typically contains carbonated water, a sweetener, and a natural or artificial flavoring. The sweetener may be sugar, high-fructose corn syrup, fruit juice, sugar substitutes, Soft drinks may also contain caffeine, colorings, preservatives, and other ingredients. Soft drinks are called soft in contrast to hard drinks, small amounts of alcohol may be present in a soft drink, but the alcohol content must be less than 0. 5% of the total volume if the drink is to be considered non-alcoholic. Fruit punch, tea, and other such non-alcoholic beverages are technically soft drinks by this definition but are not generally referred to as such, Soft drinks may be served chilled, over ice cubes or at room temperature. In rare cases, some drinks, such as Dr Pepper. Soft drinks are available in formats, including cans, glass bottles. Soft drinks are widely available at fast food restaurants, movie theaters, convenience stores, casual dining restaurants, dedicated soda stores. Soda fountain drinks are served in paper or plastic disposable cups in the first three venues. In casual dining restaurants and bars, soft drinks are served in glasses. Soft drinks may be drunk with straws or sipped directly from the cups, Soft drinks are mixed with other ingredients in several contexts. In Western countries, in bars and other places where alcohol is served many mixed drinks are made by blending a soft drink with hard liquor, one well-known example is the rum and coke, which may also contain lime juice. Some homemade fruit punch recipes, which may or may not contain alcohol, contain a mixture of fruit juices. At ice cream parlours and 1950s-themed diners, ice cream floats are often sold, two popular ice cream floats are the coke float and the root beer float, which consist of a scoop of ice cream placed in a tall glass of the respectively named soft drinks. Due to the sugar content in typical soft drinks, they may also be called sugary drinks. In Spanish, they use the English equivalent of refreshment, or also commonly called gaseosa. In the United States, the 2003 Harvard Dialect Survey tracked the usage of the nine most common names, over half of the survey respondents preferred the term soda, which was dominant in the Northeastern United States, California, and the areas surrounding Milwaukee and St. Louis. The term tonic is hyperlocal to eastern Massachusetts, although usage is declining, in the English-speaking parts of Canada, the term pop is prevalent, but soft drink is the most common English term used in Montreal. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the terms fizzy drink, pop and fizzy pop are used in northern England, while mineral is used in Ireland
4.
Caramel color
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Caramel color or caramel coloring is a water-soluble food coloring. It is made by heat treatment of carbohydrates, in general in the presence of acids, alkalis, or salts and it is more fully oxidized than caramel candy, and has an odor of burnt sugar and a somewhat bitter taste. Its color ranges from yellow to amber to dark brown. Caramel color is widely approved for use in food globally but application, caramel color is manufactured by heating carbohydrates, either alone or in the presence of acids, alkalis, and/or salts. Caramel color is produced from commercially available nutritive sweeteners consisting of fructose, dextrose, invert sugar, sucrose, malt syrup, molasses, starch hydrolysates, antifoaming agents, such as polyglycerol esters of fatty acids, may be used as processing aids during manufacture. Its color ranges from pale-yellow to amber to dark-brown, caramel color molecules carry either a positive or a negative charge depending upon the reactants used in their manufacture. Problems such as precipitation, flocculation, or migration can be eliminated with the use of a properly charged caramel color for the intended application. Color Intensity is defined as the absorbance of a 1 mg/mL solution in water, in this case, A stands for absorbance and TS stands for total solids. Color Intensity = A ∗100 T S The color tone of the color is also important. This is defined by the Linner Hue Index, which is the measure of the color hue or red characteristics of the caramel color and it is a function of the absorbance of light of wavelengths 510 and 610 nm. In general, the higher the Tinctorial Power, K0.56, the lower the Hue Index, various other indices are in use around the world and there are conversion factors between them. Though the primary function of caramel color is for coloration, it also serves additional functions, the United States Food and Drug Administration classifies and regulates caramel color in Title 21 CFR §73.85 as a generally recognized as safe color additive exempt from certification. Unless a food has a standard of identity, caramel color may be used in foods generally at levels consistent with good manufacturing practice. The IPCS has concluded that caramel color does not exhibit carcinogenicity or mutagenicity, caramel color has excellent microbiological stability. When reacted with sulfites, caramel color may retain traces of sulfite after processing, however, in finished food products, labeling is usually required only for sulfite levels above 10 ppm. Caramel coloring may be derived from a variety of products that are themselves common allergens, starch hydrolysates, malt syrup. North American and European manufacturers mostly use glucose derived from corn or wheat to produce caramel color, which is highly processed and is generally considered gluten-free
5.
Sweetness
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Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are universally regarded as an experience, except perhaps in excess. Fructose is sweeter than glucose and sucrose and this has made possible the production of sugar syrups with the sweetness and certain other properties of sucrose starting from starch. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones. Some are sweet at very low concentrations, allowing their use as sugar substitutes. Such non-sugar sweeteners include saccharin and asapartame, other compounds, such as miraculin, may alter perception of sweetness itself. The chemosensory basis for detecting sweetness, which varies between individuals and species, has only begun to be understood since the late 20th century. One theoretical model of sweetness is the multipoint attachment theory, which involves multiple binding sites between a receptor and a sweet substance. Studies indicate that responsiveness to sugars and sweetness has very ancient evolutionary beginnings, newborn human infants also demonstrate preferences for high sugar concentrations and prefer solutions that are sweeter than lactose, the sugar found in breast milk. Sweetness appears to have the highest taste recognition threshold, being detectable at around 1 part in 200 of sucrose in solution, by comparison, bitterness appears to have the lowest detection threshold, at about 1 part in 2 million for quinine in solution. Even amongst leaf-eating primates, there is a tendency to prefer immature leaves, the sweet tooth thus has an ancient evolutionary heritage, and while food processing has changed consumption patterns, human physiology remains largely unchanged. A great diversity of compounds, such as aldehydes and ketones are sweet. Among common biological substances, all of the carbohydrates are sweet to at least some degree. Sucrose is the example of a sweet substance. Sucrose in solution has a sweetness perception rating of 1, for example, another sugar, fructose, is somewhat sweeter, being rated at 1.7 times the sweetness of sucrose. Some of the acids are mildly sweet, alanine, glycine. Some other amino acids are perceived as sweet and bitter. A number of plant species produce glycosides that are sweet at concentrations lower than sugar
6.
Carbonation
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Carbonation can refer to two chemical processes involving carbon dioxide, The dissolution in a liquid, also known as fizz or effervescence. The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure, when the pressure is reduced, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released. Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds and this occurs in the following cases, In biochemistry Our carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO. So important is this process that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme. In reinforced concrete construction Also known as neutralisation, it is a reaction between carbon dioxide in the air and calcium hydroxide and hydrated calcium silicate in the concrete. Carbonation and Acidity Dissolution of Marble in Hydrochloric Acid Demonstration Robert OLeary, ATR Infrared Spectroscopy method for measuring CO2 concentration in Beer. Describes in detail the theory and practice of measuring dissolved CO2 content in soft drinks and beer
7.
Caffeine
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Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant of the methylxanthine class. It is the worlds most widely consumed psychoactive drug, unlike many other psychoactive substances, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all parts of the world. There are several mechanisms of action to explain the effects of caffeine. The most prominent is that it blocks the action of adenosine on its receptor. Caffeine also stimulates certain portions of the nervous system. Caffeine is a bitter, white crystalline purine, a methylxanthine alkaloid and it is found in the seeds, nuts, or leaves of a number of plants native to South America and East Asia and helps to protect them against predator insects and prevent germination of nearby seeds. The most well known source of caffeine is the coffee bean, beverages containing caffeine are ingested to relieve or prevent drowsiness and to improve performance. To make these drinks, caffeine is extracted by steeping the plant product in water, caffeine-containing drinks, such as coffee, tea, and cola, are very popular, in 2005, 90% of North American adults consumed caffeine daily. Caffeine can have positive and negative health effects. It can treat and prevent the premature infant breathing disorders bronchopulmonary dysplasia of prematurity, Caffeine citrate is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines. It may confer a modest protective effect against some diseases, including Parkinsons disease, some people experience insomnia or sleep disruption if they consume caffeine, especially during the evening hours, but others show little disturbance. Evidence of a risk during pregnancy is equivocal, some authorities recommend that pregnant women limit consumption to the equivalent of two cups of coffee per day or less. Tolerance to the effects of increased blood pressure and heart rate. Caffeine is classified by the Food and Drug Administration as generally recognized as safe, toxic doses, over 10 grams per day for an adult, are much higher than typical doses of under 500 milligrams per day. A cup of coffee contains 80–175 mg of caffeine, depending on what bean is used, thus it requires roughly 50–100 ordinary cups of coffee to reach a lethal dose. However pure powdered caffeine, which is available as a dietary supplement, Caffeine is used in, Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants for both prevention and treatment. It may improve weight gain during therapy and reduce the incidence of cerebral palsy as well as reduce language, on the other hand, subtle long-term side effects are possible. Apnea of prematurity as a treatment, but not prevention
8.
