1.
High Street, Oxford
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The High Street in Oxford, England, runs between Carfax, generally recognized as the centre of the city, and Magdalen Bridge to the east. The street has been described by Nikolaus Pevsner as one of the worlds great streets and it forms a gentle curve and is the subject of many prints, paintings, photographs, etc. The vista looking west towards Carfax with University College on the left, there are many historical buildings on the street, including the University of Oxford buildings and colleges. Locally the street is known as The High. To the north are, Lincoln College, Brasenose College, St Marys, All Souls College, The Queens College, St Edmund Hall and Magdalen College. To the south are, Oriel College, University College, the Examination Schools, the Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art, the Eastgate Hotel, Queens Lane Coffee House was established in 1654 and was probably Oxfords first coffee house. Despite an influx of stores in nearby Cornmarket Street, the High is home to a number of specialist independent retailers. These include Shepherd & Woodward, Payne & Son, Sanders of Oxford, to the north at the eastern end between Cornmarket and the Turl is the historic traditional Covered Market, established in 1774. William Henry Butler, later Mayor of Oxford, was a merchant with premises in the High Street during the early 19th century. Edward Bracher, a pioneering Victorian photographer, had a shop at 26 High Street, Henry Taunt, another photographer, joined him as a member of staff in 1856. Taunt later returned to 41 High Street after the lease for his own premises in Broad Street expired in 1894. 83 High Street bears a plaque commemorating Sarah Cooper marmalade maker. The company made Oxford Marmalade famous, in June 1879, George Claridge Druce moved to Oxford and set up a chemists shop, Druce & Co. at 118 High Street. This continued until his death 1932, the Old Bank Hotel was the first new hotel for 135 years in the centre of Oxford. Quod Brasserie is also part of the hotel, located between the junctions with Oriel Street and Logic Lane, the architectural critic Nikolaus Pevsner wrote in 1974 that The High Street is one of the world’s great streets. He may have been echoing Thomas Hardys comment in Jude the Obscure, And theres a street in the place — the main street — that hant another like it in the world
2.
Town
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A town is a human settlement larger than a village but smaller than a city. The size definition for what constitutes a town varies considerably in different parts of the world, the word town shares an origin with the German word Zaun, the Dutch word tuin, and the Old Norse tun. The German word Zaun comes closest to the meaning of the word. An early borrowing from Celtic *dunom, in English and Dutch, the meaning of the word took on the sense of the space which these fences enclosed. In England, a town was a community that could not afford or was not allowed to build walls or other larger fortifications. In the Netherlands, this space was a garden, more specifically those of the wealthy, in Old Norse tun means a place between farmhouses, and is still used in a similar meaning in modern Norwegian. If there was any distinction between toun and burgh as claimed by some, it did not last in practice as burghs, for example, Edina Burgh or Edinburgh was built around a fort and eventually came to have a defensive wall. In some cases, town is a name for city or village. Sometimes, the town is short for township. A places population size is not a determinant of urban character. In many areas of the world, as in India at least until recent times, in the United Kingdom, there are historical cities that are far smaller than the larger towns. Some forms of settlement, such as temporary mining locations, may be clearly non-rural. Towns often exist as governmental units, with legally defined borders. In the United States these are referred to as incorporated towns, in other cases the town lacks its own governance and is said to be unincorporated. Note that the existence of a town may be legally set forth through other means. In the case of planned communities, the town exists legally in the form of covenants on the properties within the town. Australian geographer Thomas Griffith Taylor proposed a classification of towns based on their age, although there is no official use of the term for any settlement. In Albanian qytezë means small city or new city, while in ancient times small residential center within the walls of a castle
3.
