1.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
2.
Conservatism in the United States
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Historians argue that the conservative tradition has played a major role in American politics and culture since the 1790s. However they have stressed that a conservative movement has played a key role in politics only since the 1950s. The recent movement is based in the Republican Party, though some Democrats were also important figures early in the movements history, the history of American conservatism has been marked by tensions and competing ideologies. Fiscal conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, Social conservatives see traditional social values as threatened by secularism, they tend to support voluntary school prayer and oppose abortion and same sex marriage. Some also want the teaching of intelligent design or creationism allowed, the 21st century has seen an increasingly fervent conservative support for Second Amendment rights of private citizens to own firearms. Neoconservatives want to expand American ideals throughout the world, paleoconservatives advocate restrictions on immigration, non-interventionist foreign policy, and stand in opposition to multiculturalism. Nationwide most factions, except some libertarians, support a unilateral foreign policy, the conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of godless communism. All other activities of government tend to diminish freedom and hamper progress, the growth of government must be fought relentlessly. In this great social conflict of the era, we are, without reservations and we believe that truth is neither arrived at nor illuminated by monitoring election results, binding though these are for other purposes, but by other means, including a study of human experience. On this point we are, without reservations, on the conservative side, President Ronald Reagan set the conservative standard in the 1980s, in the 2010s the Republican leaders typically claim fealty to it. For example, most of the Republican candidates in 2012 claimed to be standardbearers of Reagans ideological legacy, the 1980s and beyond became known as the Reagan Era. Typically, conservative politicians and spokesmen in the 21st century proclaim their devotion to Reagans ideals and policies on most social, economic and they support a strong policy of law and order to control crime, including long jail terms for repeat offenders. Most conservatives support the death penalty for particularly egregious crimes, the law and order issue was a major factor weakening liberalism in the 1960s. From 2001 to 2008, Republican President George W. Bush stressed cutting taxes and minimizing regulation of industry and banking, Conservatives generally advocate the use of American military power to fight terrorists and promote democracy in the Middle East. According to a 2014 poll, 38% of American voters identify as conservative or very conservative, 34% as moderate, although the study does show some distinction between the concentration of moderates and conservatives or liberals between the Republican and Democratic parties. Among Democrats, 44% are self-identified liberals, 19% as conservatives, for Republicans 70% self-identified as conservative, 24% as moderate, and 5% as liberal. Conservatism appears to be growing stronger at the state level, the trend is most pronounced among the least well-off, least educated, most blue collar, most economically hard-hit states. Conservatives generally believe that government action is not the solution to problems as poverty and inequality
3.
Republican Party (United States)
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The Republican Party, commonly referred to as the GOP, is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States, the other being its historic rival, the Democratic Party. The party is named after republicanism, the dominant value during the American Revolution and it was founded by anti-slavery activists, modernists, ex-Whigs, and ex-Free Soilers in 1854. The Republicans dominated politics nationally and in the majority of northern States for most of the period between 1860 and 1932, there have been 19 Republican presidents, the most from any one party. The Republican Partys current ideology is American conservatism, which contrasts with the Democrats more progressive platform, further, its platform involves support for free market capitalism, free enterprise, fiscal conservatism, a strong national defense, deregulation, and restrictions on labor unions. In addition to advocating for economic policies, the Republican Party is socially conservative. As of 2017, the GOP is documented as being at its strongest position politically since 1928, in addition to holding the Presidency, the Republicans control the 115th United States Congress, having majorities in both the House of Representatives and the Senate. The party also holds a majority of governorships and state legislatures, the main cause was opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act, which repealed the Missouri Compromise by which slavery was kept out of Kansas. The Northern Republicans saw the expansion of slavery as a great evil, the first public meeting of the general anti-Nebraska movement where the name Republican was suggested for a new anti-slavery party was held on March 20,1854, in a schoolhouse in Ripon, Wisconsin. The name was chosen to pay homage to Thomas Jeffersons Republican Party. The first official party convention was held on July 6,1854, in Jackson and it oversaw the preserving of the union, the end of slavery, and the provision of equal rights to all men in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877. The Republicans initial base was in the Northeast and the upper Midwest, with the realignment of parties and voters in the Third Party System, the strong run of John C. Fremont in the 1856 United States presidential election demonstrated it dominated most northern states, early Republican ideology was reflected in the 1856 slogan free labor, free land, free men, which had been coined by Salmon P. Chase, a Senator from Ohio. Free labor referred to the Republican opposition to labor and belief in independent artisans. Free land referred to Republican opposition to the system whereby slaveowners could buy up all the good farm land. The Party strove to contain the expansion of slavery, which would cause the collapse of the slave power, Lincoln, representing the fast-growing western states, won the Republican nomination in 1860 and subsequently won the presidency. The party took on the mission of preserving the Union, and destroying slavery during the American Civil War, in the election of 1864, it united with War Democrats to nominate Lincoln on the National Union Party ticket. The partys success created factionalism within the party in the 1870s and those who felt that Reconstruction had been accomplished and was continued mostly to promote the large-scale corruption tolerated by President Ulysses S. Grant ran Horace Greeley for the presidency. The Stalwarts defended Grant and the system, the Half-Breeds led by Chester A. Arthur pushed for reform of the civil service in 1883
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College
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College is an educational institution or a constituent part of one. A college may be a tertiary educational institution, a part of a collegiate or federal university. In ancient Rome a collegium was a club or society, a group of living together under a common set of rules. Aside from the educational context - nowadays the most common use of college - there are various other meanings also derived from the original Latin term. In the United States, college can be a synonym for university, in Singapore and India, this is known as a junior college. The municipal government of the city of Paris uses the sixth form college as the English name for a lycée. In some national education systems, secondary schools may be called colleges or have college as part of their title, in Australia the term college is applied to any private or independent primary and, especially, secondary school as distinct from a state school. Melbourne Grammar School, Cranbrook School, Sydney and The Kings School, there has also been a recent trend to rename or create government secondary schools as colleges. In the state of Victoria, some high schools are referred to as secondary colleges. Interestingly, the pre-eminent government secondary school for boys in Melbourne is still named Melbourne High School, in Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory, college is used in the name of all state high schools built since the late 1990s, and also some older ones. In New South Wales, some schools, especially multi-campus schools resulting from mergers, are known as secondary colleges. In Queensland some newer schools which accept primary and high school students are styled state college, in Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, college refers to the final two years of high school, and the institutions which provide this. In this context, college is an independent of the other years of high school. Here, the expression is a version of matriculation college. This is because these schools have traditionally focused on academic, rather than vocational, subjects. Some private secondary schools choose to use the college in their names nevertheless. Some secondary schools elsewhere in the country, particularly ones within the school system. In New Zealand the word normally refers to a secondary school for ages 13 to 17
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University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
6.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
7.
Organizational structure
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An organizational structure defines how activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision are directed toward the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered as the glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization. Organizations are a variant of clustered entities, an organization can be structured in many different ways, depending on its objectives. The structure of an organization will determine the modes in which it operates, Organizational structure allows the expressed allocation of responsibilities for different functions and processes to different entities such as the branch, department, workgroup and individual. Organizational structure affects organizational action in two big ways, First, it provides the foundation on which standard operating procedures and routines rest, second, it determines which individuals get to participate in which decision-making processes, and thus to what extent their views shape the organization’s actions. As pointed out by Lawrence B, Organizational structure was considered a matter of choice. However, a different view arose in the 1960s, suggesting that the structure is an externally caused phenomenon. The set organizational structure may not coincide with facts, evolving in operational action, such divergence decreases performance, when growing. A wrong organizational structure may hamper cooperation and thus hinder the completion of orders in due time and within limits of resources, Organizational structures should be adaptive to process requirements, aiming to optimize the ratio of effort and input to output. Pre-bureaucratic structures lack standardization of tasks and this structure is most common in smaller organizations and is best used to solve simple tasks. The strategic leader makes all key decisions and most communication is done by one on one conversations and it is particularly useful for new business as it enables the founder to control growth and development. They are usually based on traditional domination or charismatic domination in the sense of Max Webers tripartite classification of authority, weber gives the analogy that “the fully developed bureaucratic mechanism compares with other organizations exactly as does the machine compare with the non-mechanical modes of production. Precision, speed, unambiguity, … strict subordination, reduction of friction and they are better suited for more complex or larger scale organizations, usually adopting a tall structure. The tension between bureaucratic structures and non-bureaucratic is echoed in Burns and Stalkers distinction between mechanistic and organic structures, since there are many levels, decision-making authority has to pass through more layers than flatter organizations. A bureaucratic organization has rigid and tight procedures, policies and constraints and this kind of structure is reluctant to adapt or change what they have been doing since the company started. Organizational charts exist for every department, and everyone understands who is in charge and this causes for more rules and standards for the company which operational process is watched with close supervision. Some advantages for bureaucratic structures for top-level managers are they have a control over organizational structure decisions. This works best for managers who have a command and control style of managing, strategic decision-making is also faster because there are fewer people it has to go through to approve
8.