Kola nut
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The kola nut is the fruit of the kola tree, a genus of trees that are native to the tropical rainforests of Africa. The caffeine-containing fruit of the tree is used as an ingredient in beverages. The kola nut is a caffeine-containing nut of evergreen trees of the genus Cola, primarily of the species Cola acuminata, Cola acuminata, an evergreen tree about 20 metres in height, has long, ovoid leaves pointed at both the ends with a leathery texture. The trees have flowers with purple spots, and star-shaped fruit. Inside the fruit, about a round or square seeds develop in a white seed-shell. The nut’s aroma is sweet and rose-like, the first taste is bitter, but it sweetens upon chewing. The nut can be boiled to extract the cola and this tree reaches 25 meters in height and is propagated through seeds. C. nitida and C. acuminata can easily be interchanged with other Cola species, Kola nuts comprise about 2% caffeine, as well as containing kolanin and theobromine. All three chemicals function as stimulants, the kola nut has a bitter flavor and contains caffeine. It is chewed in many West African cultures, individually or in a group setting and it is often used ceremonially, presented to chiefs or presented to guests. Human use of the nut, like the coffee berry and tea leaf. It is chewed in many West African cultures, individually or in a social setting, Kola nuts are an important part of the traditional spiritual practice of culture and religion in West Africa, particularly Niger, Nigeria and Liberia. The 1970s hit Goro City, by Manu Dibango, highlights the significance of kola nuts to the capital of Niger, Niamey. Kola nuts are used as an object and sacred offering during prayers, ancestor veneration, and significant life events, such as naming ceremonies, weddings. They are also used in a divination system called Obi divination. For this use, only kola nuts divided into four lobes are suitable and they are cast upon a special wooden board and the resulting patterns are read by a trained diviner. This ancient practice is currently enjoying increased growth within the United States and they were used as a form of currency in some West African people groups such as the Malinke and Bambara of Mali and Senegal. In the 1800s, a pharmacist in Georgia, John Pemberton, took extracts of kola and coca and mixed them with sugar, other ingredients and his accountant tasted it and called it Coca-Cola
9.
Cocaine
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Cocaine, also known as coke, is a strong stimulant mostly used as a recreational drug. It is commonly snorted, inhaled, or injected into the veins, mental effects may include loss of contact with reality, an intense feeling of happiness, or agitation. Physical symptoms may include a fast heart rate, sweating, high doses can result in very high blood pressure or body temperature. Effects begin within seconds to minutes of use and last between five and ninety minutes, Cocaine has a small number of accepted medical uses such as numbing and decreasing bleeding during nasal surgery. Cocaine is addictive due to its effect on the pathway in the brain. After a short period of use, there is a risk that dependence will occur. Its use also increases the risk of stroke, myocardial infarction, lung problems in those who smoke it, blood infections, Cocaine sold on the street is commonly mixed with local anesthetics, cornstarch, quinine, or sugar which can result in additional toxicity. Following repeated doses a person may have decreased ability to feel pleasure, Cocaine acts by inhibiting the reuptake of serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. This results in concentrations of these three neurotransmitters in the brain. It can easily cross the barrier and may lead to the breakdown of the barrier. Cocaine is made from the leaves of the plant which are mostly grown in South America. In 2013,419 kilograms were produced legally and it is estimated that the illegal market for cocaine is 100 to 500 billion USD each year. With further processing crack cocaine can be produced from cocaine, after cannabis, cocaine is the most frequently used illegal drug globally. Between 14 and 21 million people use the drug each year, use is highest in North America followed by Europe and South America. Between one and three percent of people in the world have used cocaine at some point in their life. In 2013 cocaine use resulted in 4,300 deaths. The leaves of the plant have been used by Peruvians since ancient times. Cocaine was first isolated from the leaves in 1860, since 1961 the international Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs has required countries to make recreational use of cocaine a crime
10.
Coca
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Coca is any of the four cultivated plants in the family Erythroxylaceae, native to western South America. The plant is grown as a crop in Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador. There are some reports that the plant is being cultivated in the south of Mexico as a cash crop and it also plays a role in many traditional Andean cultures as well as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Coca is known throughout the world for its psychoactive alkaloid, cocaine, the alkaloid content of coca leaves is low, between 0. 25% and 0. 77%. This means that chewing the leaves or drinking coca tea does not produce the high people experience with cocaine, Coca leaf extract had been used in Coca-Cola products since 1885, with cocaine being completely eliminated from the products in or around 1929. Extraction of cocaine from coca requires several solvents and a process known as an acid / base extraction. The coca plant resembles a blackthorn bush, and grows to a height of 2 to 3 metres, the branches are straight, and the leaves are thin, opaque, oval, and taper at the extremities. A marked characteristic of the leaf is an areolated portion bounded by two curved lines, one line on each side of the midrib, and more conspicuous on the under face of the leaf. The flowers mature into red berries, the leaves are sometimes eaten by the larvae of the moth Eloria noyesi. Erythroxylum coca var. ipadu – cultivated in the lowland Amazon Basin in Peru, Erythroxylum novogranatense Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense – a highland variety that is utilized in lowland areas. It is cultivated in drier regions found in Colombia, however, E. novogranatense is very adaptable to varying ecological conditions. The leaves have parallel lines on side of the central vein. Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense – grown primarily in Peru and Colombia, the leaves of E. novogranatense var. truxillense does not have parallel lines on either side of the central vein like all other varieties. All four of the cultivated cocas were domesticated in pre-Columbian times and are closely related to each other than to any other species. There are two theories relating to the evolution of the cultivated cocas. Recent research based on genetic evidence does not support this linear evolution, there may be a common, but undiscovered ancestor. Wild populations of Erythroxylum coca var. coca are found in the eastern Andes, the two subspecies of Erythroxylum coca are almost indistinguishable phenotypically. Erythroxylum novogranatense var. novogranatense and Erythroxylum novogranatense var. truxillense are phenotypically similar, under the older Cronquist system of classifying flowering plants, this was placed in an order Linales, more modern systems place it in the order Malpighiales
11.
Vanilla
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Vanilla is a flavoring derived from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from the Mexican species, flat-leaved vanilla. The word vanilla, derived from the diminutive of the Spanish word vaina, is translated simply as little pod, pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people cultivated the vine of the vanilla orchid, called tlilxochitl by the Aztecs. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés is credited with introducing both vanilla and chocolate to Europe in the 1520s, pollination is required to set the fruit from which the flavoring is derived. In 1837, Belgian botanist Charles François Antoine Morren discovered this fact, the method proved financially unworkable and was not deployed commercially. In 1841, Edmond Albius, a slave who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, hand-pollination allowed global cultivation of the plant. Three major species of vanilla currently are grown globally, all of which derive from a species found in Mesoamerica. Vanilla is the second-most expensive spice after saffron, because growing the vanilla seed pods is labor-intensive, despite the expense, vanilla is highly valued for its flavor. As a result, vanilla is used in both commercial and domestic baking, perfume manufacture, and aromatherapy. According to popular belief, the Totonac people, who inhabit the east coast of Mexico in the state of Veracruz, were the first to cultivate vanilla. According to Totonac mythology, the tropical orchid was born when Princess Xanat, forbidden by her father from marrying a mortal, the lovers were captured and beheaded. Where their blood touched the ground, the vine of the tropical orchid grew, in the 15th century, Aztecs invading from the central highlands of Mexico conquered the Totonacs, and soon developed a taste for the vanilla pods. They named the fruit tlilxochitl, or black flower, after the matured fruit, subjugated by the Aztecs, the Totonacs paid tribute by sending vanilla fruit to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan. Until the mid-19th century, Mexico was the producer of vanilla. In 1819, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla fruits to the islands of Réunion, after Edmond Albius discovered how to pollinate the flowers quickly by hand, the pods began to thrive. Soon, the orchids were sent from Réunion to the Comoros Islands, Seychelles. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros Islands produced 200 metric tons of vanilla beans, the market price of vanilla rose dramatically in the late 1970s after a tropical cyclone ravaged key croplands. Prices remained high through the early 1980s despite the introduction of Indonesian vanilla, in the mid-1980s, the cartel that had controlled vanilla prices and distribution since its creation in 1930 disbanded. Prices dropped 70% over the few years, to nearly US$20 per kilogram
12.
Pharmacist
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Pharmacists, also known as chemists or druggists, are healthcare professionals who practice in pharmacy, the field of health sciences focusing on safe and effective medication use. A pharmacist is a member of the care team directly involved with patient care. This is mated to anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology, Pharmacists interpret and communicate this specialized knowledge to patients, physicians, and other health care providers. Among other licensing requirements, different countries require pharmacists to hold either a Bachelor of Pharmacy, Master of Pharmacy, in most countries, the profession is subject to professional regulation. Depending on the scope of practice, pharmacists may contribute to prescribing and administering certain medications in some jurisdictions. Pharmacists may also practice in a variety of settings, including industry, wholesaling, research, academia, military. Historically, the role of pharmacists as a healthcare practitioner was to check. Pharmacists monitor the health and progress of patients to ensure the safe, Pharmacists may practice compounding, however, many medicines are now produced by pharmaceutical companies in a standard dosage and drug delivery form. One of the most important roles that pharmacists are currently taking on is one of pharmaceutical care, Pharmaceutical care involves taking direct responsibility for patients and their disease states, medications, and management of each to improve outcomes. Pharmacists are often the first point-of-contact for patients with health inquiries, thus pharmacists have a significant role in assessing medication management in patients, and in referring patients to physicians. In most countries, pharmacists must obtain a university degree at a school or related institution. In many contexts, students must first complete pre-professional coursework, followed by four years of professional academic studies to obtain a degree in pharmacy. Additional curriculum may cover diagnosis with emphasis on tests, disease state management, therapeutics. On graduation, pharmacists are licensed, either nationally or regionally, some may undergo further specialized training, such as in cardiology or oncology. Specialties include, The Australian Pharmacy Council is the independent accreditation agency for Australian pharmacists and it conducts examinations on behalf of the Pharmacy Board of Australia towards eligibility for registration. The Australian College of Pharmacy provides continuing education programs for pharmacists, wages for pharmacists in Australia appear to have stagnated. The award wages for a pharmacist is $812 a week, Pharmacist graduates are the lowest paid university graduates most years. Most pharmacists do earn above the wage, the average male pharmacist earns $65,000
13.