City
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A city is a large and permanent human settlement. Cities generally have complex systems for sanitation, utilities, land usage, housing, a big city or metropolis usually has associated suburbs and exurbs. Such cities are associated with metropolitan areas and urban areas. Once a city expands far enough to another city, this region can be deemed a conurbation or megalopolis. Damascus is arguably the oldest city in the world, in terms of population, the largest city proper is Shanghai, while the fastest-growing is Dubai. There is not enough evidence to assert what conditions gave rise to the first cities, some theorists have speculated on what they consider suitable pre-conditions and basic mechanisms that might have been important driving forces. The conventional view holds that cities first formed after the Neolithic revolution, the Neolithic revolution brought agriculture, which made denser human populations possible, thereby supporting city development. The advent of farming encouraged hunter-gatherers to abandon nomadic lifestyles and to settle near others who lived by agricultural production, the increased population density encouraged by farming and the increased output of food per unit of land created conditions that seem more suitable for city-like activities. In his book, Cities and Economic Development, Paul Bairoch takes up position in his argument that agricultural activity appears necessary before true cities can form. According to Vere Gordon Childe, for a settlement to qualify as a city, it must have enough surplus of raw materials to support trade and a relatively large population. To illustrate this point, Bairoch offers an example, Western Europe during the pre-Neolithic, when the cost of transport is taken into account, the figure rises to 200,000 square kilometres. Bairoch noted that this is roughly the size of Great Britain, the urban theorist Jane Jacobs suggests that city formation preceded the birth of agriculture, but this view is not widely accepted. In his book City Economics, Brendan OFlaherty asserts Cities could persist—as they have for thousands of years—only if their advantages offset the disadvantages, OFlaherty illustrates two similar attracting advantages known as increasing returns to scale and economies of scale, which are concepts usually associated with businesses. Their applications are seen in more basic economic systems as well, increasing returns to scale occurs when doubling all inputs more than doubles the output an activity has economies of scale if doubling output less than doubles cost. To offer an example of these concepts, OFlaherty makes use of one of the oldest reasons why cities were built, in this example, the inputs are anything that would be used for protection and the output is the area protected and everything of value contained in it. OFlaherty then asks that we suppose the protected area is square, the advantage is expressed as, O = s 2, where O is the output and s stands for the length of a side. This equation shows that output is proportional to the square of the length of a side, the inputs depend on the length of the perimeter, I =4 s, where I stands for the quantity of inputs. So there are increasing returns to scale, O = I2 /16 and this equation shows that with twice the inputs, you produce quadruple the output
4.
Neighbourhood
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A neighbourhood, or neighborhood, is a geographically localised community within a larger city, town, suburb or rural area. Neighbourhoods are often social communities with considerable face-to-face interaction among members, the Old English word for neighbourhood was neahdæl. ”Most of the earliest cities around the world as excavated by archaeologists have evidence for the presence of social neighbourhoods. Historical documents shed light on life in numerous historical preindustrial or nonwestern cities. Neighbourhoods are typically generated by social interaction among people living near one another, in this sense they are local social units larger than households not directly under the control of city or state officials. In addition to social neighbourhoods, most ancient and historical cities also had administrative districts used by officials for taxation, record-keeping, administrative districts are typically larger than neighbourhoods and their boundaries may cut across neighbourhood divisions. In some cases, however, administrative districts coincided with neighbourhoods, for example, in the T’ang period Chinese capital city Chang’an, neighbourhoods were districts and there were state officials who carefully controlled life and activity at the neighbourhood level. Neighbourhoods in preindustrial cities often had some degree of social specialisation or differentiation, ethnic neighbourhoods were important in many past cities and remain common in cities today. One factor contributing to neighbourhood distinctiveness and social cohesion in past cities was the role of rural to urban migration and this was a continual process in preindustrial cities, and migrants tended to move in with relatives and acquaintances from their rural past. Neighbourhoods have been the site of delivery or service interventions in part as efforts to provide local, quality services. Alfred Kahn, as early as the mid-1970s, described the experience, theory and fads of neighbourhood service delivery over the decade, including discussion of income transfers. Neighbourhoods, as an aspect of community, also are the site of services for youth, including children with disabilities. While the term neighbourhood organisation is not as common in 2015, community and economic development activists have pressured for reinvestment in local communities and neighbourhoods. Community and Economic Development may be understood in different ways, and may involve faith-based groups, urban sociology even has a subset termed neighbourhood sociology which supports the study of local communities and the diversity of urban neighbourhoods. Neighbourhoods are also used in studies from postal codes and health disparities. Neighbourhoods are convenient, and always accessible, since you are already in your neighbourhood when you walk out your door, successful neighbourhood action frequently requires little specialised technical skill, and often little or no money. Action may call for an investment of time, but material costs are often low, with neighbourhood action, compared to activity on larger scales, results are more likely to be visible and quickly forthcoming. The streets are cleaner, the crosswalk is painted, the trees are planted, visible and swift results are indicators of success, and since success is reinforcing, the probability of subsequent neighbourhood action is increased. The social support that a neighbourhood may provide can serve as a buffer against various forms of adversity
5.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
6.