Republican National Committee
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The Republican National Committee is a U. S. political committee that provides national leadership for the Republican Party of the United States. It is responsible for developing and promoting the Republican political platform, as well as coordinating fundraising and it is also responsible for organizing and running the Republican National Convention. Ronna Romney McDaniel is the current committee chair, the RNCs main counterpart is the Democratic National Committee. The 1856 Republican National Convention appointed the first RNC and it consisted of one member from each state and territory to serve for four years. Each national convention since then has followed the precedent of equal representation for each state or territory, from 1924 to 1952, there was a national committeeman and national committeewoman from each state and U. S. possession, and from Washington, D. C. As of 2011, the RNC has 168 members, the only person to have chaired the RNC and later become U. S. president is George H. W. Bush. A number of the chairs of the RNC have been state governors, on November 24,2008, Steele launched his campaign for the RNC chairmanship with the launching of his website. On January 30,2009, Steele won the chairmanship of the RNC in the sixth round, I think I may have some keys to open the door, some juice to turn on the lights, he said. Six people ran for the 2009 RNC Chairmanship, Steele, Ken Blackwell, Mike Duncan, Saul Anuzis, Katon Dawson, after Saltsmans withdrawal, there were only five candidates during the hotly contested balloting January 30,2009. After the third round of balloting that day, Steele held a lead over incumbent Mike Duncan of Kentucky. Shortly after the announcement of the standings, Duncan dropped out of contention without endorsing a candidate, after the fifth round, Steele held a ten-vote lead over Katon Dawson, with 79 votes, and Saul Anuzis dropped out. After the sixth vote, he won the chairmanship of the RNC over Dawson by a vote of 91 to 77, when I was chairman of the Republican National Committee the last time we lost the White House in 1992 we focused exclusively on 1993 and 1994. And at the end of time, we had both houses of Congress with Republican majorities, and wed gone from 17 Republican governors to 31. So anyone talking about 2012 today doesnt have their eye on the ball, what we ought to worry about is rebuilding our party over the next year and particularly in 2010, Barbour said at the November 2008 Republican Governors conference. Michael Steele ran for re-election at the 2011 RNC winter meeting, steeles critics increasingly called on him to step down as RNC Chair when his term ended in 2011. A debate for Chairman hosted by Americans for Tax Reform took place on January 3 at the National Press Club, the election for Chairman took place January 14 at the RNCs winter meeting with Reince Priebus winning on the seventh ballot after Steele and Wagner withdrew. He was re-elected to a term in 2015, setting him up to become the longest serving head of the party ever. Trump then recommended Ronna Romney McDaniel as RNC Chairwoman, and she was elected to that role by the RNC in January 2017
9.
Young Republican National Federation
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It has both a national organization and chapters in individual states. Young Republican Clubs are both social and political in nature, many of them sponsor various social events and networking events for members. In addition, Young Republican Clubs assist Republican political candidates and causes, the oldest Young Republican club in the country is the New York Young Republican Club, Inc. in New York City which was founded in April 1911 and incorporated in February 19,1912. Although frequently confused, the YRNF operates independently from the College Republican National Committee, although Young Republican organizations existed as early as 1859, the Young Republican National Federation was formed by George H. Olmsted at the urging of Herbert Hoover. The YRNF was officially founded in 1931, the YRNF has limited control over its State Federations. A few states, including Montana, act as both a state & local chapter, while a majority of states, including Texas & California, grant strong autonomy to individual clubs. Some Federations include a Regional Chair to handle issues of clubs in the city or plan larger events in a particular part of the state. State Federations elect a Chair, Treasurer, Secretary, National Committee Man & National Committee Woman, depending on the state, Vice-Chair, Immediate Past Chair, or other Directors are also elected to form the Executive Committee. Voting rights at State Meetings are giving to each member of the Executive Committee, as well as Regional Chairs, the State Chair, National Committee Man, and National Committee Women serve on the National Governing Board and elect U. S. Regional Directors, a National Chair, Co-Chair, Treasurer, Secretary, assistants, presently, the National Federation does not collect dues from either its State Federations or its club members, raising money only through attendance at national events and from private donations. The YRNF is technically not associated with the Republican Party, the YRNF owns the trademark to the term Young Republican and the YRNF logo. It is the first state federation to adopt such a name change, conventions are held every two years. The 2015 Young Republican National Convention was held in Chicago, Illinois The 2013 Young Republican National Convention was held in Mobile, the 2011 Convention was held in San Juan, Puerto Rico. The 2017 Young Republican National Convention will be hosted by the Maryland Young Republicans in Annapolis, senator and 2016 Democratic presidential nominee. John Cornyn, Texas U. S. Fahrenkopf, Jr. S, william Rusher, publisher and activist in the Draft Goldwater movement Rick Santorum, former U. S. Senator of Pennsylvania Richard Schweiker, former U. S. Secretary of Health and Human Services, senator of Pennsylvania Roger Stone, YRNF Chairman, political consultant Don Sundquist, YRNF Chairman, former Tennessee Governor John E. Sununu, former New Hampshire U. S. Senator Mauricio J. Tamargo Chairman of the Foreign Claims Settlement Commission Robert C, tapella, 25th Public Printer of the United States John Tobia, Florida State Representative David Vitter, Louisiana U. S. In JSTOR Young Republican National Federation
10.
William McKinley
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McKinley was the last president to have served in the American Civil War, beginning as a private in the Union Army and ending as a brevet major. After the war, he settled in Canton, Ohio, where he practiced law, in 1876, he was elected to Congress, where he became the Republican Partys expert on the protective tariff, which he promised would bring prosperity. His 1890 McKinley Tariff was highly controversial, which together with a Democratic redistricting aimed at gerrymandering him out of office and he was elected Ohios governor in 1891 and 1893, steering a moderate course between capital and labor interests. With the aid of his close adviser Mark Hanna, he secured the Republican nomination for president in 1896 and he defeated his Democratic rival, William Jennings Bryan, after a front-porch campaign in which he advocated sound money and promised that high tariffs would restore prosperity. Rapid economic growth marked McKinleys presidency and he promoted the 1897 Dingley Tariff to protect manufacturers and factory workers from foreign competition, and in 1900, he secured the passage of the Gold Standard Act. The United States annexed the independent Republic of Hawaii in 1898, McKinley defeated Bryan again in the 1900 presidential election, in a campaign focused on imperialism, protectionism, and free silver. William McKinley, Jr. was born in 1843 in Niles, Ohio, there, the elder McKinley was born in Pine Township, Mercer County. The family moved to Ohio when the senior McKinley was a boy and he met Nancy Allison there, and married her later. The Allison family was of mostly English descent and among Pennsylvanias earliest settlers, the family trade on both sides was iron-making, and McKinley senior operated foundries throughout Ohio, in New Lisbon, Niles, Poland, and finally Canton. The McKinley household was, like many from Ohios Western Reserve, steeped in Whiggish and abolitionist sentiment, William followed in the Methodist tradition, becoming active in the local Methodist church at the age of sixteen. He was a lifelong pious Methodist, in 1852, the family moved from Niles to Poland, Ohio so that their children could attend the better schools there. Graduating in 1859, he enrolled the following year at Allegheny College in Meadville and he remained at Allegheny for only one year, returning home in 1860 after becoming ill and depressed. He also spent time at Mount Union College in Alliance, Ohio and he did not graduate from either university. Although his health recovered, family finances declined and McKinley was unable to return to Allegheny, first working as a clerk and later taking a job teaching at a school near Poland. When the Southern states seceded from the Union and the American Civil War began, among them were McKinley and his cousin William McKinley Osbourne, who enlisted as privates in the newly formed Poland Guards in June 1861. The men left for Columbus where they were consolidated with other units to form the 23rd Ohio Infantry. The men were unhappy to learn that, unlike Ohios earlier volunteer regiments, they would not be permitted to elect their officers, they would be designated by Ohios governor, William Dennison. Dennison appointed Colonel William Rosecrans as the commander of the regiment, McKinley quickly took to the soldiers life and wrote a series of letters to his hometown newspaper extolling the army and the Union cause
11.
University of Michigan
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The University of Michigan, frequently referred to simply as Michigan, is a public research university in Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States. Founded in 1817 in Detroit as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania,20 years before the Michigan Territory became a state, in 1821, the university was officially renamed the University of Michigan. It moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 onto 40 acres of what is now known as Central Campus, the University was a founding member of the Association of American Universities. Considered one of the foremost research universities in the United States, Michigans body of living alumni comprises more than 540,000 people, one of the largest alumni bases of any university in the world. Besides academic life, Michigans athletic teams compete in Division I of the NCAA and are known as the Wolverines. They are members of the Big Ten Conference, the University of Michigan was established in Detroit on August 26,1817 as the Catholepistemiad, or University of Michigania, by the governor and judges of Michigan Territory. Judge Augustus B. Woodward specifically invited The Rev. John Monteith and Father Gabriel Richard, Monteith became its first President and held seven of the professorships, and Richard was Vice President and held the other six professorships. Concurrently, Ann Arbor had set aside 40 acres in the hopes of being selected as the state capital, but when Lansing was chosen as the state capital, the city offered the land for a university. What would become the university moved to Ann Arbor in 1837 thanks to Governor Stevens T. Mason, the original 40 acres was the basis of the present Central Campus. The first classes in Ann Arbor were held in 1841, with six freshmen, eleven students graduated in the first commencement in 1845. By 1866, enrollment increased to 1,205 students, many of whom were Civil War veterans, Women were first admitted in 1870. U-M also became the first American university to use the method of study. Among the early students in the School of Medicine was Jose Celso Barbosa, who in 1880 graduated as valedictorian and he returned to Puerto Rico to practice medicine and also served in high-ranking posts in the government. In 1920 the university reorganized the College of Engineering and formed a committee of 100 industrialists to guide academic research initiatives. The university became a choice for bright Jewish students from New York in the 1920s and 1930s. Because of its standards, U-M gained the nickname Harvard of the West. During World War II, U-Ms research supported military efforts, such as U. S. Navy projects in proximity fuzes, PT boats, and radar jamming. After the war, enrollment expanded rapidly and by 1950, it reached 21,000, as the Cold War and the Space Race took hold, U-M received numerous government grants for strategic research and helped to develop peacetime uses for nuclear energy
12.