John Pemberton
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John Stith Pemberton was an American pharmacist, and is best known for being the founder of Coca-Cola. Pemberton was born July 8,1831, in Knoxville, Georgia and he entered the Reform Medical College of Georgia in Macon, and in 1850, at the age of nineteen, he was licensed to practice pharmacy. Shortly thereafter, he met Ann Eliza Clifford Lewis of Columbus, Georgia, known to her friends as Cliff and they were married in Columbus in 1853. Their only child, Charles Ney Pemberton, was born in 1854 and they lived in the Pemberton House in Columbus. During the American Civil War, Pemberton served in the Third Cavalry Battalion of the Georgia State Guard and he achieved the rank of lieutenant colonel. In April 1865, Pemberton sustained a wound to the chest during the Battle of Columbus. He soon became addicted to the used to ease his pain. In 1866, seeking a cure for his addiction, he began to experiment with painkillers that would serve as alternatives to morphine. His first recipe was Dr. Tuggles Compound Syrup of Globe Flower, in which the active ingredient was derived from the buttonbush, a toxic plant which is common in Georgia. He next began experimenting with coca and coca wines, eventually creating a recipe which contained extracts of kola nut and damiana, according to Coca-Cola historian Phil Mooney, Pembertons world-famous soda was created in Columbus, Georgia and carried to Atlanta. In 1886, when Atlanta and Fulton County enacted temperance legislation, Pemberton found himself forced to produce an alternative to his French Wine Coca. Pemberton relied on Atlanta drugstore owner-proprietor Willis E. Venable to test, and help him perfect, the recipe for the beverage, Pemberton decided then to sell it as a fountain drink rather than a medicine. Frank Mason Robinson came up with the name Coca-Cola for the alliterative sound, Robinson also hand wrote the Spencerian script on the bottles and ads. Soon after Coca-Cola hit the market, Pemberton fell ill and nearly bankrupt, sick and desperate, he began selling rights to his formula to his business partners in Atlanta. Part of his motivation to sell actually derived from his expensive continuing morphine addiction, Pemberton had a hunch that his formula some day will be a national drink, so he attempted to retain a share of the ownership to leave to his son. However, Pembertons son wanted the money, so in 1888 Pemberton, john Pemberton died from stomach cancer at age 57 in August 1888. At the time of his death, he suffered from poverty. His body was returned to Columbus, Georgia, where he was buried at Linwood Cemetery and his gravemarker is engraved with symbols showing his service in the Confederate army and his pride in being a Freemason
14.
Coca wine
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Coca wine is an alcoholic beverage combining wine with cocaine. One popular brand was Vin Mariani, developed in 1863 by French-Corsican entrepreneur Angelo Mariani, at the end of the 19th century, the fear of drug abuse made coca-based drinks less popular. This led to the prohibition of cocaine in the United States in 1914 via the Harrison Narcotics Tax Act, Coca wine itself became illegal in the United States when its other main drug, alcohol, was banned just a few years later with Eighteenth Amendment in 1920. In Atlanta, John Pemberton, a pharmacist, developed a beverage based on Vin Mariani and it proved popular among American consumers. In 1886, when Georgia introduced Prohibition, Pemberton had to replace the wine in his recipe with non-alcoholic syrup
15.
Angelo Mariani (chemist)
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Angelo Mariani or Ange-François Mariani was a French chemist from the island of Corsica. He is best known as the inventor of the first cocawine, Vin Mariani and his contribution was to introduce the coca leaf indirectly to the general public. Mariani imported tons of coca leaves and used an extract from them in many products and it was Marianis coca wine, though, that made him rich and famous. Mariani was also awarded with a medal of appreciation from Pope Leo XIII and this tonic wine has been described as the ancestor of Coca-Cola
16.
Sugar substitute
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A sugar substitute is a food additive that provides a sweet taste like that of sugar while containing significantly less food energy. Some sugar substitutes are produced by nature, and others produced synthetically and those that are not produced by nature are, in general, called artificial sweeteners. An important class of sugar substitutes is known as high-intensity sweeteners and these are compounds with many times the sweetness of sucrose, common table sugar. As a result, much less sweetener is required and energy contribution is often negligible, the sensation of sweetness caused by these compounds is sometimes notably different from sucrose, so they are often used in complex mixtures that achieve the most natural sweet sensation. If the sucrose that is replaced has contributed to the texture of the product, in the United States, seven intensely sweet sugar substitutes have been approved for use. They are stevia, aspartame, sucralose, neotame, acesulfame potassium, saccharin, cyclamates are used outside the U. S. but have been prohibited in the U. S. since 1969. Others, which may or may not be approved depending on jurisdiction, include allulose, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration regulates artificial sweeteners as food additives. Food additives must be approved by the FDA, which publishes a generally recognized as safe list of additives, stevia is exempt under the FDAs GRAS policy due to its being a natural substance in wide use well before 1958, and the FDA has approved it on these grounds. The conclusions about safety are based on a review of a large body of information. The majority of sugar substitutes approved for use are artificially synthesized compounds. However, some bulk natural sugar substitutes are known, including sorbitol and xylitol, which are found in berries, fruit, vegetables and it is not commercially viable to extract these products from fruits and vegetables, so they are produced by catalytic hydrogenation of the appropriate reducing sugar. For example, xylose is converted to xylitol, lactose to lactitol, other natural substitutes are known, but these have yet to gain official approval for food use. Sorbitol and xylitol are examples of sugar alcohols and these are, in general, less sweet than sucrose but have similar bulk properties and can be used in a wide range of food products. Sometimes the sweetness profile is fine-tuned by mixing these with high-intensity sweeteners, as with all food products, the development of a formulation to replace sucrose is a complex proprietary process. This allows them to eat the foods they normally would while allowing them to lose weight. Dental care – Carbohydrates and sugars usually adhere to the tooth enamel, the bacteria convert the sugar to acids that decay the teeth. Sugar substitutes, unlike sugar, do not erode teeth as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque. A sweetener that can actually benefit dental health is xylitol, which tends to prevent bacteria from adhering to the surface, thus preventing plaque formation
17.
Sugar
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Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. There are various types of derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose, fructose, the table sugar or granulated sugar most customarily used as food is sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sugar is used in prepared foods and it is added to some foods, in the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Other disaccharides include maltose from malted grain, and lactose from milk, longer chains of sugars are called oligosaccharides or polysaccharides. Some other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste, low-calorie food substitutes for sugar, described as artificial sweeteners, include aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose. Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial extraction in sugarcane, the world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms of sugar each year, equivalent to over 260 food calories per person, since the latter part of the twentieth century, it has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined sugars, is good for human health. Sugar has been linked to obesity, and suspected of, or fully implicated as a cause in the occurrence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, dementia, macular degeneration, the etymology reflects the spread of the commodity. The English word sugar ultimately originates from the Sanskrit शर्करा, via Arabic سكر as granular or candied sugar, the contemporary Italian word is zucchero, whereas the Spanish and Portuguese words, azúcar and açúcar, respectively, have kept a trace of the Arabic definite article. The Old French word is zuchre and the contemporary French, sucre, the earliest Greek word attested is σάκχαρις. The English word jaggery, a brown sugar made from date palm sap or sugarcane juice, has a similar etymological origin – Portuguese jagara from the Sanskrit शर्करा. Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times and it was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness, sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule, one of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India. Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century AD, but only as an imported medicine and it is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut, sugar is used only for medical purposes. Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store, crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century AD
18.
High-fructose corn syrup
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High-fructose corn syrup is a sweetener made from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert some of its glucose into fructose. HFCS was first marketed in the early 1970s by the Clinton Corn Processing Company, together with the Japanese Agency of Industrial Science and Technology where the enzyme was discovered in 1965. As a sweetener, HFCS is often compared to granulated sugar, uses and exports of HFCS from American producers have continued to grow over the early 21st Century. Consuming added sugars, particularly as sweetened soft drinks, is linked to weight gain. In the U. S. HFCS is among the sweeteners that mostly replaced sucrose in the food industry, the relative sweetness of HFCS55, used most commonly in soft drinks, is comparable to sucrose. HFCS is the ingredient in most brands of commercial pancake syrup. Because of its similar sugar profile and lower price, HFCS has been used illegally to stretch honey, assays to detect adulteration with HFCS use differential scanning calorimetry and other advanced testing methods. In apiculture in the United States, HFCS is a substitute for some managed honey bee colonies during times when nectar is in low supply. However, when HFCS is heated to about 45 °C, hydroxymethylfurfural, although some researchers cite honey substitution with HFCS as one factor among many for colony collapse disorder, there is no evidence that HFCS is a solitary cause. Further, compared to honey, HFCS may be a deficiency in the diet for developing genes associated with protein metabolism. In the contemporary process, corn is milled to extract corn starch and it is necessary to carry out the extraction process in the presence of mercuric chloride in order to inhibit endogenous starch-degrading enzymes. High-temperature enzymes are added to further metabolize the starch and convert the sugars to fructose. The first enzyme added is alpha-amylase, which breaks the long chains down into shorter sugar chains – oligosaccharides, glucoamylase is mixed in and converts them to glucose, the resulting solution is filtered to remove protein, then using activated carbon, and then demineralized using ion-exchange resins. Some is processed into HFCS90 by liquid chromatography, then mixed with HFCS42 to form HFCS55, the enzymes used in the process are made by microbial fermentation. HFCS is 24% water, the rest being mainly fructose and glucose with 0–5% unprocessed glucose oligomers, there are several varieties of HFCS, numbered by the percentage of fructose they contain, HFCS42 is used in beverages, processed foods, cereals, and baked goods. HFCS55 is mostly used in soft drinks, HFCS65 is used in soft drinks dispensed by Coca-Cola Freestyle machines. HFCS90 has some niche uses but is mixed with HFCS42 to make HFCS55. Commercial production of corn syrup began in 1864, in the late 1950s, scientists at Clinton Corn Processing Company of Clinton, Iowa tried to turn glucose from corn starch into fructose, but the process was not scalable
19.