Liberal arts college
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A liberal arts college is a college with an emphasis on undergraduate study in the liberal arts and sciences. A liberal arts college aims to impart a broad knowledge and develop general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational. Other researchers have adopted similar definitions, most liberal arts colleges outside of the United States follow this model. Liberal arts colleges are distinguished from other types of higher education chiefly by their generalist curricula and these attributes have various secondary effects in terms of administration as well as student experience. For example, class size is much lower at liberal arts colleges than at universities. Many students select liberal arts colleges with precisely this sense of connection in mind. From an administrative standpoint, the size of liberal arts colleges contributes to their cohesion. Job satisfaction is also higher in liberal arts colleges, for both faculty and staff. In addition, most liberal arts colleges are residential, which means students live and learn away from home. The distinctiveness of these attributes is somewhat eroded by the tendency of universities to adopt aspects of the arts college. In addition, some universities have maintained a sub-unit that preserves many aspects of the arts college. Liberal arts colleges themselves sometimes cluster to offer greater curricular breadth or share other resources, most liberal arts colleges nowadays, however, offer more than just liberal arts subjects, such as computer science from the formal science discipline. Liberal arts colleges are found in all parts of the world, the Global Liberal Arts Alliance, which incorporates institutions on five continents, refers to itself as an international, multilateral partnership of American style liberal arts institutions. These colleges served as a means of spreading a basically European cultural model across the new country, the model proliferated in the 19th century, some 212 small liberal arts colleges were established between 1850 and 1899. As of 1987, there were about 540 liberal arts colleges in the United States, the oldest liberal arts college in America is considered to be Washington College, the first college chartered after American independence. Olaf College as well as Augsburg College in Minnesota, and the Claremont Colleges in Southern California, most are private institutions, but a handful of public liberal arts schools exist, such as the University of Mary Washington, and New Saint Andrews College in Moscow, Idaho. Liberal arts colleges are found in Canada, including Mount Allison University, Bishops University. In the Netherlands, universities have opened constituent liberal arts colleges under the university college since the late 1990s
7.
Stereotype
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In social psychology, a stereotype is a thought that can be adopted about specific types of individuals or certain ways of doing things. These thoughts or beliefs may or may not accurately reflect reality, however, this is only a fundamental psychological definition of a stereotype. Within psychology and spanning across other disciplines, there are different conceptualizations, some of these definitions share commonalities, though each one may also harbor unique aspects that may contradict the others. The term stereotype derives from the Greek words στερεός, firm, solid and τύπος, impression, the term comes from the printing trade and was first adopted in 1798 by Firmin Didot to describe a printing plate that duplicated any typography. The duplicate printing plate, or the stereotype, is used for printing instead of the original, outside of printing, the first reference to stereotype was in 1850, as a noun that meant image perpetuated without change. However, it was not until 1922 that stereotype was first used in the psychological sense by American journalist Walter Lippmann in his work Public Opinion. Stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination are understood as related but different concepts, although related, the three concepts can exist independently of each other. Studies of stereotype content examine what people think of others, rather than the reasons, early theories of stereotype content proposed by social psychologists such as Gordon Allport assumed that stereotypes of outgroups reflected uniform antipathy. For instance, Katz and Braly argued in their classic 1933 study that ethnic stereotypes were uniformly negative, by contrast, a newer model of stereotype content theorizes that stereotypes are frequently ambivalent and vary along two dimensions, warmth and competence. Warmth and competence are respectively predicted by lack of competition and status, groups that do not compete with the in-group for the same resources are perceived as warm, whereas high-status groups are considered competent. The groups within each of the four combinations of high and low levels of warmth, the model explains the phenomenon that some out-groups are admired but disliked, whereas others are liked but disrespected. This model was tested on a variety of national and international samples and was found to reliably predict stereotype content. Early studies suggested that stereotypes were only used by rigid, repressed, stereotyping can serve cognitive functions on an interpersonal level, and social functions on an intergroup level. For stereotyping to function on a level, an individual must see themselves as part of a group. Craig McGarty, Russell Spears, and Vincent Y, Yzerbyt argued that the cognitive functions of stereotyping are best understood in relation to its social functions, and vice versa. Stereotypes can help make sense of the world and they are a form of categorization that helps to simplify and systematize information. Thus, information is easily identified, recalled, predicted. Stereotypes are categories of objects or people, between stereotypes, objects or people are as different from each other as possible
8.