James F. Burke
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James Francis Burke was Republican member of the U. S. House of Representatives for Pennsylvania. James Burke was born in Petroleum Center, Pennsylvania in 1867 and he studied law at the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor where he graduated 1892. While at Michigan he organized the American Republican College League, the predecessor to the College Republicans, after graduating from Michigan he was admitted to the Allegheny County bar the same year. Subsequently, he was admitted to the Superior and Supreme courts of Pennsylvania, and later to the United States Supreme Court, and commenced practice in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was the secretary of the Republican National Committee in 1892, Burke ran for congress in 1904 and was elected by a wide majority. He subsequently served five consecutive terms and he was chairman of the congressional committee which inaugurated William Howard Taft as President. He was appointed a delegate to the Parliamentary Peace Conference at Brussels in 1905 and he was appointed by President Benjamin Harrison to codify the navigation laws of the United States. He was officer of, or a delegate to, the Republican National Conventions from 1892 to 1924 and he was not a candidate for renomination in 1914. In December,1917 he became United States Government Director of War Savings during the First World War, following his political career, Burke resumed the practice of law, practicing for 10 years as a criminal lawyer at the Allegheny county bar. Additionally, he was elected General Counsel of the Republican National Committee in December 1927 and he was parliamentarian of the Republican National Convention at Kansas City, Missouri, in 1928. Burke was a golfer and belonged to a number of golf. He was founder of the Beaumaris Yacht Club, in Beaumaris, at one point the United States Golf Association asked him to prepare a set of rules which was ultimately presented to the international committee at St Andrews in Scotland. In 1895 Burke married Josephine Birch Scott of Detroit, Michigan and he died in Washington, D. C. and is buried in the Roman Catholic Calvary Cemetery, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
13.
Stanford University
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Stanford University, officially Leland Stanford Junior University, is a private research university in Stanford, California, adjacent to Palo Alto and between San Jose and San Francisco. Its 8, 180-acre campus is one of the largest in the United States, Stanford also has land and facilities elsewhere. The university was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford in memory of their only child, Stanford was a former Governor of California and U. S. Senator, he made his fortune as a railroad tycoon. The school admitted its first students 125 years ago on October 1,1891, Stanford University struggled financially after Leland Stanfords death in 1893 and again after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would later be known as Silicon Valley. The university is one of the top fundraising institutions in the country. There are three schools that have both undergraduate and graduate students and another four professional schools. Students compete in 36 varsity sports, and the university is one of two institutions in the Division I FBS Pac-12 Conference. Stanford faculty and alumni have founded a number of companies that produce more than $2.7 trillion in annual revenue. It is the alma mater of 30 living billionaires,17 astronauts and it is also one of the leading producers of members of the United States Congress. Sixty Nobel laureates and seven Fields Medalists have been affiliated with Stanford as students, alumni, Stanford University was founded in 1885 by Leland and Jane Stanford, dedicated to Leland Stanford Jr, their only child. The institution opened in 1891 on Stanfords previous Palo Alto farm, despite being impacted by earthquakes in both 1906 and 1989, the campus was rebuilt each time. In 1919, The Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace was started by Herbert Hoover to preserve artifacts related to World War I, the Stanford Medical Center, completed in 1959, is a teaching hospital with over 800 beds. The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, which was established in 1962, in 2008, 60% of this land remained undeveloped. Besides the central campus described below, the university also operates at more remote locations, some elsewhere on the main campus. Stanfords main campus includes a place within unincorporated Santa Clara County. The campus also includes land in unincorporated San Mateo County, as well as in the city limits of Menlo Park, Woodside. The academic central campus is adjacent to Palo Alto, bounded by El Camino Real, Stanford Avenue, Junipero Serra Boulevard, the United States Postal Service has assigned it two ZIP codes,94305 for campus mail and 94309 for P. O. box mail
14.
Harvard University
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Although never formally affiliated with any denomination, the early College primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Its curriculum and student body were gradually secularized during the 18th century, james Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College, Harvards $34.5 billion financial endowment is the largest of any academic institution. Harvard is a large, highly residential research university, the nominal cost of attendance is high, but the Universitys large endowment allows it to offer generous financial aid packages. Harvards alumni include eight U. S. presidents, several heads of state,62 living billionaires,359 Rhodes Scholars. To date, some 130 Nobel laureates,18 Fields Medalists, Harvard was formed in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1638, it obtained British North Americas first known printing press, in 1639 it was named Harvard College after deceased clergyman John Harvard an alumnus of the University of Cambridge who had left the school £779 and his scholars library of some 400 volumes. The charter creating the Harvard Corporation was granted in 1650 and it offered a classic curriculum on the English university model—many leaders in the colony had attended the University of Cambridge—but conformed to the tenets of Puritanism. It was never affiliated with any denomination, but many of its earliest graduates went on to become clergymen in Congregational. The leading Boston divine Increase Mather served as president from 1685 to 1701, in 1708, John Leverett became the first president who was not also a clergyman, which marked a turning of the college toward intellectual independence from Puritanism. When the Hollis Professor of Divinity David Tappan died in 1803 and the president of Harvard Joseph Willard died a year later, in 1804, in 1846, the natural history lectures of Louis Agassiz were acclaimed both in New York and on the campus at Harvard College. Agassizs approach was distinctly idealist and posited Americans participation in the Divine Nature, agassizs perspective on science combined observation with intuition and the assumption that a person can grasp the divine plan in all phenomena. When it came to explaining life-forms, Agassiz resorted to matters of shape based on an archetype for his evidence. Charles W. Eliot, president 1869–1909, eliminated the position of Christianity from the curriculum while opening it to student self-direction. While Eliot was the most crucial figure in the secularization of American higher education, he was motivated not by a desire to secularize education, during the 20th century, Harvards international reputation grew as a burgeoning endowment and prominent professors expanded the universitys scope. Rapid enrollment growth continued as new schools were begun and the undergraduate College expanded. Radcliffe College, established in 1879 as sister school of Harvard College, Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified
15.
John M. Thurston
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John Mellen Thurston was a United States Senator from Nebraska. Thurston was born in Montpelier, Vermont and he moved with his parents to Madison, Wisconsin, in 1854 and two years later to Beaver Dam, Wisconsin. He attended the schools and graduated from Wayland University in Beaver Dam. Thurston was admitted to the bar in 1869 and commenced practice in Omaha and he was a city councilman 1872–1874 and the city attorney of Omaha 1874–1877. Thurston then served in the Nebraska House of Representatives 1875–1877 and he was appointed assistant attorney of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1877 and general solicitor in 1888. He was an elector on the Republican ticket in 1880. During his term, Thurston served as the chairman of the U. S. Senate Committee on Indian Affairs and he was not a candidate for reelection in 1901. He was appointed as the United States commissioner to the St. Louis Exposition in 1901. He moved to Washington, D. C. and resumed the practice of law, then in 1915, Thurston returned to Omaha and joined Edwin T. Morrison and Joseph Crow in the law firm of Thurston, Crow & Morrison. He practiced law in Omaha until his death on August 9,1916 and his remains were cremated at Forest Lawn Cemetery in Omaha and the ashes were interred in the Congressional Cemetery, Washington, D. C. Between 1885 and 1890, his portrait was painted in Omaha by artist Herbert A. Collins, Thurston County, Nebraska is named after him. Biographical Directory of the United States Congress, john Mellen Thurston papers at the Nebraska State Historical Society Specific
16.
Russell A. Alger
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Russell Alexander Alger was the 20th Governor and U. S. Senator from the state of Michigan and also U. S. Secretary of War during the Presidential administration of William McKinley, Russell Alexander Alger was born on February 27,1836, in Lafayette Township in Medina County, Ohio. His parents were Russell and Caroline Alger and he was orphaned at age 13 and worked on a farm to support himself and two younger siblings. He attended Richfield Academy in Summit County, Ohio, and taught school for two winters. He studied law in Akron, Ohio, and was admitted to the bar in March 1859 and he first began to practice law in Cleveland and moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan, in 1860, where he engaged in the lumber business. On April 2,1861, he married Annette Huldana Squire Henry of Grand Rapids and they had six children, Henrietta Fay Huldana Bailey, Caroline Annette Shelden, Frances Aura Pike, Russell Alexander Alger, Jr. Frederick Charles Moulton Alger and Allan Alger. Frederick graduated from Harvard in 1899, served as a lieutenant colonel with the American Expeditionary Force in France during the First World War and was awarded the French Legion of Honor. Alger was the scion of a prominent family, many of whom became involved in 20th century Michigan politics and active in the Republican Party. His son, Russell A. Alger, Jr. Russell A. Alger had a home in Black River which is in Alcona Township, Michigan and he enlisted as a private soldier in the American Civil War on September 2,1861. He was commissioned and served as a captain and major in the 2nd Michigan Cavalry Regiment, at the Battle of Boonesville, July 11,1862, he was sent by Colonel Philip Sheridan to attack the enemys rear with ninety picked men. The Confederate forces were defeated, and although Alger was wounded and taken prisoner. On October 16, he was lieutenant colonel of the 6th Michigan Cavalry. On February 28,1863, he was promoted to colonel of the 5th Michigan Cavalry and his command was the first to enter Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on June 28, and he was specially mentioned in the report of General George Armstrong Custer on cavalry operations there. He participated in General Sheridans Valley Campaigns of 1864 in Virginia, on June 11,1864, at Trevillian Station, he captured a large force of Confederates with a brilliant cavalry charge. Alger resigned from the army on September 20,1864, in three years, he served in 66 different battles and skirmishes. He was also a member of the Michigan Commandery of the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, Algers two sons, Frederick W. Alger and Russell A. Alger, Jr. were hereditary companions of MOLLUS. After the Civil War, Alger settled in Detroit as head of Alger, Smith & Company and his great pine forest on Lake Huron comprised more than 100 square miles and produced annually more than 75,000,000 board feet of lumber. In order to transport the lumber, Alger led his company to create the Detroit, Bay City and Alpena Railroad, of which Alger served as president
17.