Brand
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A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others. Brands are used in business, marketing, and advertising, however, the term has been extended to mean a strategic personality for a product or company, so that ‘brand’ now suggests the values and promises that a consumer may perceive and buy into. Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company from competitors, the key components that form a brands toolbox include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies. Brand equity is the totality of a brands worth and is validated by assessing the effectiveness of these branding components. To reach such an invaluable brand prestige requires a commitment to a way of doing business. A corporation who exhibits a strong brand culture is dedicated on producing intangible outputs such as customer satisfaction, reduced price sensitivity and customer loyalty. A brand is in essence a promise to its customers that they can expect long-term security, when a customer is familiar with a brand or favours it incomparably to its competitors, this is when a corporation has reached a high level of brand equity. Many companies are beginning to understand there is often little to differentiate between products in the 21st century. Branding remains the last bastion for differentiation, in accounting, a brand defined as an intangible asset is often the most valuable asset on a corporation’s balance sheet. The word ‘brand’ is often used as a referring to the company that is strongly identified with a brand. Marque or make are often used to denote a brand of motor vehicle, a concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a associated with a commodity. The word, brand, derives from Dutch brand meaning to burn and this product was developed at Dhosi Hill, an extinct volcano in northern India. Roman glassmakers branded their works, with Ennion being the most prominent, the Italians used brands in the form of watermarks on paper in the 13th century. Blind Stamps, hallmarks, and silver-makers marks are all types of brand, industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red-triangle brand as the worlds first trademark. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, which has stamped or carved its bricks with the same proto-logo since 1731, cattle-branding has been used since Ancient Egypt. The term, maverick, originally meaning an un-branded calf, came from a Texas pioneer rancher, Sam Maverick, use of the word maverick spread among cowboys and came to apply to unbranded calves found wandering alone
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Pepsi
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Pepsi is a carbonated soft drink produced and manufactured by PepsiCo. Originally created and developed in 1893 and introduced as Brads Drink, it was renamed as Pepsi-Cola on August 28,1898 and it is currently known in North America alternatively as Pepsi-Cola as of 2014. The drink Pepsi was first introduced as Brads Drink in New Bern, North Carolina, United States, in 1893 by Caleb Bradham and it was renamed Pepsi Cola in 1898 after the root of the word dyspepsia and the kola nuts used in the recipe. The original recipe also included sugar and vanilla, Bradham sought to create a fountain drink that was appealing and would aid in digestion and boost energy. In 1903, Bradham moved the bottling of Pepsi-Cola from his drugstore to a rented warehouse and that year, Bradham sold 7,968 gallons of syrup. The next year, Pepsi was sold in bottles. In 1909, automobile race pioneer Barney Oldfield was the first celebrity to endorse Pepsi-Cola, describing it as A bully drink. refreshing, invigorating, the advertising theme Delicious and Healthful was then used over the next two decades. In 1926, Pepsi received its first logo redesign since the design of 1905. In 1929, the logo was changed again, assets were sold and Roy C. Megargel bought the Pepsi trademark. Megargel was unsuccessful, and soon Pepsis assets were purchased by Charles Guth, Loft was a candy manufacturer with retail stores that contained soda fountains. He sought to replace Coca-Cola at his stores fountains after Coke refused to him a discount on syrup. Guth then had Lofts chemists reformulate the Pepsi-Cola syrup formula, on three separate occasions between 1922 and 1933, The Coca-Cola Company was offered the opportunity to purchase the Pepsi-Cola company, and it declined on each occasion. The original trademark application for Pepsi-Cola was filed on September 23,1902 with registration approved on June 16,1903, in the applications statement, Caleb Bradham describes the trademark and indicated that the mark was in continuous use for his business since August 1,1901. The Pepsi-Colas description is a syrup for soda water. The trademark expired on April 15,1904, a second Pepsi-Cola trademark is on record with the USPTO. The federal status for the 1905 trademark is registered and renewed and is owned by PepsiCo of Purchase, in 2014, the 1940 wordmark was used again and replacing the current wordmark on many cans. During the Great Depression, Pepsi gained popularity following the introduction in 1936 of a 12-ounce bottle, coming at a time of economic crisis, the campaign succeeded in boosting Pepsis status. From 1936 to 1938, Pepsi-Colas profits doubled, Pepsis success under Guth came while the Loft Candy business was faltering
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Cola wars
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The cola wars are a series of mutually-targeted television advertisements and marketing campaigns since the 1980s between soft drink producers, and long time rivals, The Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo. The battle between the two dominant brands intensified to such an extent that the term “Cola wars” was used to describe the feud, each employed numerous advertising and marketing campaigns to outdo the other. Coca-Cola advertising has historically focused on wholesomeness and nostalgia for childhood, Coca-Cola advertising is often characterized as family-friendly and often relies on cute characters. In the late 1990s, Pepsi launched its most successful strategy of the Cola Wars. Consumers were invited to Drink Pepsi, Get Stuff and collect Pepsi Points on billions of packages and cups, after researching and testing the program for over two years to ensure that it resonated with consumers, Pepsi launched Pepsi Stuff, which was an instant success. Tens of millions of consumers participated, Pepsi outperformed Coke during the summer of the 1996 Summer Olympics - held in Cokes hometown - where Coke was a lead sponsor of the Games. Due to its success, the program was expanded to include Mountain Dew, the company continued to run the program for many years, continually innovating with new features each year. The Pepsi Stuff promotion became the subject of a lawsuit, in one of the many commercials, Pepsi showed a young man in the cockpit of a Harrier Jump Jet. Below ran the caption Harrier Jet,7 million Pepsi Points, there was a mechanism for buying additional Pepsi Points to complete a Pepsi Stuff order. John Leonard, of Seattle, Washington, sent in a Pepsi Stuff request with the amount of points. Pepsi did not accept the request and Leonard filed suit, the judgment was that a reasonable person viewing the commercial would realize that Pepsi was not, in fact, offering a Harrier Jet. In response to the suit, Pepsi added the words, Just Kidding, Coca-Cola and Pepsi engaged in a cyberwar with the re-introduction of Pepsi Stuff in 2005, Coca-Cola retaliated with Coke Rewards. This cola war has now concluded, with Pepsi Stuff ending its services, both were loyalty programs that give away prizes and product to consumers who, after collecting bottle caps and 12- or 24-pack box tops, then submitted codes online for a certain number of points. However, Pepsis online partnership with Amazon allowed consumers to buy various products with their Pepsi Points, both Coca-Cola and Pepsi previously had a partnership with the iTunes Store. In 1985, Coca-Cola and Pepsi were launched into space aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on STS-51-F, the companies had designed special cans to test packaging and dispensing techniques for use in zero G conditions. The experiment was classified a failure by the crew, primarily due to the lack of both refrigeration and gravity. It held 1.65 liters each of Coca-Cola and Diet Coke, an astronaut would dispense the carbonated drink of choice into a Fluids Transfer Unit or sealed drinking cup through a quick connect on the dispenser. To save power, the dispenser would chill the liquid on demand via cooling coils between the container and the quick connect fitting
22.
Citrus
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Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops like oranges, lemons, grapefruit, pomelo, the most recent research indicates an origin in Australia, New Caledonia and New Guinea. Citrus fruit has been cultivated in an area since ancient times. At various times, citrus plants were thought to be native to Asia, Europe, but the European oranges were originally brought from India at around the time of Alexander the Great, and the native oranges of Florida actually originated with the Spanish Conquistadors. The lemon reached Europe during the time of classical Rome, the generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as Citron or a conifer tree. It is somehow related to the ancient Greek word for cedar and this may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar. Collectively, Citrus fruits and plants are known by the Romance loanword agrumes. The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years, Citrus plants diverged from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, which was about when it diverged from the closely related severinia, for example the Chinese box orange. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts, the three original species in the citrus genus that have been hybridized into most modern commercial citrus fruit are the mandarin orange, pummelo, and citron. Within the last few years, all common citrus fruits were created by crossing those original species. Something similar has occurred with the array of chili peppers originating in the hybridization of a few initial species. Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, apart from these four core citrus species, there are Australian limes and the recently discovered Mangshanyegan. Kumquats and Clymenia sp. are now considered to belong within the citrus genus. Trifoliate orange, which is used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup. Phylogenetic analysis suggests the species of Oxanthera from New Caledonia should be transferred to the genus Citrus and these plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching 5–15 m tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin. The flowers are solitary or in corymbs, each flower 2–4 cm diameter, with five white petals and numerous stamens. The fruit is a hesperidium, a berry, globose to elongated, 4–30 cm long and 4–20 cm diameter. The outermost layer of the pericarp is a called the flavedo
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Essential oil
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Not to be confused with Essential fatty acid An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted. An oil is essential in the sense that it contains the essence of the plants fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived, Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, absolute oil extraction, resin tapping and they are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products. Essential oils have been used throughout history. The earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils is believed to be that of Ibn al-Baitar, rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed. For example, methyl salicylate rather than oil of wintergreen, interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in an oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame. Claims for the efficacy of treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries. Most common essential oils such as lavender, peppermint, tea oil, patchouli. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, as the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang which is purifed through a fractional distillation, the recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Popular hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, the use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing. Some plant hydrosols have unpleasant smells and are not sold. Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed, due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry, before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing. Most flowers contain too little oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate
24.
