1.
Color correction
–
Without color correction gels, a scene may have a mix of various colors. Applying color correction gels in front of light sources can alter the color of the light sources to match. Mixed lighting can produce an undesirable aesthetic when displayed on a television or in a theatre, conversely, gels may also be used to make a scene appear more natural by simulating the mix of color temperatures that occur naturally. This application is useful, especially where motivated lighting is the goal, color gels may also be used to tint lights for artistic effect. The particular color of a light source can be simplified into a correlated color temperature. The higher the CCT, the bluer the light appears, sunlight at 5600K, for example, appears much bluer than tungsten light at 3200K. Unlike a chromaticity diagram, the Kelvin scale reduces the light sources color into one dimension, thus, light sources of the same CCT may appear green or magenta in comparison with one another. Fluorescent lights, for example, are very green in comparison with other types of lighting. However, some fluorescents are designed to have a high faithfulness to an ideal light and this dimension, along lines of constant CCT, is sometimes measured in terms of green–magenta balance, this dimension is sometimes referred to as tint or CC. The main color correction gels are CTB and CTO, a CTB gel converts tungsten light to daylight color. A CTO gel performs the reverse, note that different manufacturers gels yield slightly different colors. As well, there is no definition of the color of daylight since it varies depending on the location. Gels that remove the green cast of fluorescent lights are called minus green, gels that add a green cast are called plus green. Fractions such as 3/4, 1/2, 1/4, and 1/8 indicate the strength of a gel, a 1/2 CTO gel is half the strength of a CTO gel. Color filters may be applied over a lens to adjust its white balance. In video systems, white balance can be achieved by digital or electronic manipulation of the signal, however, some digital cinema cameras can record an image without any digital filtering applied. Using physical color correction filters to white balance can maximize the range of the captured image. Some professional cameras designed for ENG use filter wheels containing color correction filters and are designed to optimize performance for different color temperatures, in film cameras, no electronic or digital manipulation of white balance is possible in the original camera negative
2.
Color suite
–
A color suite is the control room for color grading video in a post-production environment. The video source could be from, a telecine, a tape recorder. A high end broadcast color suite may use a Da Vinci Systems or Pandora Int. s color corrector, if a VTR is the source for the video the room is often called a tape to tape suite. Many suites are designed to operate as a suite or a tape to tape suite by changing the configuration of the suite. The operator of the suite is called a Colorist. If a telecine is the source this is called a Film to Tape operation, a color suite may use one video standard or be able to change configuration to a number of standards like, high-definition video, NTSC, or PAL or a DI workflow. Color suites are sometime placed in digital movie theaters with a video projector for color correction to that display format. The suite room will also have video equipment in the Production control room for monitoring the video signal like, Video monitor, Waveform monitor, the suite may have an either a Non-linear editing system or Linear editing system to control the source and record device. This may be internal to the color grading device, as in a Pandoras poggle or Da Vincis 2k or external, a vision mixer may also be in the suite for monitoring different video sources or for simple or special effects in the video. A character generator is used also for titling and subtitle. The suite may have equipment to read, log and insert into the video Kodaks Keykode, Keykode is bar coding that is placed at regular intervals on negative films to aid in identifying and counting of film frames. Evertz, Aaton and ARRI are three types of readers for telecine use, the suite may or may not have audio post production equipment. This would be to monitor and if needed sync up the audio to the video source if the sound was not on the film. An audio mixing console and other equipment such as effects devices may also be in the suite. The audio may be from the film soundtrack, the term MOS is used, on a slate, when a scene is filmed without sync sound or any sound. A clapperboard slate is used at the start and sometime at the end of scene to mark particular takes recorded during a production, some color suites are at video post production facilities that rent them by the hour for the transfer of TV commercials, documentaries and movies. These color suites would have a client area behind the colorist, with the client present this would be called a supervised session. Test film 3D LUT Cintel, telecine equipment, color motion picture film Da Vinci Systems Pandora International Digital intermediate Display resolution Faroudja, inventors of reverse telecine technologies
3.
Photographic processing
–
Photographic processing or development is the chemical means by which photographic film or paper is treated after photographic exposure to produce a negative or positive image. Photographic processing transforms the latent image into an image, makes this permanent. All processes based upon the process are similar, regardless of the film or papers manufacturer. Exceptional variations include instant films such as made by Polaroid. Kodachrome required Kodaks proprietary K-14 process, Kodachrome film production ceased in 2009, and K-14 processing is no longer available as of December 30,2010. Ilfochrome materials use the dye destruction process, all photographic processing use a series of chemical baths. Processing, especially the development stages, requires very close control of temperature, agitation, the film may be soaked in water to swell the gelatin layer, facilitating the action of the subsequent chemical treatments. The developer converts the latent image to macroscopic particles of metallic silver, a stop bath, † typically a dilute solution of acetic acid or citric acid, halts the action of the developer. A rinse with water may be substituted. The fixer makes the image permanent and light-resistant by dissolving remaining silver halide, a common fixer is hypo, specifically ammonium thiosulfate. Washing in clean water removes any remaining fixer, residual fixer can corrode the silver image, leading to discolouration, staining and fading. The washing time can be reduced and the more completely removed if a hypo clearing agent is used after the fixer. Film may be rinsed in a solution of a non-ionic wetting agent to assist uniform drying. Film is then dried in an environment, cut and placed into protective sleeves. Once the film is processed, it is referred to as a negative. The negative may now be printed, the negative is placed in an enlarger, many different techniques can be used during the enlargement process. Two examples of enlargement techniques are dodging and burning, alternatively, the negative may be scanned for digital printing or web viewing after adjustment, retouching, and/or manipulation. † In modern automatic processing machines, the bath is replaced by mechanical squeegee or pinching rollers
4.