Jacob Sloat Fassett
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Jacob Sloat Fassett was a businessman, lawyer, and member of the United States House of Representatives from New York. He was born on November 13,1853, in Elmira, Chemung County and he attended the public schools and graduated from the University of Rochester in 1875. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1878 and he was District Attorney of Chemung County in 1878 and 1879. On February 13,1879, he married in Sacramento, California, Jennie Louise Crocker, around this time Fassett became the proprietor of the Elmira Daily Advertiser. Afterwards he enrolled as a law student at Heidelberg University in Germany and he returned to Elmira in 1882 and began the practice of law. He was a delegate to the 1880,1892 and 1916 Republican National Conventions and he was Secretary of the Republican National Committee from 1888 to 1892. President Benjamin Harrison appointed Fassett as Collector of the Port of New York, a post he held from August 1 to September 15,1891, at the New York state election,1891, he was defeated by Democrat Roswell P. Flower. Fassett was a delegate to the New York State Constitutional Convention of 1894 and he was elected as a Republican to the 59th, 60th and 61st United States Congresses, holding office from March 4,1905, to March 4,1911. His last political role was as Chairman of the Republican advisory convention in 1918, after retiring from politics, he resumed his work in the banking and lumber business in Elmira. He died on April 21,1924 in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, while returning from a trip to Japan. He was an investor in various mines among which was the Oriental Consolidated Mining Corporation in Korea and he was buried at the Woodlawn Cemetery in Elmira. In World War II, the United States liberty ship SS Jacob Sloat Fassett was named in his honor, Fassett, Quebec - The village of Fassett, Quebec in Canada is named after him. It was here on the 28 acres of Greycourt at the end of Little Island Road in Falmouth, Massachusetts where Jacob, after his death and then that of his wife in 1939, the estate was put up for sale for $35,000. By 1941 it had not sold and their children had the estate destroyed. Some of his descendants live on the land of this great estate. Fassett Elementary School - Elementary School in Elmira, New York, Fassett Commons - In 1916, Mr. and Mrs. Jacob Fassett donated $30,000 to Elmira College for the construction of a dining hall. It became the dining hall in 1917. It is connected to the arm of Cowles Hall
18.
John Mercer Langston
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John Mercer Langston was an American abolitionist, attorney, educator, activist, diplomat, and politician. He was the first dean of the law school at Howard University and he was the first president of what is now Virginia State University, a historically black college. Born a free black in Virginia to a freedwoman of mixed race, joseph Hayne Rainey, the black Republican congressman from South Carolina, had been elected in 1870 during the Reconstruction era. After that, no African Americans would be elected from the South until 1973, at the time, most blacks supported Republican Party candidates, both white and black. Langstons early career was based in Ohio where, with his older brother Charles Henry Langston, he began his work for African-American freedom, education, equal rights. In 1855 he was one of the first African Americans in the United States elected to office when elected as a town clerk in Ohio. John was a great-uncle of the renowned poet Langston Hughes, Quarles had freed Lucy and their daughter Maria in 1806, in the course of what was a relationship of more than 25 years. Their three sons were free, as their mother was free. Johns older brothers were Gideon and Charles Henry, Lucy had three children with another partner before she moved into the Great House and deepened her relationship with Quarles. Their three sons were born after her move, of the older half-siblings, William Langston was most involved with Quarles sons. He relocated with them to Chillicothe, Ohio, before his death, Ralph Quarles arranged for his Quaker friend William Gooch to be made guardian of his children. As requested by Quarles, after the parents died in 1833 when John Langston was four, Gooch moved with the boys and their half-brother William Langston to Chillicothe, Ohio. Quarles had reserved funds for the boys education, in 1835 the older brothers Gideon and Charles started at the preparatory school of Oberlin College, where they were the first African-American students to be admitted. Gideon looked much like his father, at the age of 21 Gideon took Quarles as his surname, the youngest Langston followed his brothers, enrolling in the preparatory program at Oberlin College at the age of fourteen. John Langston earned a degree in 1849 and a masters degree in theology in 1852 from Oberlin. In ohio, Langston was closely associated with abolitionist lawyer Sherlock James Andrews, in 1854 Langston married Caroline Matilda Wall, who also graduated from Oberlin College. From North Carolina, she was the daughter of an enslaved mother and Colonel Stephen Wall. The planter freed his mixed-race daughters Sara and Caroline, and sent them to Ohio to be raised in an affluent Quaker household, an intellectual partner of Langston, Caroline had five children with him, one of whom died in childhood
19.
United States presidential election, 1900
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The United States presidential election of 1900 was the 29th quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 6,1900. The election was a re-match of the 1896 race between Republican candidate and incumbent President William McKinley and his Democratic challenger, William Jennings Bryan, the Republican Convention chose New York Governor Theodore Roosevelt as McKinleys running mate, since Vice-President Garret Hobart had died from heart failure in 1899. The 926 delegates to the Republican convention, which met in Philadelphia on June 19–21, Platt, the boss of the New York State Republican Party, did not like Theodore Roosevelt, New Yorks popular governor, even though he was a fellow Republican. By electing Roosevelt vice president, Platt would remove Roosevelt from New York state politics, quite unexpectedly, Roosevelt would be elevated to the presidency in September 1901, when McKinley was assassinated in Buffalo, New York. After Admiral George Deweys return from the Spanish–American War, many suggested that he run for president on the Democratic ticket. Dewey, however, had angered some Protestants by marrying the Catholic Mildred McLean Hazen in November 1899. His candidacy was also almost immediately plagued by a number of public relations gaffes, shortly thereafter, he admitted never having voted in a presidential election before, mentioning that the only man he ever would have voted for, had he voted, would have been Grover Cleveland. He drew even more criticism when he told a newspaper reporter that. Deweys campaign was met with a level of pessimism by Gold Democrats on whose support his campaign depended, some even threw their support to Bryan, since they believed him to be the stronger candidate. As early as three days into his candidacy, his campaign having been damaged by the aforementioned missteps, rumors abounded regarding Deweys impending withdrawal which proved false. Further injuries, however, were made when it became clear that the Democratic Party leaders of Vermont were hostile to Dewey, Ohio similarly went for Bryan, though with the caveat there that some leaders suggested that all mention to silver in the party platform be dropped. By May 5 John Roll McLean, the brother-in-law of and effective campaign manager for Dewey, Bryan won at the 1900 Democratic National Convention held at Kansas City, Missouri, on July 4–6, garnering 936 delegate votes topping David B. Source, US President – D Convention, at the state level, local Populist parties were left at liberty to proceed as they saw fit. In the Plains states, the Populists fused with the Democrats, in the South, the Populists fused with the Republican Party. The end result, though Bryan was defeated, was that the Populists greatly enlarged their representation in Congress, from 10 to 26. The move had its consequences, as in the mid-term election of 1898, Populist representation in the House of Representatives fell to 9. The treatment of Populists by the Democratic Party led to a division in the party. On May 17,1899, Populist Party leaders met in St. Louis and issued an address calling for a Middle of the Road policy, the statement was primarily aimed at the partys national chairman, U. S
20.
William Jennings Bryan
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He served two terms as a member of the United States House of Representatives from Nebraska and was United States Secretary of State under President Woodrow Wilson. He resigned because of his pacifist position on World War I. Bryan was a devout Presbyterian, an advocate of popular democracy, and an enemy of the banks. He demanded Free Silver because he believed it undermined the evil Money Power and he was a peace advocate, a supporter of Prohibition, and an opponent of Darwinism on religious and humanitarian grounds. With his deep, commanding voice and wide travels, he was perhaps the best-known orator, because of his faith in the wisdom of the common people, he was called The Great Commoner. In the intensely fought 1896 and 1900 elections, he was defeated by William McKinley, with over 500 speeches in 1896, Bryan invented the national stumping tour in an era when other presidential candidates stayed home. President Wilson appointed him Secretary of State in 1913, after the Lusitania was torpedoed in 1915, Wilson made strong demands on Germany that Bryan disagreed with, resigning in protest as a pacifist. After 1920, he turned to Christian fundamentalism, he supported Prohibition and attacked Darwinism and evolution, five days after the conclusion of the Scopes case, Bryan died in his sleep. William Jennings Bryan was born in Salem, Illinois, on March 19,1860, to Silas Lillard Bryan, Bryans mother was of English heritage. Mary Bryan joined the Salem Baptists in 1872, so Bryan attended Methodist services on Sunday morning with his father, at this point, William began spending his Sunday afternoons at the Cumberland Presbyterian Church. At age 14, Bryan attended a revival, was baptized, in later life, Bryan said the day of his baptism was the most important day in his life, but at the time it caused little change in his daily routine. In 1906, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church joined the larger Presbyterian Church in the United States of America and his father, Silas Bryan, of Scots-Irish and English ancestry, was an avid Jacksonian Democrat. Silas won election to the Illinois State Senate, but was defeated for re-election in 1860. He won election as a circuit judge, and in 1866 moved his family to a 520-acre farm north of Salem. Until age ten, Bryan was home-schooled, as children were. The Bible and McGuffey Readers shaped his views that gambling and liquor were evil, to attend Whipple Academy, which was attached to Illinois College, Bryan was sent to Jacksonville, Illinois, in 1874. Following high school, he entered Illinois College, graduating as valedictorian in 1881, during his time at Illinois College, Bryan was a member of the Sigma Pi literary society. He studied law at Union Law College in Chicago, while preparing for the bar exam, he taught high school and met Mary Elizabeth Baird, a cousin of William Sherman Jennings, the latter was also his own first-cousin. Bryan and Mary Elizabeth Baird married on October 1,1884, and they settled in Jacksonville, Mary also became a lawyer, and collaborated with Bryan on all his speeches and writings
21.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
22.