Orange (fruit)
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The orange is the fruit of the citrus species Citrus × sinensis in the family Rutaceae. It is also called orange, to distinguish it from the related Citrus × aurantium. The sweet orange reproduces asexually, varieties of sweet orange arise through mutations, the orange is a hybrid between pomelo and mandarin. It has genes that are ~25% pomelo and ~75% mandarin, however, it is not a simple backcrossed BC1 hybrid, the chloroplast genes, and therefore the maternal line, seem to be pomelo. The sweet orange has had its genome sequenced. Earlier estimates of the percentage of pomelo genes varying from ~50% to 6% have been reported, sweet oranges were mentioned in Chinese literature in 314 BC. As of 1987, orange trees were found to be the most cultivated fruit tree in the world, orange trees are widely grown in tropical and subtropical climates for their sweet fruit. The fruit of the tree can be eaten fresh, or processed for its juice or fragrant peel. As of 2012, sweet oranges accounted for approximately 70% of citrus production, in 2014,70.9 million tonnes of oranges were grown worldwide, with Brazil producing 24% of the world total followed by China and India. All citrus trees belong to the single genus Citrus and remain almost entirely interfertile and this includes grapefruits, lemons, limes, oranges, and various other types and hybrids. The fruit of any citrus tree is considered a hesperidium, a kind of modified berry, different names have been given to the many varieties of the genus. Orange applies primarily to the sweet orange – Citrus sinensis Osbeck, the orange tree is an evergreen, flowering tree, with an average height of 9 to 10 m, although some very old specimens can reach 15 m. Its oval leaves, alternately arranged, are 4 to 10 cm long and have crenulate margins, when unripe, the fruit is green. The grainy irregular rind of the fruit can range from bright orange to yellow-orange. Like all other fruits, the sweet orange is non-climacteric. The Citrus sinensis group is subdivided into four classes with distinct characteristics, common oranges, blood or pigmented oranges, navel oranges, other citrus groups also known as oranges are, Bitter orange, also known as Seville orange, sour orange, bigarade orange and marmalade orange. Like the sweet orange, it is a pomelo x mandarin hybrid, bergamot orange, grown mainly in Italy for its peel, producing a primary essence for perfumes, also used to flavor Earl Grey tea. It is a hybrid, probably bitter orange x limetta, trifoliate orange, sometimes included in the genus
25.
Lime (fruit)
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A lime is a hybrid citrus fruit, which is typically round, lime green, 3–6 centimetres in diameter, and containing acidic juice vesicles. There are several species of trees whose fruits are called limes, including the Key lime, Persian lime, kaffir lime. Limes are an excellent source of vitamin C, and are used to accent the flavours of foods. Plants with fruit called limes have diverse origins, limes do not form a monophyletic group. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron, the mandarin, Australian limes Australian desert lime Australian finger lime Australian lime Blood lime Kaffir lime, also called a kieffer lime, makrut, or magrood, a papeda relative. This is one of three most widely produced limes globally, Key lime, also called Mexican, West Indian, or bartenders lime. This is also one of three most widely produced limes globally, musk lime, a kumquat hybrid Persian lime, with cultivars including the Tahiti and Bearss limes. This is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer, rangpur lime, a mandarin orange – rough lemon hybrid Spanish lime, also called mamoncillo, mamón, ginep, quenepa, or limoncillo), not a citrus. Sweet lime etc. assorted citrus hybrids) including varieties called sweet lemon, sweet limetta or Mediterranean sweet lemon, lumia, Indian or Palestinian sweet lime. Limequat Note that the species known in Britain as lime trees. To prevent scurvy during the 19th century, British sailors were issued a daily allowance of citrus, such as lemon, the British sailor thus acquired the nickname, Limey because of their usage of limes. In 2013, the world production of lemons and limes was 15.42 million tonnes. Limes have higher contents of sugars and acids than do lemons, lime juice may be squeezed from fresh limes, or purchased in bottles in both unsweetened and sweetened varieties. Lime juice is used to make limeade, and as an ingredient in many cocktails, lime pickles are an integral part of Indian cuisine. South Indian cuisine is based on lime, having either lemon pickle or lime pickle is considered an essential of Onam Sadhya. In cooking, lime is valued both for the acidity of its juice and the aroma of its zest. It is an ingredient in authentic Mexican, Vietnamese and Thai dishes
26.
Peel (fruit)
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Peel, also known as rind or skin, is the outer protective layer of a fruit or vegetable which can be peeled off. A fruit with a thick peel, such as a fruit, is called a hesperidium. In hesperidiums, the layer is peeled off together with the outer layer. The flavedo and albedo, respectively, are the exocarp and the mesocarp, the juicy layer inside the peel is the endocarp. Depending on the thickness and taste, fruit peel is sometimes eaten as part of the fruit, in some cases the peel is unpleasant or inedible, in which case it is removed and discarded, such as with bananas or grapefruits. The peel of some fruits — for example, pomegranates — is high in tannins and other polyphenols, the peel of citrus fruits is bitter and generally not eaten raw, but may be used in cooking, e. g. chenpi. In gastronomy, the outermost, colored part of the peel is called the zest, the fleshy white part of the peel, bitter when raw in most species, is used as succade or is prepared with sugar to make marmalade or fruit soup. Fruit allergies make up ten percent of all food related allergies. Banana peel Fruit anatomy, describing the terms of fruit
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Cinnamon
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Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. Cinnamon is used in sweet and savoury foods. The term cinnamon also refers to its mid-brown colour, Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae, only a few Cinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice. The English word cinnamon, attested in English since the 15th century, derives from the Greek κιννάμωμον kinnámōmon, via Latin, the Greek was borrowed from a Phoenician word, which was similar to the related Hebrew qinnamon. The name cassia, first recorded in English around AD1000, was borrowed via Latin and ultimately derives from Hebrew qtsīʿāh, Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BCE, the first Greek reference to kasia is found in a poem by Sappho in the seventh century BCE. According to Herodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense, myrrh, and ladanum, the phoenix was reputed to build its nest from cinnamon and cassia. Herodotus mentions other writers who believed the source of cassia was the home of Dionysos, egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia from Hellenistic times onward. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon, as well as incense, myrrh, Cinnamon was brought around the Arabian peninsula on rafts without rudders or sails or oars, taking advantage of the winter trade winds. Pliny also mentions cassia as a agent for wine. According to Pliny, a Roman pound of cassia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost up to 300 denarii, diocletians Edict on Maximum Prices from 301 AD gives a price of 125 denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25 denarii per day. Malabathrum leaves were used in cooking and for distilling an oil used in a sauce for oysters by the Roman gourmet Gaius Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is among the spices that, according to Apicius, any good kitchen should contain, through the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the ports of Egypt. Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic, Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century that traders had made this up to charge more, but the story remained current in Byzantium as late as 1310. The first mention that the spice grew in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwinis Athar al-bilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad about 1270 and this was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292. Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, venetian traders from Italy held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria
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Acid
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An acid is a molecule or ion capable of donating a hydron, or, alternatively, capable of forming a covalent bond with an electron pair. The first category of acids is the donors or Brønsted acids. In the special case of solutions, proton donors form the hydronium ion H3O+ and are known as Arrhenius acids. Brønsted and Lowry generalized the Arrhenius theory to include non-aqueous solvents, acids form aqueous solutions with a sour taste, can turn blue litmus red, and react with bases and certain metals to form salts. The word acid is derived from the Latin acidus/acēre meaning sour, an aqueous solution of an acid has a pH less than 7 and is colloquially also referred to as acid, while the strict definition refers only to the solute. A lower pH means a higher acidity, and thus a higher concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution. Chemicals or substances having the property of an acid are said to be acidic, common aqueous acids include hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, sulfuric acid, and citric acid. As these examples show, acids can be solutions or pure substances, strong acids and some concentrated weak acids are corrosive, but there are exceptions such as carboranes and boric acid. The second category of acids are Lewis acids, which form a covalent bond with an electron pair, however, hydrogen chloride, acetic acid, and most other Brønsted-Lowry acids cannot form a covalent bond with an electron pair and are therefore not Lewis acids. Conversely, many Lewis acids are not Arrhenius or Brønsted-Lowry acids, in modern terminology, an acid is implicitly a Brønsted acid and not a Lewis acid, since chemists almost always refer to a Lewis acid explicitly as a Lewis acid. Modern definitions are concerned with the chemical reactions common to all acids. Most acids encountered in life are aqueous solutions, or can be dissolved in water, so the Arrhenius. The Brønsted-Lowry definition is the most widely used definition, unless otherwise specified, hydronium ions are acids according to all three definitions. Interestingly, although alcohols and amines can be Brønsted-Lowry acids, they can function as Lewis bases due to the lone pairs of electrons on their oxygen and nitrogen atoms. The Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius attributed the properties of acidity to hydrogen ions or protons in 1884, an Arrhenius acid is a substance that, when added to water, increases the concentration of H+ ions in the water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid can also be described as a substance that increases the concentration of ions when added to water. Examples include molecular substances such as HCl and acetic acid, an Arrhenius base, on the other hand, is a substance which increases the concentration of hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Thus, an Arrhenius acid could also be said to be one that decreases hydroxide concentration, in an acidic solution, the concentration of hydronium ions is greater than 10−7 moles per liter
29.
Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
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Nutmeg
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Nutmeg is one of the two spices – the other being mace – derived from several species of tree in the genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, a tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas of Indonesia. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form. This is the tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices, obtained from different parts of the plant. Several other commercial products are produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins. The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, is native to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas, other species used to adulterate the spice include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and M. malabarica from India. In the 17th-century work Hortus Botanicus Malabaricus, Hendrik van Rheede records that Indians learned the usage of nutmeg from the Indonesians through ancient trade routes, Nutmeg trees are dioecious plants which are propagated sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive, epicotyl grafting, approach grafting, and patch budding have proved successful, with epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or marcotting, is an alternative though not preferred method because of its low success rate, Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater. In Indonesian cuisine, nutmeg is used in dishes, mainly in many spicy soups, such as some variant of soto, konro, oxtail soup, sup iga, bakso. It is also used in gravy for meat dishes, such as beef stew, ribs with tomato, to European derived dishes such as bistik, rolade. Sliced nutmeg fruit flesh could be made as manisan, either wet, in Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended or boiled to make iced nutmeg juice, in Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet, as well as savoury, dishes. It is also added in quantities as a medicine for infants. It may also be used in quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India, in Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In traditional European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in dishes and in processed meat products, they are also used in soups, sauces
31.