Company town
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A company town is a place where practically all stores and housing are owned by the one company that is also the main employer. Company towns are often planned with a suite of amenities such as stores, churches, schools, markets, the best examples of company towns have had high ideals, but many have been regarded as paternalistic or exploitative. Others developed more or less in unplanned fashion, such as Summit Hill, Pennsylvania, one of the oldest, traditional settings for company towns were where extractive industries — coal, metal mines, lumber — had established a monopoly franchise. Dam sites and war-industry camps founded other company towns, since company stores often had a monopoly in company towns, it was possible to pay in scrip through a truck system. In the Soviet Union there were cities of nuclear scientists known as atomgrad, particularly in Ukraine those were Pripyat, Varash. The company may also donate a building to a local congregation, operate parks, host cultural events such as concerts. If the owning company cuts back or goes out of business, Company towns often become regular public cities and towns as they grow and attract other settlement, business enterprises, and pool transportation and services infrastructure. Other times, a town may not officially be a company town, further, such dependencies extend to neighborhoods and regions of larger cities. Paternalism, a form of social engineering, refers to the control of workers by their employers who sought to force middle-class ideals upon their working-class employees. Accordingly, the town offered a unique opportunity to achieve such ends. Additionally, for-profit shops within company towns were owned by the company. Although economically successful, company towns sometimes failed politically due to a lack of elected officials, accordingly, workers often had no say in local affairs and therefore, felt dictated. Ultimately, this political climate caused resentment amongst workers and resulted in many residents eventually losing long-term affection for their towns, such was the case at Pullman. The town, entirely company-owned, provided housing, markets, a library, churches and entertainment for the 6,000 company employees, employees were required to live in Pullman, although cheaper rentals could be found in nearby communities. The town operated successfully until the panic of 1893, when demands for the companys products declined. Despite this, the company refused to lower rents in the town or the price of goods at its shops, a national commission formed to investigate the causes of the strikes found that Pullmans paternalism was partly to blame and labelled it un-American. In 1898, the Illinois Supreme Court required Pullman to dissolve their ownership of the town, historian Linda Carlson argues that the managers of corporate towns in the early 20th century believed they could avoid the mistakes made by George Pullman in the 1880s. She says they, wanted to create a life for their employees, decent housing, good schools
9.