Chicago
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Chicago, officially the City of Chicago, is the third-most populous city in the United States. With over 2.7 million residents, it is the most populous city in the state of Illinois, and it is the county seat of Cook County. In 2012, Chicago was listed as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network. Chicago has the third-largest gross metropolitan product in the United States—about $640 billion according to 2015 estimates, the city has one of the worlds largest and most diversified economies with no single industry employing more than 14% of the workforce. In 2016, Chicago hosted over 54 million domestic and international visitors, landmarks in the city include Millennium Park, Navy Pier, the Magnificent Mile, Art Institute of Chicago, Museum Campus, the Willis Tower, Museum of Science and Industry, and Lincoln Park Zoo. Chicagos culture includes the arts, novels, film, theater, especially improvisational comedy. Chicago also has sports teams in each of the major professional leagues. The city has many nicknames, the best-known being the Windy City, the name Chicago is derived from a French rendering of the Native American word shikaakwa, known to botanists as Allium tricoccum, from the Miami-Illinois language. The first known reference to the site of the current city of Chicago as Checagou was by Robert de LaSalle around 1679 in a memoir, henri Joutel, in his journal of 1688, noted that the wild garlic, called chicagoua, grew abundantly in the area. In the mid-18th century, the area was inhabited by a Native American tribe known as the Potawatomi, the first known non-indigenous permanent settler in Chicago was Jean Baptiste Point du Sable. Du Sable was of African and French descent and arrived in the 1780s and he is commonly known as the Founder of Chicago. In 1803, the United States Army built Fort Dearborn, which was destroyed in 1812 in the Battle of Fort Dearborn, the Ottawa, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi tribes had ceded additional land to the United States in the 1816 Treaty of St. Louis. The Potawatomi were forcibly removed from their land after the Treaty of Chicago in 1833, on August 12,1833, the Town of Chicago was organized with a population of about 200. Within seven years it grew to more than 4,000 people, on June 15,1835, the first public land sales began with Edmund Dick Taylor as U. S. The City of Chicago was incorporated on Saturday, March 4,1837, as the site of the Chicago Portage, the city became an important transportation hub between the eastern and western United States. Chicagos first railway, Galena and Chicago Union Railroad, and the Illinois, the canal allowed steamboats and sailing ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River. A flourishing economy brought residents from rural communities and immigrants from abroad, manufacturing and retail and finance sectors became dominant, influencing the American economy. The Chicago Board of Trade listed the first ever standardized exchange traded forward contracts and these issues also helped propel another Illinoisan, Abraham Lincoln, to the national stage
23.
United States presidential election, 1932
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The United States presidential election of 1932 was the thirty-seventh quadrennial presidential election, held on Tuesday, November 8,1932. The election took place against the backdrop of the Great Depression that ruined the promises of incumbent President, the Democratic nomination went to the well-known governor of the most populous state, New Yorks Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had been reelected governor in a landslide in 1930. Roosevelt united all wings of his party, avoided divisive cultural issues, while Hoover won the last election by a landslide victory margin of 17. 4%, Roosevelt won this election by 17. 7%. Roosevelt repeatedly blamed Hoover for the Depression and worsening economy, with unemployment above 20% in 1932 alone, Hoover was remiss to defend his record, and Roosevelt promised recovery with a New Deal for the American people. Roosevelt won by a landslide in both the electoral and popular vote, receiving the highest percentage of the vote for a Democratic nominee. The election marked the end of the Fourth Party System. Republican candidates, Herbert Hoover, President of the United States John J. Blaine, whether they were successful or not, President Herbert Hoover controlled the party and had little trouble securing a re-nomination. Little-known former United States Senator Joseph I, france ran against Hoover in the primaries, but Hoover was often unopposed. Frances primary wins were tempered by his defeat to Hoover in his state of Maryland. Hoovers managers at the Republican National Convention, which met in Chicago between June 14 and 16, ran a ship, not allowing expressions of concern for the direction of the nation. He was nominated on the first ballot with 98% of the delegate vote, Speaker of the House John Nance Garner and former New York Governor Al Smith were trailing him. Before the 1932 Democratic National Convention met in Chicago between June 27 and July 2, Roosevelt was believed to have more votes than all of his opponents combined. On the first three ballots Roosevelt had well over a majority of the vote, but still lacked the two-thirds majority. With this agreement, Roosevelt won the majority and with it the presidential nomination. After making a trip to the Democratic convention, Roosevelt accepted the nomination in person. Roosevelts trip to Chicago was the first of several successful, precedent-making moves designed to make him appear to be the candidate of change in the election. The Democrats were united as they had not been in 1928, roosevelts Protestant background nullified the anti-Catholic attacks Smith faced in 1928, and The Depression seemed to be of greater concern among the American public that previous cultural battles. Prohibition was a favorite Democratic target, with few Republicans trying to defend it given mounting demand to end prohibition and bring back beer, liquor, many prominent Republicans even went so far as to espouse the cause of the Democratic candidate openly
24.
Louie Nunn
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Louie Broady Nunn was the 52nd governor of Kentucky. His election in 1967 made him the first Republican to hold office since the end of Simeon Willis term in 1947. After rendering noncombat service in World War II and graduating from law school, Nunn entered local politics, becoming the first Republican county judge in the history of Barren County, Kentucky. He worked on the campaigns of Republican candidates for office, including John Sherman Cooper, Thruston Morton. He was the Republican nominee for governor in 1963, but ultimately lost an election to Democrat Ned Breathitt. An executive order signed by Governor Bert T. Combs that desegregated Kentuckys public services became an issue in the campaign. Nunn vowed to repeal the order if elected, while Breathitt promised to continue it, in 1967, Nunn again ran for governor. After defeating Marlow Cook in the Republican gubernatorial primary, he eked out a victory over Democrat Henry Ward, the state offices were split between Democrats and Republicans, and Nunn was saddled with a Democratic lieutenant governor, Wendell H. Ford. He oversaw the transition of Northern Kentucky University from a community college to a senior institution, the later years of his administration were marred by race riots in Louisville and a violent protest against the Vietnam War at the University of Kentucky. Following his term as governor, he unsuccessfully challenged Walter Dee Huddleston in the 1972 senatorial election, Brown, Jr. in the 1979 gubernatorial contest. In his later years, he supported the political ambitions of his son, Steve and he died of a heart attack on January 29,2004. Louie Broady Nunn was born in Park, Kentucky – a small community on the border of Barren and his given name, Louie, honored a deceased friend of his fathers, his middle name, Broady, was a surname in his mothers family. Louie was the youngest of the four sons born to Waller Harrison and Mary Nunn, their youngest child, the Nunns were farmers and operated a general store, though Waller suffered from a congenital heart condition and severe arthritis and was limited to light chores. The eldest brother, Lee Roy, became a campaigner and fundraiser for the Republican Party. Nunn obtained the first eight years of his education in a one-room, during his teenage years, he gave himself a hernia while lifting a heavy piece of farm equipment. This, combined with his fathers history, may have contributed to back pain issues that plagued him for most of his life. In 1938, he matriculated to Hiseville High School and he earned a Bachelor of Arts degree at Bowling Green Business University, now Western Kentucky University. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor on December 7,1941, Nunn departed for Cincinnati, Ohio, by the time he finished his flight training, however, the Army had discontinued its air cadet program
25.
Governor of Kentucky
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The Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky is the head of the executive branch of government in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. Fifty-seven men and one woman have served as Governor of Kentucky, the governors term is four years in length, since 1992, incumbents have been able to seek re-election once before becoming ineligible for four years. Throughout the states history, four men have served two terms as governor, and two others have served two consecutive terms. Kentucky is one of only five U. S. states that hold gubernatorial elections in odd-numbered years immediately before the United States Presidential Election, the current governor is Matt Bevin, who was first elected in 2015. The governors powers are enumerated in the state constitution, there have been four constitutions of Kentucky—adopted in 1792,1799,1850, and 1891, respectively—and each has enlarged the governors authority. Among the powers appropriated to the governor in the constitution are the ability to grant pardons, veto legislation, the governor serves as commander-in-chief of the states military forces and is empowered to enforce all laws of the state. Because Kentuckys governor controls so many appointments to commissions, the office has been considered one of the most powerful state executive positions in the United States. The history of the office of Governor is largely one of long periods of domination by a single party, Federalists were rare among Kentuckians during the period of the First Party System, and Democratic Republicans won every gubernatorial election in the state until 1828. The Second Party System began when the Democratic-Republicans split into Jacksonian Democrats, beginning with the election of Thomas Metcalfe in 1828, the Whigs dominated the governorship until 1851, with John Breathitt being the only Democrat elected during that period. Since 1931, only four Republicans have served as governor of Kentucky, current governor Matt Bevin, in all four Kentucky constitutions, the first power enumerated to the governor is to serve as commander-in-chief of the states militia and military forces. In 1799, a stipulation was added that the governor would not personally lead troops on the battlefield unless advised to do so by a resolution of the General Assembly. Such a case occurred in 1813 when Governor Isaac Shelby, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, was asked to lead a band of Kentucky troops to aid William Henry Harrison at the Battle of the Thames. For his service, Shelby received the Thanks of Congress and the Congressional Gold Medal, the 1891 constitution further required that, with each application for a pardon, the governor file a statement of the reasons for his decision thereon, which. Shall always be open to public inspection and this requirement was first proposed by a delegate to the 1850 constitutional convention, but it was rejected at that time. The power of the governor to adjourn the General Assembly for a period of up to four months if the two houses cannot agree on a time to adjourn appears in all four constitutions, the governor is also empowered to convene the General Assembly on extraordinary occasions. This was an important provision in the days of the Commonwealth. Taylor claimed a state of insurrection existed in the capital, the 1891 constitution added a provision that the governor must specify the reason for any specially-called legislative session, and that no other business could be considered during the session. There is, however, no requirement that the legislature conduct any business during the called session
26.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
27.