Phosphoric acid
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Phosphoric acid is a mineral acid having the chemical formula H3PO4. Orthophosphoric acid refers to acid, which is the IUPAC name for this compound. The prefix ortho is used to distinguish the acid from related phosphoric acids, orthophosphoric acid is a non-toxic acid, which, when pure, is a solid at room temperature and pressure. The conjugate base of phosphoric acid is the phosphate ion, H 2PO−4, which in turn has a conjugate base of hydrogen phosphate, HPO2−4. Phosphates are nutritious for all forms of life, Phosphoric acids and phosphates are also important in biology. The most common source of acid is an 85% aqueous solution, such solutions are colourless, odourless. The 85% solution is a liquid, but still pourable. Although phosphoric acid does not meet the definition of a strong acid. Because of the percentage of phosphoric acid in this reagent. For the sake of labeling and simplicity, the 85% represents H3PO4 as if it were all orthophosphoric acid, dilute aqueous solutions of phosphoric acid exist in the ortho- form. Orthophosphoric acid molecules can combine with themselves to form a variety of compounds which are referred to as phosphoric acids. Anhydrous phosphoric acid, a low melting solid, is obtained by dehydration of 85% phosphoric acid by heating under a vacuum. The anion after the second dissociation, HPO2−4, is the phosphate anion. The anion after the third dissociation, PO3−4, is the phosphate or orthophosphate anion, for each of the dissociation reactions shown above, there is a separate acid dissociation constant, called Ka1, Ka2, and Ka3 given at 25 °C. Associated with these three dissociation constants are corresponding pKa1=2.12, pKa2=7.21, and pKa3=12.67 values at 25 °C, similarly, the non-toxic, anion salts of triprotic organic citric acid are also often used to make buffers. Phosphates are found pervasively in biology, especially in the derived from phosphorylated sugars, such as DNA, RNA. There is an article on phosphate as an anion or its salts. Upon heating orthophosphoric acid, condensation of the units can be induced by driving off the water formed from condensation
32.
Citric acid
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Citric acid is a weak organic tricarboxylic acid having the chemical formula C6H8O7. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits, in biochemistry, it is an intermediate in the citric acid cycle, which occurs in the metabolism of all aerobic organisms. More than a million tons of acid are manufactured every year. It is used widely as an acidifier, as a flavoring and chelating agent, a citrate is a derivative of citric acid, that is, the salts, esters, and the polyatomic anion found in solution. An example of the former, a salt is trisodium citrate, when part of a salt, the formula of the citrate ion is written as C6H5O73− or C3H5O33−. Citric acid exists in greater than trace amounts in a variety of fruits and vegetables, lemons and limes have particularly high concentrations of the acid, it can constitute as much as 8% of the dry weight of these fruits. The concentrations of acid in citrus fruits range from 0.005 mol/L for oranges and grapefruits to 0.30 mol/L in lemons. Within species, these values vary depending on the cultivar and the circumstances in which the fruit was grown, wehmer discovered Penicillium mold could produce citric acid from sugar. However, microbial production of citric acid did not become important until World War I disrupted Italian citrus exports. In this production technique, which is still the major route to citric acid used today. The source of sugar is corn steep liquor, molasses, hydrolyzed corn starch or other inexpensive sugary solutions, in 1977, a patent was granted to Lever Brothers for the chemical synthesis of citric acid starting either from aconitic or isocitrate/alloisocitrate calcium salts under high pressure conditions. This produced citric acid in near quantitative conversion under what appeared to be a reverse non-enzymatic Krebs cycle reaction, in 2007, worldwide annual production stood at approximately 1,600,000 tons. More than 50% of this volume was produced in China, citric acid was first isolated in 1784 by the chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele, who crystallized it from lemon juice. It can exist either in a form or as a monohydrate. The anhydrous form crystallizes from hot water, while the forms when citric acid is crystallized from cold water. The monohydrate can be converted to the form at about 78 °C. Citric acid also dissolves in ethanol at 15 °C. It decomposes with loss of carbon dioxide above about 175 °C, citric acid is normally considered to be a tribasic acid, with pKa values, extrapolated to zero ionic strength, of 5.21,4.28 and 2.92 at 25 °C
33.
Coca-Cola formula
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The Coca-Cola formula is the Coca-Cola Companys secret recipe for Coca-Cola syrup, which bottlers combine with carbonated water to create the companys flagship cola soft drink. Company founder Asa Candler initiated the veil of secrecy that surrounds the formula in 1891 as a publicity, marketing, and intellectual property protection strategy. While several recipes, each purporting to be the formula, have been published. Coca-Cola inventor John Pemberton is known to have shared his original formula with at least four people before his death in 1888. In 1891, Asa Candler purchased the rights to the formula from Pembertons estate, founded the Coca-Cola Company, in 1919, Ernest Woodruff led a group of investors in purchasing the company from Candler and his family. As collateral for the loan, Woodruff placed the only written copy of the secret formula in a vault at the lending bank. In 1925, when the loan had been repaid, Woodruff relocated the written formula to the Trust Company Bank in Atlanta. On December 8,2011, the placed it in a vault on the grounds of the World of Coca-Cola in Atlanta. According to the company, only two employees are privy to the formula at any given time, and they are not permitted to travel together. When one dies, the other must choose a successor within the company, the identity of the two employees in possession of the secret is itself a secret. Coca leaves were used in Coca-Colas preparation, the amount of cocaine they contained—along with caffeine—provided the drinks tonic quality. In 1903, cocaine was removed, leaving caffeine as the sole stimulant ingredient, according to some sources, coca leaf extract, with the cocaine chemically removed, remained part of the formula. By one account, the FDA still screens random samples of Coca-Cola syrup for the presence of cocaine, the company will not confirm or deny that the current version of Coca-Cola contains coca leaf extract, deferring to the secret nature of the formula. The case was decided in favor of Coca-Cola, but a portion of the decision was set aside in 1916 by the Supreme Court, as part of a settlement, the company agreed to reduce the amount of caffeine in its syrup. The company protects the secrecy of its syrup recipe by shipping ingredients to its factories in the form of anonymous merchandises. Merchandise no.1 is known to be sugar, in the form of corn syrup or sucrose. 3, and phosphoric acid is no.4, the primary taste of Coca-Cola is thought to come from vanilla and cinnamon, with trace amounts of essential oils, and spices such as nutmeg. During the 1980s, most U. S. Coca-Cola bottlers switched their primary sweetening ingredient from cane sugar to less expensive corn syrup
34.
Corporation
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A corporation is a company or group of people authorized to act as a single entity and recognized as such in law. Early incorporated entities were established by charter, most jurisdictions now allow the creation of new corporations through registration. Corporations chartered in regions where they are distinguished by whether they are allowed to be for profit or not are referred to as for profit and not-for-profit corporations, there is some overlap between stock/non-stock and for profit/not-for-profit in that not-for-profit corporations are always non-stock as well. A for profit corporation is almost always a stock corporation, registered corporations have legal personality and are owned by shareholders whose liability is limited to their investment. Shareholders do not typically actively manage a corporation, shareholders instead elect or appoint a board of directors to control the corporation in a fiduciary capacity, in American English, the word corporation is most often used to describe large business corporations. In British English and in the Commonwealth countries, the company is more widely used to describe the same sort of entity while the word corporation encompasses all incorporated entities. In American English, the company can include entities such as partnerships that would not be referred to as companies in British English as they are not a separate legal entity. Despite not being human beings, corporations, as far as the law is concerned, are legal persons. Corporations can exercise human rights against real individuals and the state, Corporations can be dissolved either by statutory operation, order of court, or voluntary action on the part of shareholders. Corporations can even be convicted of offenses, such as fraud. However, corporations are not considered living entities in the way humans are. While not a corporation, this new type of entity became very attractive as an alternative for corporations not needing to issue stock, in Germany, the organization was referred to as Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung or GmbH. In the last quarter of the 20th Century this new form of organization became available in the United States and other countries. Since the GmbH and LLC forms of organization are technically not corporations they will not be discussed in this article, the word corporation derives from corpus, the Latin word for body, or a body of people. By the time of Justinian, Roman law recognized a range of corporate entities under the names universitas and these included the state itself, municipalities, and such private associations as sponsors of a religious cult, burial clubs, political groups, and guilds of craftsmen or traders. Such bodies commonly had the right to own property and make contracts, to receive gifts and legacies, to sue and be sued, private associations were granted designated privileges and liberties by the emperor. Entities which carried on business and were the subjects of rights were found in ancient Rome. In medieval Europe, churches became incorporated, as did local governments, such as the Pope, the point was that the incorporation would survive longer than the lives of any particular member, existing in perpetuity
35.
Trade secret
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The precise language by which a trade secret is defined varies by jurisdiction. These three aspects are incorporated in the TRIPS Agreement in Article 39. By comparison, under U. S. law, A trade secret, §1839, has three parts, information, reasonable measures taken to protect the information, and which derives independent economic value from not being publicly known. Trade secrets are an important, but invisible component of an intellectual property. Their contribution to a value, measured as its market capitalization. Being invisible, that contribution is hard to measure, patents are a visible contribution, but delayed, and unsuitable for internal innovations. Having an internal scoreboard provides insight into the cost of risks of leaving to serve or start competing ventures. In contrast to registered intellectual property, trade secrets are, by definition, instead, owners of trade secrets seek to protect trade secret information from competitors by instituting special procedures for handling it, as well as technological and legal security measures. Legal protections include non-disclosure agreements, and work-for-hire and non-compete clauses, violation of the agreement generally carries the possibility of heavy financial penalties which operate as a disincentive to reveal trade secrets. However, proving a breach of an NDA by a stakeholder who is legally working for a competitor or prevailing in a lawsuit for breaching a non-compete clause can be very difficult. A holder of a secret may also require similar agreements from other parties he or she deals with, such as vendors, licensees. Therefore, trade secrets such as secret formulae are often protected by restricting the key information to a few trusted individuals, famous examples of products protected by trade secrets are Chartreuse liqueur and Coca-Cola. In fact, Coca-Cola refused to reveal its trade secret under at least two judges orders, acts of industrial espionage are generally illegal in their own right under the relevant governing laws, and penalties can be harsh. The importance of that illegality to trade secret law is, if a secret is acquired by improper means. Thus, if a secret has been acquired via industrial espionage. Commentators starting with A. Arthur Schiller assert that trades secrets were protected under Roman law by a known as actio servi corrupti. The Roman law is described as follows, he Roman owner of a mark or firm name was protected against unfair usage by a competitor through the actio servi corrupti. Which the Roman jurists used to grant commercial relief under the guise of private law actions
36.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
37.
Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
38.
Maize
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Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration
39.
European Union
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The European Union is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km2, the EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished, a monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU operates through a system of supranational and intergovernmental decision-making. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community, the community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its antecedent organisations, the Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the basis of the EU. The EU as a whole is the largest economy in the world, additionally,27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7, because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower. After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the nationalism which had devastated the continent. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, the supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul-Henri Spaak. These men and others are credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union. In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome and they also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958, the EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand, Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members. During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power, Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission. In 1973, the Communities enlarged to include Denmark, Ireland, Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum
40.
Stevia
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Stevia is a sweetener and sugar substitute extracted from the leaves of the plant species Stevia rebaudiana. The active compounds of stevia are steviol glycosides, which have up to 150 times the sweetness of sugar, are heat-stable, pH-stable and these steviosides have a negligible effect on blood glucose, which makes stevia attractive to people on carbohydrate-controlled diets. Stevias taste has an onset and longer duration than that of sugar. The legal status of stevia extracts as food additives and supplements varies from country to country, the European Union approved stevia additives in 2011, and in Japan, stevia has been widely used as a sweetener for decades. The plant Stevia rebaudiana has been used for more than 1,500 years by the Guaraní peoples of South America, the leaves have been used traditionally for hundreds of years in both Brazil and Paraguay to sweeten local teas and medicines, and as a sweet treat. The genus was named for Spanish botanist and physician Petrus Jacobus Stevus, in 1899, Swiss botanist Moisés Santiago Bertoni, while conducting research in eastern Paraguay, first described the plant and the sweet taste in detail. Only limited research was conducted on the topic until in 1931 two French chemists isolated the glycosides that give stevia its sweet taste, the exact structure of the aglycone and of the glycoside were published in 1955. In the early 1970s, sweeteners such as cyclamate and saccharin were gradually decreased or removed from a variant formulation of Coca-Cola, consequently, use of stevia as an alternative began in Japan, with the aqueous extract of the leaves yielding purified steviosides developed as sweeteners. The first commercial stevia sweetener in Japan was produced by the Japanese firm Morita Kagaku Kogyo Co. Ltd. in 1971, the Japanese have been using stevia in food products and soft drinks, and for table use. In 2006, Japan consumed more stevia than any other country, in the mid-1980s, stevia became popular in U. S. natural foods and health food industries, as a noncaloric natural sweetener for teas and weight-loss blends. The makers of the synthetic sweetener NutraSweet asked the FDA to require testing of the herb, Coca-Cola announced intentions to release stevia-sweetened beverages in late December 2008. From 2013 onwards, Coca-Cola Life, containing stevia as a sweetener, was launched in countries around the world. Shortly afterward, PepsiCo and Pure Circle announced PureVia, their brand of stevia-based sweetener, since the FDA permitted Truvia and PureVia, both Coca Cola and PepsiCo have introduced products that contain their new sweeteners. As of 2006, China was the worlds largest exporter of stevioside products, Stevia extracts and derivatives are produced industrially and marketed under different trade names. Glycosides are molecules that contain glucose residues bound to other substances called aglycones. The synergetic effect of the glycosides on the receptor and TRPM5 explains the sweetness sensation. Some steviol glycosides are perceived sweeter than others, Steviol cannot be further digested in the digestive tract and is taken up into the bloodstream, metabolised by the liver to steviol glucuronide, and excreted in the urine. A2009 review summarized the research in which steviosides and related compounds are being tested for possible anti-disease actions
41.
Mexican Coke
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In the United States of America, Mexican Coke or, informally, MexiCoke, refers to Coca-Cola produced in and imported from Mexico. Although intended for consumption in Mexico, Mexican Coca-Cola has become popular in the United States because of a flavor that Coca-Cola fans call a lot more natural tasting. Mexican Coke exported to the United States is made with cane sugar, therefore, while Coca-Cola labeled Mexican in the U. S. is made with cane sugar, not all Coca-Cola sold in Mexico is. Coca-Cola opened its first bottling franchise in Mexico in the 1920s with Grupo Tampico, monterrey-based FEMSA is currently the largest Coca-Cola bottler in Mexico, along with most of Latin America. In 2013, a Mexican Coca-Cola bottler announced it would stop using cane sugar in favor of glucose-fructose syrup and it later clarified this change would not affect those bottles especially exported to the United States as Coca-Cola Nostalgia products. Results from taste tests have been mixed, however, participants in a different double-blind taste test overwhelmingly preferred American Coca-Cola. Participants in taste tests conducted by Coca-Cola reported no perceptible differences in flavor between American Coke and the Mexican formulation. Mexican Coke is bottled in a thick 355 ml or 500 ml glass bottle, instead of having a vinyl label wrapped around plastic, an enamel label is painted directly on the glass bottle. Most exporters of Mexican Coke affix a sticker containing the nutrition facts label, ingredients. A similar phenomenon exists in New Zealand, where Coca-Cola is available both bottled locally and imported from the United States, pepsi-Cola Made with Real Sugar, a line of Pepsi products flavored with cane sugar Melnick, Meredith. Study, Hey, Hipsters, Mexican Coke Might Be a Myth
42.
Kashrut
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Kashrut is a set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to halakha is termed kosher /ˈkoʊʃər/ in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér, there are also laws regarding agricultural produce that might impact the suitability of food for consumption. Most of the laws of kashrut are derived from the Torahs Books of Leviticus. Their details and practical application, however, are set down in the oral law, while the Torah does not state the rationale for most kashrut laws, many reasons have been suggested, including philosophical, practical and hygienic. Over the past century, there have developed numerous rabbinical organizations that certify products, manufacturers, currently, about a sixth of American Jews or 0. 3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more abstain from some non-kosher foods, especially pork. Some Jewish scholars say that kashrut should be categorized as laws for which there is no particular explanation, in this line of thinking, the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of Gods authority, and man must obey without asking why. However, Maimonides believed that Jews were permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah, some theologians have said that the laws of kashrut are symbolic in character, Kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas argues that the laws have been given, to awake pious thoughts and to form the character. This view reappears in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, the Torah prohibits seething the kid in its mothers milk. While the Bible does not provide a reason, it has suggested that the practice was perceived as cruel. These sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a reason, however. The Hasidic argument is that animals are imbued with signs that reveal the release of these sparks, in 1953, David Macht, an Orthodox Jew and proponent of the theory of biblical scientific foresight, conducted toxicity experiments on many kinds of animals and fish. At the same time, these explanations are controversial, scholar Lester L. Grabbe, writing in the Oxford Bible Commentary on Leviticus, says n explanation now almost universally rejected is that the laws in this section have hygiene as their basis. Although some of the laws of ritual purity roughly correspond to ideas of physical cleanliness. For example, there is no evidence that the animals are intrinsically bad to eat or to be avoided in a Mediterranean climate. The laws of kashrut can be classified according to the origin of the prohibition, biblically prohibited foods include, Non-kosher animals and birds, mammals require certain identifying characteristics, while birds require a tradition that they can be consumed. All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition, no reptiles or amphibians are kosher. Carrion, meat from an animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of shechita
43.