Gentrification
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Gentrification is a process of renovation of deteriorated urban neighborhoods by means of the influx of more affluent residents. This is a common and controversial topic in politics and in urban planning, conversations surrounding gentrification have evolved, as many in the social-scientific community have questioned the negative connotations associated with the word gentrification. Gentrification is typically the result of increased interest in a certain environment, early gentrifiers may belong to low-income artist or boheme communities, which increase the attractiveness and flair of a certain quarter. In addition to these benefits, gentrification can lead to population migration. The term gentrification has come to refer to a phenomenon that can be defined in different ways. Historians say that gentrification took place in ancient Rome and in Roman Britain, the word gentrification derives from gentry—which comes from the Old French word genterise, of gentle birth and people of gentle birth. In England, Landed gentry denoted the social class, consisting of gentlemen and this change has the potential to cause displacement of long-time residents and businesses. When long-time or original neighborhood residents move from an area because of higher rents, mortgages. Gentrification is a housing, economic, and health issue that affects a communitys history and culture and it often shifts a neighborhoods characteristics, e. g. racial-ethnic composition and household income, by adding new stores and resources in previously run-down neighborhoods. German geographers have a more distanced view on gentrification, actual gentrification is seen as a mere symbolic issue happening in a low amount of places and blocks, the symbolic value and visibility in public discourse being higher than actual migration trends. Gerhard Hard assumes that urban flight is more important than inner city gentrification. Volkskunde scholar Barbara Lang introduced the term symbolic gentrification with regard to the Mythos Kreuzberg in Berlin, Lang assumes that complaints about gentrification often come from those who have been responsible for the process in their youth. When former students and bohemians started raising families and earning money in better paid jobs, especially Berlin is a showcase of intense debates about symbols of gentrification, while the actual processes are much slower than in other cities. The citys Prenzlauer Berg district is, however, a child of the capitals gentrification. This leads to mixed feelings amidst the local population, the neologism Bionade-Biedermeier was coined about Prenzlauer Berg. It describes the milieu of the former quartier of the alternative scene. There are several approaches that attempt to explain the roots and the reasons behind the spread of gentrification, bruce London and J. John Palen compiled a list of five explanations, demographic-ecological, sociocultural, political-economical, community networks, and social movements. The first theory, demographic-ecological, attempts to explain gentrification through the analysis of demographics, population, social organization, environment and this theory frequently refers to the growing number of people between the ages of 25 and 35 in the 1970s, or the baby boom generation
10.
Fraternities and sororities
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Fraternities and sororities are social organizations at colleges and universities. A form of the fraternity, they are prominent in the United States, and the Philippines, with smaller numbers existing in France, the United Kingdom, Canada. Similar organizations exist in countries as well, including the Studentenverbindungen of German-speaking countries. Similar, but much less common, organizations also exist for secondary school students, in modern usage, the term Greek letter organization is often synonymous with the terms fraternity and sorority. Traditional fraternities of the type described in this article are often called social fraternities, generally, membership in a fraternity or sorority is obtained while an undergraduate student but continues, thereafter, for life. Some of these organizations can accept graduate students as well as undergraduates, the first fraternity in North America to incorporate most of the elements of modern fraternities was Phi Beta Kappa, founded at the College of William and Mary in 1775. The founding of Phi Beta Kappa followed the establishment of two other secret student societies that had existed at that campus as early as 1750. In 1779 Phi Beta Kappa expanded to include chapters at Harvard, by the early 19th century, the organization transformed itself into a scholastic honor society and abandoned secrecy. In 1825 Kappa Alpha Society, the oldest extant fraternity to retain its characteristic, was established at Union College. In 1827, Sigma Phi and Delta Phi were also founded at the same institution, the foundation of this triad established Union College as the Mother of Fraternities. Fraternities represented the intersection between dining clubs, literary societies, and secret initiatory orders such as Freemasonry, as fraternity membership was punishable by expulsion at many colleges at this time, the house was located deep in the woods. The first residential home to be built by a fraternity is believed to have been Alpha Delta Phis chapter at Cornell. Alpha Tau Omega became the first fraternity to own a house in the South when, in 1880. Chapters of many fraternities followed suit, purchasing and less often, Phi Sigma Kappas chapter home at Cornell, completed in 1902, is the oldest such house still occupied by its fraternal builders. The term sorority was invented by a professor of Latin who felt the word fraternity was inappropriate for a group of ladies, the first organization to use the term sorority was Gamma Phi Beta, established in 1874. The development of fraternities for women during this time was an accomplishment in the way of womens rights. By mere existence these organizations were defying the odds, the women were able to advance their organizations despite many factors working against them. Today both social and multicultural sororities are present on more than 650 college campuses across the United States, the National Panhellenic Conference serves as the umbrella organization for 26 national sororities, representing over 4 million women at both the collegiate level and in alumni associations
11.