College Republicans
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The College Republican National Committee is a national organization for college and university students who support the Republican Party of the United States. The organizational structure of the College Republicans has changed significantly since its founding in 1892, founded as an organization for the Republican National Committee, the College Republicans now operate as an independent 527 group. After the Young Republican National Federation was spun off from the College Republicans organization in 1972, the College Republicans were founded as the American Republican College League on May 17,1892 at the University of Michigan. The organization was spearheaded by law student James Francis Burke, who would serve as a Congressman from Pennsylvania. The inaugural meeting was attended by over 1,000 students from across the country, then-Governor of Ohio William McKinley gave a rousing keynote speech. The College Republicans quickly pursued a strategy of sending students to vote in their home districts. This strategy was implemented for the 1900 presidential election between William McKinley and William Jennings Bryan, helping win Bryans home state of Nebraska for McKinley. The College Republicans were financed, at least in part, by the Republican National Committee throughout much of its history. James Francis Burke received significant funding from the RNC to support the American Republican College Leagues founding and to maintain the organizations offices in New York City. By 1924, the organization was operating directly under the auspices of the RNC as the Associated University Republican Clubs, the relative dominance of the Democratic party through the 1930s through the 1960s coincided with a precipitous drop in the membership and effectiveness of the College Republicans. In 1931, the College Republicans were absorbed as an arm of the Hoover campaign, in 1935, the College Republicans were merged into the newly created Young Republican National Federation, encompassing both college students and young professionals. College Republican operations continued under the Young Republicans until the 1965 founding of the College Republican National Committee, in 1967, Morton Blackwell, then a field representative for the CRNC to Kentucky, developed many of the principles now used by the College Republicans. On election day, Nunn became the first Republican Governor of Kentucky in 20 years, the New York Times and Louie Nunn himself credited the efforts of Blackwells volunteers. In 1970, the Young Republican National Federation was permanently spun off from the College Republicans in 1970 to prevent counter-productive infighting among the two groups, in 1972 the Republican National Committee made the College Republican National Committee an auxiliary arm of the RNC. In 1973, Karl Rove ran for chair of the College Republicans and he challenged the front-runners delegates, throwing the national convention into disarray, after which both he and his opponent, Robert Edgeworth, claimed victory. The dispute was resolved when Rove was selected through the order of the chairman of the Republican National Committee. By 1980, only 20 active College Republican chapters remained, by the US Presidential election in 1980, that number had increased to 1,000 active clubs, helping Reagan win 98 of 105 mock elections and recruiting thousands of voters. This success led to $290,000 in financial assistance from the RNC, Abramoffs fund-raising efforts brought in an additional $1,160,000 during the next two years
28.
Karl Rove
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Karl Christian Rove is an American Republican political consultant and policy advisor. He was Senior Advisor and Deputy Chief of Staff during the George W. Bush administration until Roves resignation on August 31,2007 and he has also headed the Office of Political Affairs, the Office of Public Liaison, and the White House Office of Strategic Initiatives. Since leaving the White House, Rove has worked as a political analyst and contributor for Fox News, Newsweek and The Wall Street Journal. Prior to his White House appointments, he is credited with the 1994 and 1998 Texas gubernatorial victories of George W. Bush, in his 2004 victory speech Bush referred to Rove as the Architect. Rove has also credited for the successful campaigns of John Ashcroft, Bill Clements, Senator John Cornyn, Governor Rick Perry. Karl Rove was born in Denver, Colorado, the second of five children and his biological father left the family when Rove and his older brother were children. His mother, Reba Louise, was a shop manager, and his mothers second husband, Louis Claude Rove, Jr. who adopted him. In 1965, his family moved to Salt Lake City, where Rove entered high school, Rove described his high school years as I was the complete nerd. I wore Hush Puppies when they were not cool, I was the thin, scrawny little guy. Encouraged by a teacher to run for class senate, Rove won the election, as part of his campaign strategy he rode in the back of a convertible inside the school gymnasium sitting between two attractive girls before his election speech. While at Olympus High School, he was elected student council president his junior and senior years, Rove was also a Teenage Republican and served as Chairman of the Utah Federation of Teenage Republicans. Rove began his involvement in American politics in 1968, bennett was reelected to a third six-year term in November 1968. Through Roves campaign involvement, Bennetts son, Bob Bennett—a future United States Senator from Utah—would become a friend, williams would later become a mentor to Rove. In December 1969, the man Rove had known as his left the family. After his parents divorce, Rove learned from his aunt and uncle that the man who had raised him was not his biological father, Rove has expressed great love and admiration for his adoptive father and for how selfless his love had been. On September 11,1981, Roves mother committed suicide in Reno, in the fall of 1969, Rove entered the University of Utah, on a $1,000 scholarship, as a political science major and joined the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. Through the Universitys Hinckley Institute of Politics, he got an internship with the Utah Republican Party, in the fall of 1970, Rove used a false identity to enter the campaign office of Democrat Alan J. Dixon, who was running for Treasurer of Illinois. Roves role would not become known until August 1973 when Rove told the Dallas Morning News
29.
George H. W. Bush
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George Herbert Walker Bush is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Republican Party, he was previously a congressman, ambassador, and he is the oldest living former President and Vice President. Prior to his sons presidency, he was referred to as George Bush or President Bush. Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts, to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, Bush postponed his university studies, enlisted in the U. S. Navy on his 18th birthday and he served until the end of the war, then attended Yale University. Graduating in 1948, he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business, Bush became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company, serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence, among other positions. He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980, but was chosen as a mate by party nominee Ronald Reagan. During his tenure, Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation, in 1988, Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President, defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf, the Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and, after a struggle with Congress and his presidential library was dedicated in 1997, and he has been active—often alongside Bill Clinton—in various humanitarian activities. Besides being the 43rd president, his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas and is one of only two other being John Quincy Adams—to be the son of a former president. His second son, Jeb Bush, served as the 43rd Governor of Florida, George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton, Massachusetts, on June 12,1924, to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy Bush. The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich, Connecticut, shortly after his birth, growing up, his nickname was Poppy. Bush began his education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Bush decided to join the US, Navy, so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942, he became a naval aviator at the age of 18. He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron as the officer in September 1943. The following year, his squadron was based on USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, during this time, the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II, the Battle of the Philippine Sea. After Bushs promotion to Lieutenant on August 1,1944, San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands, Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT-51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima
30.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
31.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act
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The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 is a United States federal law that amended the Federal Election Campaign Act of 1971, which regulates the financing of political campaigns. Its chief sponsors were Senators Russ Feingold and John McCain, the law became effective on 6 November 2002, and the new legal limits became effective on January 1,2003. The decision in Citizens United v. FEC overturns this provision, although the legislation is known as McCain–Feingold, the Senate version is not the bill that became law. Instead, the legislation, H. R. 2356—introduced by Rep. Chris Shays, is the version that became law. Shays–Meehan was originally introduced as H. R.380, in the aftermath of Watergate, Congress passed the Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974, which put new limits on contributions to campaigns. Both the Republican and Democratic parties nonetheless used this money to support their candidates, in 1992, President George H. W. Bush vetoed a bill passed by the Democratic Congress that would have, among other things, restricted the use of soft money. President Clinton pushed for a bill, but was unable to get both houses to agree on one bill. In 1995, Senators John McCain and Russ Feingold jointly published an op-ed calling for campaign finance reform, in 1998, the Senate voted on the bill, but the bill failed to meet the 60 vote threshold to defeat a filibuster. All 45 Senate Democrats and 6 Senate Republicans voted to invoke cloture and this effectively killed the bill for the remainder of the 105th Congress. McCains 2000 campaign for president and a series of scandals brought the issue of finance to the fore of public consciousness in 2001. McCain and Feingold pushed the bill in the Senate, while Chris Shays, in just the second successful use of the discharge petition since the 1980s, a mixture of Democrats and Republicans defied Speaker Dennis Hastert and passed a campaign finance reform bill. The House approved the bill with a 240-189 vote, sending the bill to the Senate, the bill passed the Senate in a 60-40 vote, the bare minimum required to overcome the filibuster. Throughout the Congressional battle on the bill, President Bush declined to take a strong position, provisions of the legislation were challenged as unconstitutional by a group of plaintiffs led by then–Senate Majority Whip Mitch McConnell, a long-time opponent of the bill. President Bush signed the law despite reservations about the constitutionality of the ban on issue advertising. He appeared to expect that the Supreme Court would overturn some of its key provisions, but, in December 2003, the Supreme Court upheld most of the legislation in McConnell v. FEC. These organizations have established on both sides of the political aisle, and have included high-profile organizations such as the Media Fund. 527s are financed in part by wealthy individuals, labor unions. 527s pre-dated McCain–Feingold but grew in popularity after the law took effect, in May 2004, the FEC voted to not write new rules on the application of federal campaign finance laws to 527 organizations
32.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
33.
Advertising mail
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Advertising mail, also known as direct mail, junk mail, mailshot or admail, is the delivery of advertising material to recipients of postal mail. The delivery of advertising mail forms a large and growing service for postal services. Some organizations attempt to help people opt out of receiving advertising mail and it may be addressed to pre-selected individuals, or unaddressed and delivered on a neighbourhood-by-neighbourhood basis. Postal systems offer lower rates for buyers of bulk mail permits, in order to qualify for these rates, marketers must format and sort the mail in specific ways – which reduces the handling required by the postal service. Income from advertising mail represents a significant and growing portion of postal services budgets. In the United States, ad mail dollars decreased from $96.6 billion in 2004, a study by Boston Consulting Group predicts that overall share of ad-spend in the USA will increase from 11% in to 12% by 2020. In Canada, addressed and unaddressed advertising mail accounted for 20% of Canada Posts revenue in 2005, postal services employ the terms advertising mail, admail, and direct mail, while avoiding and objecting to the pejorative term junk mail. In many developed countries, advertising mail represents a significant and growing amount of the volume of mail. In the United States, Standard mail, advertising comprised 29% of all mail in 1980, direct mail is a common form of direct marketing, and may be employed by for-profit businesses, charities and other non-profits, political campaigns, and other organizations. Direct mail encompasses a variety of marketing materials, including brochures, catalogs, postcards, newsletters. Advertisers often refine direct mail practices into targeted mailing, in which mail is sent following database analysis to select recipients considered most likely to respond positively and this reduces costs for mailers by narrowing the mailing universe to only the most likely audience. For example, a person who has demonstrated an interest in golf may receive mail for golf-related products, or perhaps for goods. This use of analysis is a type of database marketing. Alternatively, unaddressed direct mail may be sent on a neighbourhood-by-neighbourhood basis, individually targeted direct mail may be tailored based on previous transactions and gathered data. For example, all recipients of an offer may receive a personalized package with a man’s picture on the cover. Often advertisers will include a Johnson Box in letters and these are aimed at drawing the targeted consumers into reading further in the letter. To the non-professional direct mail may seem wasteful, yet the medium can be one of the most cost-effective, database targeting combined with an effective pricing, creative and list strategy can reduce waste and maximize profitable results for the mailer. Testing is accomplished in a variety of ways including A/B split testing of new mailings versus a control, with the advent of the Internet in political campaigns, direct mail became just one of many campaign management tools, but still played a significant role
34.