Passover
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Passover or Pesach, is an important, biblically derived Jewish holiday. The Jewish people celebrate Passover as a commemoration of their liberation by God from slavery in Egypt and it commemorates the story of the Exodus as described in the Hebrew Bible especially in the Book of Exodus, in which the Israelites were freed from slavery in Egypt. According to standard biblical chronology, this event would have place at about 1300 BCE. Passover commences on the 15th of the Hebrew month of Nisan and lasts for seven days or eight days for Orthodox, Hasidic. The rituals unique to the Passover celebrations commence with the Passover Seder when the 15th of Nisan has begun, in the Northern Hemisphere Passover takes place in spring as the Torah prescribes it, in the month of spring. It is one of the most widely observed Jewish holidays, when the Pharaoh freed the Israelites, it is said that they left in such a hurry that they could not wait for bread dough to rise. In commemoration, for the duration of Passover no leavened bread is eaten, thus matzo is eaten during Passover and it is a tradition of the holiday. Samaritans still make this pilgrimage to Mount Gerizim, but only men participate in public worship, the Passover begins on the 15th day of the month of Nisan, which typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar. Passover is a festival, so the 15th day of Nisan typically begins on the night of a full moon after the northern vernal equinox. However, due to months or leap months falling after the vernal equinox, Passover sometimes starts on the second full moon after vernal equinox. If the barley was not ripe, or various other phenomena indicated that spring was not yet imminent, however, since at least the 4th century, the date has been fixed mathematically. Diaspora Jews historically observed the festival for eight days, and most still do, reform and Reconstructionist Jews and Israeli Jews, wherever they are, usually observe the holiday over seven days. The reason for this day is due to enactment of the ancient Jewish sages. It is thought by scholars that Jews outside of Israel could not be certain if their local calendars fully conformed to practice of the Temple at Jerusalem. Karaites and Samaritans use different versions of the Jewish calendar, which are out of sync with the modern Jewish calendar by one or two days. In 2009, for example, Nisan 15 on the Jewish calendar used by Rabbinic Judaism corresponds to April 9, on the calendars used by Karaites and Samaritans, Abib or Aviv 15 corresponds to April 11 in 2009. The Karaite and Samaritan Passovers are each one day long, followed by the six-day Festival of Unleavened Bread – for a total of seven days, scholarly consensus dates the origin of the festival to a period earlier than the Exodus. Hyssop was employed to daub the blood of a sheep on the lintels
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Jews
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The Jews, also known as the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Israelites, or Hebrews, of the Ancient Near East. Jews originated as a national and religious group in the Middle East during the second millennium BCE, the Merneptah Stele appears to confirm the existence of a people of Israel, associated with the god El, somewhere in Canaan as far back as the 13th century BCE. The Israelites, as an outgrowth of the Canaanite population, consolidated their hold with the emergence of the Kingdom of Israel, some consider that these Canaanite sedentary Israelites melded with incoming nomadic groups known as Hebrews. The worldwide Jewish population reached a peak of 16.7 million prior to World War II, but approximately 6 million Jews were systematically murdered during the Holocaust. Since then the population has risen again, and as of 2015 was estimated at 14.3 million by the Berman Jewish DataBank. According to the report, about 43% of all Jews reside in Israel and these numbers include all those who self-identified as Jews in a socio-demographic study or were identified as such by a respondent in the same household. The exact world Jewish population, however, is difficult to measure, Israel is the only country where Jews form a majority of the population. The modern State of Israel was established as a Jewish state and defines itself as such in its Declaration of Independence and its Law of Return grants the right of citizenship to any Jew who requests it. The English word Jew continues Middle English Gyw, Iewe, according to the Hebrew Bible, the name of both the tribe and kingdom derive from Judah, the fourth son of Jacob. The Hebrew word for Jew, יְהוּדִי ISO 259-3 Yhudi, is pronounced, with the stress on the syllable, in Israeli Hebrew. The Ladino name is ג׳ודיו, Djudio, ג׳ודיוס, Djudios, Yiddish, ייִד Yid, ייִדן, Yidn. The etymological equivalent is in use in languages, e. g. but derivations of the word Hebrew are also in use to describe a Jew, e. g. in Italian. The German word Jude is pronounced, the corresponding adjective jüdisch is the origin of the word Yiddish, in such contexts Jewish is the only acceptable possibility. Some people, however, have become so wary of this construction that they have extended the stigma to any use of Jew as a noun, a factual reconstruction for the origin of the Jews is a difficult and complex endeavor. It requires examining at least 3,000 years of ancient human history using documents in vast quantities, as archaeological discovery relies upon researchers and scholars from diverse disciplines, the goal is to interpret all of the factual data, focusing on the most consistent theory. In this case, it is complicated by long standing politics and religious, Jacob and his family migrated to Ancient Egypt after being invited to live with Jacobs son Joseph by the Pharaoh himself. The patriarchs descendants were later enslaved until the Exodus led by Moses, traditionally dated to the 13th century BCE, Modern archaeology has largely discarded the historicity of the Patriarchs and of the Exodus story, with it being reframed as constituting the Israelites inspiring national myth narrative. The growth of Yahweh-centric belief, along with a number of practices, gradually gave rise to a distinct Israelite ethnic group
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PepsiCo
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PepsiCo, Inc. is an American multinational food, snack and beverage corporation headquartered in Purchase, New York. PepsiCo has interests in the manufacturing, marketing and distribution of grain-based snack foods, beverages, PepsiCo was formed in 1965 with the merger of the Pepsi-Cola Company and Frito-Lay, Inc.3 billion. Based on net revenue, PepsiCo is the second largest food, within North America, PepsiCo is the largest food and beverage business by net revenue. Indra Krishnamurthy Nooyi has been the executive of PepsiCo since 2006. The companys beverage distribution and bottling is conducted by PepsiCo as well as by licensed bottlers in certain regions, approximately 274,000 employees generated $66.415 billion in revenue as of 2013. The recipe for the soft drink Pepsi was first developed in the 1880s by Caleb Bradham and he coined the name Pepsi-Cola in 1898. As the cola developed in popularity, he created the Pepsi-Cola Company in 1902, the Pepsi-Cola Company was first incorporated in the state of Delaware in 1919. The company went bankrupt in 1931 and on June 8 of that year, Guth was also the president of Loft, Incorporated, a leading candy manufacturer, and he used the companys labs and chemists to reformulate the syrup. In 1935, the shareholders of Loft sued Guth for his 91% stake of Pepsi-Cola Company in the landmark case Guth v. Loft Inc. Loft won the suit and on May 29,1941 formally absorbed Pepsi into Loft, Loft restaurants and candy stores were spun off at this time. In the early 1960s, Pepsi-Colas product lines expanded with the creation of Diet Pepsi, in 1965, the Pepsi-Cola Company merged with Frito-Lay, Inc. to become PepsiCo, Inc. At the time of its foundation, PepsiCo was incorporated in the state of Delaware and headquartered in Manhattan, the companys headquarters were relocated to their present location of Purchase, New York in 1970, and in 1986 PepsiCo was reincorporated in the state of North Carolina. In August 2009, PepsiCo made a $7 billion offer to acquire the two largest bottlers of its products in North America, Pepsi Bottling Group and PepsiAmericas. In 2010 this acquisition was completed, resulting in the formation of a new wholly owned subsidiary of PepsiCo, when it acquired the remaining 23% stake of Wimm-Bill-Dann Foods in October 2011, PepsiCo became the largest food and beverage company in Russia. In July 2012, PepsiCo announced a joint venture with the Theo Muller Group which was named Muller Quaker Dairy and this marked PepsiCos first entry into the dairy space in the U. S. The joint venture was dissolved in December 2015, in 2009, The Coca-Cola Company held a higher market share in carbonated soft drink sales within the U. S. In the same year, PepsiCo maintained a share of the U. S. refreshment beverage market, however. As a result of mergers, acquisitions and partnerships pursued by PepsiCo in the 1990s and 2000s, its business has shifted to include a broader base, including foods, snacks
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Mountain Dew
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Mountain Dew is a carbonated soft drink brand produced and owned by PepsiCo. The original formula was invented in 1940 by Tennessee beverage bottlers Barney, a revised formula was created by Bill Bridgforth in 1958. The rights to this formula were obtained by the Tip Corporation of Marion, William H. Bill Jones of the Tip corporation further refined the formula, launching that version of Mountain Dew in 1961. Between the 1940s and 1980s, there was just one variety of Mountain Dew, Diet Mountain Dew was introduced in 1988, followed by Mountain Dew Red, which was introduced and subsequently discontinued in 1988. In 2001, a flavor called Code Red debuted. This product line extension trend has continued, with expansion into specialty, limited production, region-specific. Production was first extended to the UK in 1996, but was phased out in 1998, a similarly named but very different-tasting product has been sold in the UK under the name Mountain Dew Energy since 2010 and in Ireland since Spring 2011. The product was renamed in 2014 to simply just Mountain Dew, as of 2009, Mountain Dew represented a 6.7 percent share of the overall carbonated soft drinks market in the U. S. Its competition includes The Coca-Cola Companys Mello Yello and Surge, and Dr Pepper Snapple Groups Sun Drop, Tennessee bottlers Barney and Ally Hartman developed Mountain Dew as a mixer in the 1940s. Soft drinks were regional in the 1930s, and the Hartmans had difficulty in Knoxville obtaining their preferred soda to mix with liquor, preferably whiskey, originally a nineteenth-century generic term for whiskey, especially Highland Scotch whiskey, the name was trademarked for the soft drink in 1948. Charles Gordon, who had partnered with William Swartz to bottle and promote Dr. Enuf, was introduced to Mountain Dew when he met the Hartman brothers on a train and they offered him a sample. Gordon and the Hartman brothers subsequently made a deal to bottle Mountain Dew by the Tri-Cities Beverage Corporation in Johnson City, the Hartman brothers also asked Coca-Cola for input on their soda, the Coca-Cola Company refused their offer. The Tip Corporation of Marion, Virginia bought the rights to Mountain Dew, revising the flavor, in 1964, Pepsico purchased the Tip Corporation and thus acquired the rights to Mountain Dew. In 1999, the Virginia legislature recognized Bill Jones and the Town of Marion for their role in the history of Mountain Dew, Mountain Dew was originally Southern and/or Scots/Irish slang for moonshine. Using it as the name for the soda was originally suggested by Carl E. Retzke at an Owens-Illinois Inc. meeting in Toledo, Ohio, early bottles and signage carried the reference forward by showing a cartoon-stylized hillbilly. PepsiCo acquired the Mountain Dew brand in 1964, and shortly thereafter in 1969 the logo was modified as the sought to shift its focus to a younger. This direction continued as the logo remained the same through the 1970s, 1980s, later updates to the logo were made in 1998 and then again in 2005. In October 2008, the Mountain Dew logo was redesigned to Mtn Dew within the U. S. market, the returning flavors Pitch Black, Supernova, Typhoon, and Game Fuel were given redesigned packaging and logos for their 2011 re-release
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White Coke
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White Coke is a nickname for a variant of Coca-Cola produced in the 1940s at the request of Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov. As Coca-Cola was regarded in the Soviet Union as a symbol of American imperialism, according to journalist Tom Standage, Zhukov later asked if Coca-Cola could be manufactured and packaged to resemble vodka. Marshal Zhukov reportedly made this enquiry through General Mark W. Clark, commander of the US sector of Allied-occupied Austria, the Presidents staff contacted James Farley, chairman of the Board of the Coca-Cola Export Corporation. At the time, Farley was overseeing the establishment of 38 Coca-Cola plants in Southeast Europe, Farley delegated Zhukovs special order to Mladin Zarubica, a technical supervisor for the Coca-Cola Company, who had been sent to Austria in 1946 to supervise establishment of a large bottling plant. Zarubica found a chemist who could remove the coloring from Coca-Cola, the colorless version of Coca-Cola was bottled using straight, clear glass bottles sporting a white cap with a red star in the middle. The bottle and the cap were produced by the Crown Cork, the first shipment of White Coke consisted of 50 cases. One unusual consequence for the Coca-Cola Company was a relaxation of the regulations imposed by the powers in Austria at the time. That is, Coca-Cola supplies and products were required to transit a Soviet occupation zone, while all goods entering the Soviet zone normally took weeks to be cleared by authorities, Coca-Cola shipments were never stopped
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