New Urbanism
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New Urbanism is an urban design movement which promotes environmentally friendly habits by creating walkable neighborhoods containing a wide range of housing and job types. It arose in the United States in the early 1980s, and has influenced many aspects of real estate development, urban planning. These ideas can all be circled back to two concepts, building a sense of community and the development of ecological practices, the organizing body for New Urbanism is the Congress for the New Urbanism, founded in 1993. They believe their strategies can reduce congestion by encouraging the population to ride bikes, walk. They also hope that this set up will increase the supply of affordable housing, the Charter of the New Urbanism also covers issues such as historic preservation, safe streets, green building, and the re-development of brownfield land. The ten Principles of Intelligent Urbanism also phrase guidelines for new urbanist approaches, architecturally, new urbanist developments are often accompanied by New Classical, postmodern, or vernacular styles, although that is not always the case. Until the mid 20th century, cities were generally organized into, but with the advent of cheap automobiles and favorable government policies, attention began to shift away from cities and towards ways of growth more focused on the needs of the car. This new system of development, with its rigorous separation of uses, arose after World War II, the majority of U. S. citizens now live in suburban communities built in the last fifty years, and automobile use per capita has soared. Although New Urbanism as a movement would only arise later. Social philosopher and historian Lewis Mumford criticized the development of post-war America. The French architect François Spoerry has developed in the 60s the concept of architecture that he applied to Port Grimaud. The success of project had a considerable influence and led to many new projects of soft architecture like Port Liberté in New Jersey or Le Plessis Robisson in France. The term new urbanism itself started being used in context in the mid-1980s. Named the Ahwahnee Principles, the presented the principles to about one hundred government officials in the fall of 1991. Calthorpe, Duany, Moule, Plater-Zyberk, Polyzoides, and Solomon founded the Chicago-based Congress for the New Urbanism in 1993, the CNU has grown to more than three thousand members, and is the leading international organization promoting New Urbanist design principles. It holds annual Congresses in various U. S. cities, the Canons are a set of operating principles for human settlement that reestablish the relationship between the art of building, the making of community, and the conservation of our natural world. They promote the use of heating and cooling solutions, the use of locally obtained materials, and in general. New Urbanism is a movement that spans a number of different disciplines
12.
Duke University
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Duke University is an American private research university located in Durham, North Carolina. Founded by Methodists and Quakers in the town of Trinity in 1838. In 1924, tobacco and electric power industrialist James Buchanan Duke established The Duke Endowment, at time the institution changed its name to honor his deceased father. Dukes campus spans over 8,600 acres on three campuses in Durham as well as a marine lab in Beaufort. The main campus—designed largely by architect Julian Abele—incorporates Gothic architecture with the 210-foot Duke Chapel at the campus center, the first-year-populated East Campus contains Georgian-style architecture, while the main Gothic-style West Campus 1.5 miles away is adjacent to the Medical Center. Duke is the seventh-wealthiest private university in America with $11.4 billion in cash, Dukes research expenditures in the 2015 fiscal year were $1.037 billion, the seventh largest in the nation. In 2014, Thomson Reuters named 32 of Dukes professors to its list of Highly Cited Researchers, Duke also ranks fifth among national universities to have produced Rhodes, Marshall, Truman, Goldwater, and Udall Scholars. Ten Nobel laureates and three Turing Award winners are affiliated with the university, Dukes sports teams compete in the Atlantic Coast Conference and the basketball team is renowned for having won five NCAA Mens Division I Basketball Championships, most recently in 2015. Duke is consistently included among the best universities in the world by numerous university rankings, according to a Forbes study, Duke is ranked 11th among universities that have produced billionaires. Duke started in 1838 as Browns Schoolhouse, a subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present-day town of Trinity. Organized by the Union Institute Society, a group of Methodists and Quakers, the academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church. Carr donated land in 1892 for the original Durham campus, which is now known as East Campus, in 1924 Washington Dukes son, James B. Duke, established The Duke Endowment with a $40 million trust fund, income from the fund was to be distributed to hospitals, orphanages, the Methodist Church, and four colleges. Duke thought the change would come off as self-serving. Money from the endowment allowed the University to grow quickly, Dukes original campus, East Campus, was rebuilt from 1925 to 1927 with Georgian-style buildings. By 1930, the majority of the Collegiate Gothic-style buildings on the one mile west were completed. In 1878, Trinity awarded A. B. degrees to three sisters—Mary, Persis, and Theresa Giles—who had studied both with private tutors and in classes with men. With the relocation of the college in 1892, the Board of Trustees voted to allow women to be formally admitted to classes as day students