United States elections, 2006
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The 2006 United States elections were held on Tuesday, November 7,2006 in the middle of Republican President George W. Bushs second term. The victory of the Democratic Party in the 2006 Congressional elections was a milestone for an additional reason. Reasons for the Democratic party takeover include the decline of the image of George W. That May, just two months after the invasion, Bush announced the end of major combat operations in Iraq. In the following months, insurgents began resisting the American occupation, additionally, religious tensions between majority Shiite and minority Sunni Muslims, tensions which had been suppressed under the grip of the Hussein regime, began to result in violence. By the end of 2003, despite the war being initially popular, a November 2003 Gallup poll showed that Bush’s job approval rating had fallen to 50% from a high of 71% at the outset of the war. It was, however, the first time since 1988 that a winner garnered a popular majority, terrorism and the war in Iraq dominated the election, with domestic issues taking a secondary role. Bush began his term with a continuation of the occupation. Both policies proved unpopular, and violence in Iraq continued to increase, compounding the unpopularity of the war was that no weapons of mass destruction were found. August 2005 was the last time any public opinion poll recorded majority approval of Bush’s job. Negative perceptions of Bush following the slow response to Hurricane Katrina further weighed on his popularity. Simultaneously, the Republican-controlled 109th Congress’s popularity was declining as well, throughout 2006, sectarian violence was ongoing in Baghdad and other areas of Iraq, many claimed that the conflict was evolving into a civil war. President Bush’s job approval rarely rose above 40%, perceptions of Congress and Republicans in general remained highly negative. The Democratic Party won a majority of the governorships and the U. S. House and Senate seats each for the first time since 1994. For the first time since the creation of the Republican party in 1860, no Republican captured any House, Senate, Democrats took a 233–202 advantage in the House of Representatives, and achieved a 49–49 tie in the United States Senate. The Senate figure is quoted in the media as 51-49. The final Senate result was decided when Democrat James Webb was declared the winner in Virginia against incumbent George Allen, on November 9,2006, Allen and fellow Republican incumbent Sen. Conrad Burns both conceded defeat, ceding effective control of the Senate to the Democrats. The election made Nancy Pelosi the first-ever female, first-ever Italian-American, keith Ellison became the first Muslim ever elected to the U. S. Congress and Mazie Hirono and Hank Johnson became the first Buddhists in a United States governing body
35.
The Michigan Daily
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The Michigan Daily is the daily student newspaper of the University of Michigan. Its first edition was published on September 29,1890, in 2007, renovations to the historic building at 420 Maynard were completed, funded entirely by private donations from alumni. To dedicate the building, a reunion of the staffs of The Michigan Daily, the Michiganensian yearbook. The Michigan Daily is published in broadsheet form five days a week, Monday through Friday, during the Fall and it is published weekly in tabloid form from May to August. Mondays contain a lengthy SportsMonday Sports section, every other Thursday, the Arts section publishes an extended, themed issue called The B-Side. Wednesdays include a magazine, originally titled Weekend Magazine, in the fall of 2005, the magazine was renamed The Statement, a reference to former Daily Editor in Chief Tom Haydens Port Huron Statement. Daily print circulation is currently over 18,000 copies, with over 230,000 unique visitors per month to its website, following the closure of The Ann Arbor News in July 2009, The Michigan Daily became the only printed daily newspaper published in Washtenaw County. In 2010, a former press secretary said the Daily staff had a strong moral responsibility to expand their coverage. In 1952, the Soviet delegate to the United Nations, F. A. Novikov, on April 12,1955, when the success of Jonas Salks polio vaccine was announced at the University of Michigan the Daily was the first newspaper to report it. In 1957, the Daily sent a member to Little Rock, Arkansas who, pretending to be a student. The Daily was instrumental in the spread of the Paul is dead urban legend, an October 14,1969 Daily article by Fred LaBour and John Gray, entitled McCartney Dead, New Evidence Brought to Light, itemized various clues, many of them of their own invention. Their reporting of McCartneys death is claimed by Beatleologist Andru J. Reeve to have been the single most significant factor in the breadth of the rumors spread. Daily alumni who have won a Pulitzer Prize include, Daniel Biddle,1987 Pulitzer Prize for Investigative Reporting, Philadelphia Inquirer with H. G. Bissinger and Fredric N
36.
Democratic National Committee
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The Democratic National Committee is the formal governing body for the United States Democratic Party. The committee coordinates strategy to support Democratic Party candidates throughout the country for local, state and it organizes the Democratic National Convention held every four years to nominate and confirm a candidate for president, and to formulate the party platform. While it provides support for party candidates, it not have direct authority over elected officials. The DNC is composed of the chairs and vice-chairs of each state Democratic Party committee and over 200 members elected by Democrats in all 50 states and its chairperson is elected by the committee. It conducts fundraising to support its activities, the DNC was established at the 1848 Democratic National Convention. The DNCs main counterpart is the Republican National Committee, the DNC is responsible for articulating and promoting the Democratic platform and coordinating party organizational activity. When the president is a Democrat, the party generally works closely with the president, there are state committees in every state, as well as local committees in most cities, wards, and towns. The chairperson of the DNC is elected by vote of members of the Democratic National Committee, primary elections, in particular, are invariably conducted by state governments according to their own laws. Outside of the process of nominating a candidate, the DNCs role in actually selecting candidates to run on the party ticket is minimal. All DNC members are superdelegates to the Democratic National Convention whose role can influence a close primary race, sitting Democratic governors and members of Congress. Distinguished party leaders, consisting of current and former presidents, vice presidents, congressional leaders, in the 2002 election cycle, the DNC and its affiliated committees raised a total of US $162,062,084, 42% of which was hard money. The largest contributor, with US $7,297,937 was the Saban Capital Group, fred Eychaner, the owner of Newsweb Corporation, gave the second highest amount of money to the DNC and its affiliates, US $5,175,000. The third largest contributor was Steve Bing of Shangri-La Entertainment, who gave US $4,758,000, in the 2006 election cycle, the DNC raised a total of US $37,939,887. The three largest contributors were investment bank Goldman Sachs, university of California and Pond North LLP. The DNC introduced a fund raising campaign, the Democracy Bonds program. There were only 31,000 Democracy Bond donors by May 2006, the program no longer is in place. In the 2016 election cycle, the DNC raised a total of US $75,945,536 as of July 21,2016, the three largest contributors were hedge fund Renaissance Technologies, Newsweb Corp and Total Wine. In July 2015, during the 2016 election cycle, the DNC, led by Debbie Wasserman-Schultz, Chair, Tom Perez, former U. S. Secretary of Labor under Barack Obama Deputy Chair, Keith Ellison, U. S. S
37.
Howard Dean
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Howard Brush Dean III is an American politician who served as the 79th Governor of Vermont from 1991 to 2003 and Chair of the Democratic National Committee from 2005 to 2009. Dean was a candidate for the Democratic nomination in the United States presidential election,2004 and his implementation of the fifty-state strategy as head of the DNC is credited with the Democratic victories in the 2006 and 2008 congressional elections and the 2008 presidential election. Afterward, he became a commentator and consultant. He was the Lieutenant Governor of Vermont from 1987 to 1991, in the 2004 election, Dean was the top fundraiser and front runner, prior to the Iowa caucus, for the Democratic Party presidential nomination. He used these methods when founding Democracy for America, a political action committee. Before entering politics, Dean earned his degree from the Albert Einstein College of Medicine in 1978. Dean was elected to the Vermont House of Representatives as a Democrat in 1982 and was elected lieutenant governor in 1986, both were part-time positions that enabled him to continue practicing medicine. In 1991, Dean became governor of Vermont when Richard A. Snelling died in office, Dean was subsequently elected to five two-year terms, serving from 1991 to 2003, making him the second longest-serving governor in Vermont history, after Thomas Chittenden. Dean also oversaw the expansion of the Dr. Dynasaur program and he is a noted staunch supporter of universal health care. Dean denounced the 2003 invasion of Iraq and called on Democrats to oppose the Bush administration, Dean showed fundraising ability, and was a pioneer of political fundraising via the Internet, however, he lost the nomination to Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts. Dean formed the organization Democracy for America and later was elected chairman of the Democratic National Committee in February 2005. As chairman of the party, Dean created and employed the 50 State Strategy that attempted to make Democrats competitive in normally conservative states often dismissed in the past as solid red. In the 2008 presidential election, Barack Obama used the 50 state strategy as the backbone of his candidacy, Dean was named chairman emeritus of the DNC upon his retirement. He was mentioned as a candidate for Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dean was born in East Hampton, New York, to Andrée Belden, an art appraiser, howards father worked at the stock brokerage firm of Dean Witter. The family was wealthy, Republican, and belonged to the exclusive Maidstone Golf Club in East Hampton. As a child he spent much of his growing up in East Hampton. There the boys– Howard, Charlie, Jim and Bill– rode bikes, played with a train set
38.
Ken Mehlman
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Kenneth Brian Ken Mehlman is an American businessman, attorney, and political figure. Prior to joining KKR, Mehlman spent a year as an attorney, Mehlman held several national posts in the Republican Party and the George W. Bush Administration. In 2000 he was appointed Director of the White House Office of Political Affairs, Mehlman managed Bushs 2004 re-election campaign, and was 62nd Chairman of the Republican National Committee from 2005–07. In 2007, Bush appointed Mehlman to a term on the U. S. In January of 2017 Mehlman announced that he would act as Chairman of the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative Policy Advisory Board, in 2010, Mehlman came out as gay in an interview with journalist Marc Ambinder, making him one of the few prominent openly gay figures in the Republican Party. After coming out, Mehlman advocated for the recognition of same-sex marriage, Mehlman was born in Baltimore, Maryland. He is one of two born to Judith and Arthur Mehlman. His father was director of MuniMae and a partner at KPMG. Mehlmans brother, Bruce, works as a lobbyist at Mehlman Vogel Castagnetti, Mehlman received his undergraduate degree in 1988 from Franklin and Marshall College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where he became a member of Phi Kappa Taus Xi chapter. He received his J. D. from Harvard Law School in 1991, Mehlman served as Smith’s legislative director from 1994 to 1996, and then as chief of staff to Representative Kay Granger of Texass 12th congressional district from 1996 to 1999. Mehlman served as director for the 2000 presidential campaign of George W. Bush. When Bush became President, Mehlman became director of the White House Office of Political Affairs and he managed the Bush re-election campaign in 2004. In January 2005, the American Association of Political Consultants gave Mehlman the Campaign Manager of the Year award for his management of the Bush/Cheney presidential ticket, Mehlman joined Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co in 2008. He is KKR’s Global Head of Public Affairs, helping assess, Mehlman also oversees the firm’s global external affairs, including corporate marketing, regulatory affairs & public policy, and communications. Mehlman leads KKRs Environmental Social Governance programs for the firm and its portfolio companies, in addition to his role at KKR, Mehlman is a trustee of New Yorks Mount Sinai Hospital, Franklin & Marshall College, and Teach for America. He is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, serves as Chairman of the American Investment Council and he is also a trustee and board member of Sponsors for Educational Opportunity. Mehlman was appointed to the Board of Directors of the Sustainability Accounting Standards Board in June,2016, on January 10,2017, Mark Zuckerberg announced on Facebook that Mehlman and David Plouffe would be joining the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative. Mehlman will chair the philanthropy’s public policy advisory board, which he stated in his official Facebook post will consist of “a diverse group of advisors, Mehlman announced after the November 2006 general election that he would not seek re-election to another term as Republican National Chairman
39.
Keith Olbermann
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Keith Theodore Olbermann is an American sports and political commentator and writer. He is currently the host of GQs political webshow The Resistance with Keith Olbermann, Olbermann spent the first 20 years of his career in sports journalism. He was a correspondent for CNN and for local TV and radio stations in the 1980s. He co-hosted ESPNs SportsCenter from 1992–97, from 1998 to 2001 he was a producer and anchor for Fox Sports Net and a host for Fox Sports coverage of Major League Baseball. From March 2003 to January 2011 Olbermann hosted the political commentary program Countdown with Keith Olbermann on MSNBC. He received attention for his criticism of right-wing and conservative politicians. Although he has frequently described as a liberal, he has resisted being labelled politically, stating. From 2011 to March 30,2012, he was the chief officer of the Current TV network. From July 2013 until July 2015 he hosted a show on ESPN2 and TSN2 called Olbermann as well as TBSs Major League Baseball postseason coverage. On September 12,2016, GQ announced that Olbermann would become a correspondent for the magazine. Olbermann hosted a web series for GQ. com titled The Closer with Keith Olbermann while covering the 2016 US presidential election and re-titled The Resistance after the victory of Donald Trump. Olbermann was born January 27,1959, in New York City, the son of Marie Katherine, a teacher, and Theodore Olbermann. He has one sister, Jenna, who was born in 1968. Olbermann grew up in a Unitarian household in the town of Hastings-on-Hudson in Westchester County, Olbermann became a devoted fan of baseball at a young age, a love he inherited from his mother, who was a lifelong New York Yankees fan. As a teenager he wrote about baseball card-collecting and appeared in many sports card-collecting periodicals of the mid 1970s. He is also referenced in Sports Collectors Bible, a 1979 book by Bert Sugar, while at Hackley, Olbermann began his broadcasting career as a play-by-play announcer for WHTR. After graduating from Hackley in 1975, he enrolled at Cornell University at the age of 16, at college Olbermann served as sports director for WVBR, a student-run commercial radio station in Ithaca. Olbermann graduated from Cornell Universitys School of Agriculture and Life Sciences in 1979 with a BS in communication, Olbermann began his professional career at UPI and the RKO Radio Network before joining then-nascent CNN in 1981
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Facebook
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Facebook is an American for-profit corporation and an online social media and social networking service based in Menlo Park, California. Facebook gradually added support for students at other universities. Since 2006, anyone age 13 and older has been allowed to become a user of Facebook, though variations exist in the minimum age requirement. The Facebook name comes from the face book directories often given to United States university students, Facebook may be accessed by a large range of desktops, laptops, tablet computers, and smartphones over the Internet and mobile networks. After registering to use the site, users can create a user profile indicating their name, occupation, schools attended and so on. Additionally, users may join common-interest user groups organized by workplace, school, hobbies or other topics, in groups, editors can pin posts to top. Additionally, users can complain about or block unpleasant people, because of the large volume of data that users submit to the service, Facebook has come under scrutiny for its privacy policies. Facebook makes most of its revenue from advertisements which appear onscreen, Facebook, Inc. held its initial public offering in February 2012, and began selling stock to the public three months later, reaching an original peak market capitalization of $104 billion. On July 13,2015, Facebook became the fastest company in the Standard & Poors 500 Index to reach a market cap of $250 billion, Facebook has more than 1.86 billion monthly active users as of December 31,2016. As of April 2016, Facebook was the most popular social networking site in the world, Facebook classifies users from the ages of 13 to 18 as minors and therefore sets their profiles to share content with friends only. Zuckerberg wrote a program called Facemash on October 28,2003 while attending Harvard University as a sophomore, to accomplish this, Zuckerberg hacked into protected areas of Harvards computer network and copied private dormitory ID images. Facemash attracted 450 visitors and 22,000 photo-views in its first four hours online, the site was quickly forwarded to several campus group list-servers, but was shut down a few days later by the Harvard administration. Zuckerberg faced expulsion and was charged by the administration with breach of security, violating copyrights, Zuckerberg expanded on this initial project that semester by creating a social study tool ahead of an art history final exam. He uploaded 500 Augustan images to a website, each of which was featured with a corresponding comments section and he shared the site with his classmates, and people started sharing notes. The following semester, Zuckerberg began writing code for a new website in January 2004 and he said that he was inspired by an editorial about the Facemash incident in The Harvard Crimson. On February 4,2004, Zuckerberg launched Thefacebook, originally located at thefacebook. com. com and they claimed that he was instead using their ideas to build a competing product. The three complained to The Harvard Crimson and the newspaper began an investigation and they later filed a lawsuit against Zuckerberg, subsequently settling in 2008 for 1.2 million shares. Membership was initially restricted to students of Harvard College, within the first month, eduardo Saverin, Dustin Moskovitz, Andrew McCollum, and Chris Hughes joined Zuckerberg to help promote the website
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International Young Democrat Union
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The International Young Democrat Union is a global alliance of centre-right political youth organisations and the youth wing of the International Democrat Union. The IYDU in its current form was founded in March 1991 in Washington, a previous organisation of the same name had been established in July 1981, also in Washington, but subsequently ceased to exist. The IYDU stands for conservative politics and free-market policies, IYDU host a number of events for member organisations each year including a Freedom Forum, an Annual Council Meeting, and overseas study visits. The parent organisation to IYDU, the International Democrat Union is an association of 71 full. In November 2013, the IDU Executive agreed to relaunch the IYDU after concluding that the mandate of all previously elected officers had expired and this relaunch, chaired by IDU Chairman John Howard, elected a new board headed by Charlotte Spukerland. A group of IYDU member organisations boycotted the relaunch and organised an event in Lisbon. However the only elected board recognised by the IDU is the one elected in London, June 2014
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Political campaign staff
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Political campaign staff are the people who formulate and implement the strategy needed to win an election. Many people have made out of working full-time for campaigns and groups that support them. These differ from political consultants who do not work for the campaign full-time but still provide assistance in the form of advice and this article provides a generic description of a campaigns staff and organization. Campaigns are usually overseen by a campaign manager, the campaign manager coordinates the campaign making sure that the rest of the staff and the campaigns consultants are focused effectively on winning the election. In small local campaigns, the manager will often be the only paid staff member. In larger campaigns, such as a United States presidential campaign, campaign managers will often have deputies who oversee various aspects of the campaign at a closer level. Directly below the campaign manager on the chart is the deputy campaign manager. These staff members often have deputies as well, below the department level, campaigns vary widely in their structure. On larger campaigns, there will be various coordinators for certain functions within each department, for example, within the fundraising department, there might be a staff member who focuses only on direct mail fundraising. The foundation of the structure are the interns and volunteers. Their tasks can include addressing envelopes, entering data into databases, the field department focuses on the on-the-ground organizing that is required in order to personally contact voters through canvassing, phone calls, and building local events. Voter contact helps construct and clean the campaigns voter file in order to better target voter persuasion. Field is generally tasked with running local storefront campaign offices as well as organizing phone banks and staging locations for canvasses. In addition to persuasion and voter identification, field staff will often provide information for the campaign headquarters as to what is going on in the communities they work in. Field staffers are the primary liaison between the campaign and local influentials such as interest group leaders and prominent community activists, field departments are also often primarily responsible for the local distribution of swag i. e. lawn signs, bumper stickers, buttons, and other such materials. The communications department oversees both the press relations and advertising involved in promoting the campaign in the media and they are responsible for the campaigns message and image among the electorate. Press releases, advertisements, phone scripts, and other forms of communication must be approved by this department before they can be released to the public, the staffers within this office vary widely from campaign to campaign. However they generally include, A press secretary who monitors the media, press secretaries set up interviews between the candidate and reporters, brief the press at press conferences, and perform other tasks involved in press relations