NAB Show
–
NAB Show is an annual trade show produced by the National Association of Broadcasters. It takes place in April at the Las Vegas Convention Center in Las Vegas, the shows tagline is Where Content Comes to Life. The 2014 NAB show was April 5 to 10 at the Las Vegas Convention Center, over 98,000 attendees from 159 countries came to see exhibits from over 1,700 companies. The 2014 NAB show continued the StartUp Loft experiment, the 2013 NAB Show was April 6 to 11 at the Las Vegas Convention Center. NAB Show had its first ever 2nd screen Sunday presented by the 2nd Screen Society, attendees also had the opportunity for a behind the scenes look at the production of the films Oblivion and Oz the Great and Powerful. The Television Luncheon, hosted by Nancy ODell, featured the induction of American Idol into the Television Hall of Fame with an appearance by Randy Jackson, chase Carey participated in the Show opening along with Bob Schieffer, Representative Greg Walden and Representative Dina Titus. The 2013 NAB Show also featured a conversation between Senator Gordon H. Smith and Lowell McAdam, CEO of Verizon, additional Speakers included, Charles F. Bolden, Julius Genachowski, Tom Green, Penn Jillette, Jon Landau, Dave Ramsey and John Tesh. The 2012 NAB Show was April 14 to 19 at the Las Vegas Convention Center,2012 highlighted 4k video, ISP content delivery and the evolution of special effects technology. Netflix unveiled the comeback of the television show Arrested Development and Betty White was inducted into the NAB Television Hall of Fame, the luncheons featured Garry Marshall, Bob Uecker and Donny Osmond. Stephen Dubner and Teri Hatcher opened the Show, james Cameron returned to the Show, Rob Legato discussed the films Hugo and Titanic and the Post|Production World Conference had the highly anticipated keynote of Steve Wozniak. The StartUp Loft is an area at the NAB show that showcases new startup companies in technology, entertainment. The StartUp Loft started at the 2012 NAB show, the 2011 NAB Show was April 9 to 14 at the Las Vegas Convention Center. This year, NAB highlighted that media consumption has become more digital and this included discussion of TV everywhere strategies, mobile TV, and how the set top box will retain relevancy. was another theme that cropped up at the show. This trend is closely tied with the adoption connected TV behaviour, the 2010 NAB Show was April 10 to 15 at the Las Vegas Convention Center. Emmy-nominated Big Bang Theory actor Jim Parsons was presented the NAB Television Chairmans Award for his role as theoretical physicist Sheldon Cooper and this was presented at the NAB Television Luncheon on April 12 at the Las Vegas Hilton. A Super Session took place on April 13 titled Unboxing Advertising and Entertainment, los Angeles Times business reporter Joe Flint moderated. The 2009 NAB Show was held between April 18 and 23 at the Las Vegas Convention Center and Las Vegas Hilton, the show drew 83,842 registered attendees of which 23,232 were international attendees and 1,246 from news media. Cheers and Frasier actor Kelsey Grammer received the inaugural Television Chairmans Award on April 20, the 2008 NAB Show took place from April 11–17 in Las Vegas
5.
Telecine
–
Telecine is the process of transferring motion picture film into video and is performed in a color suite. The term is used to refer to the equipment used in the post-production process. Telecine enables a motion picture, captured originally on film stock, to be viewed with standard equipment, such as television sets, video cassette recorders, DVD. Within the film industry, it is referred to as a TK. With the advent of popular broadcast television, producers realized they needed more than live television programming, however, the difference in frame rates between film and television meant that simply playing a film into a television camera would result in flickering. Originally the kinescope was used to record the image from a display to film. This could then be re-played directly into a camera for re-display. Non-live programming could also be filmed using the cameras, edited mechanically as normal. As the film was run at the speed as the television. Color was supported by using a video camera, prisms. However, this still left film shot at cinema frame rates as a problem, the obvious solution is to simply speed up the film to match the television frame rates, but this, at least in the case of NTSC, is rather obvious to the eye and ear. This problem is not difficult to fix, however, the solution being to play a selected frame twice. For NTSC, the difference in rates can be corrected by showing every fourth frame of film twice. A more convincing technique is to use 2,3 pulldown, discussed below, PAL uses a similar system,2,2 pulldown. In recent decades, telecine has primarily been a film-to-videotape process, changes since the 1950s have primarily been in terms of equipment and physical formats, the basic concept remains the same. Home movies are video tapes of films that used this technique, the most complex part of telecine is the synchronization of the mechanical film motion and the electronic video signal. Every time the part of the telecine samples the light electronically. This is relatively easy when the film is photographed at the frame rate as the video camera will sample, but when this is not true
6.
Ampex
–
Ampex is an American electronics company founded in 1944 by Alexander M. Poniatoff. The name AMPEX is an acronym, created by its founder, at one time public, the remaining ongoing business unit was acquired by Delta Information Systems in October 2014, with the original parent, Ampex Corporation, ceasing operations in October 2014. Ampexs first great success was a line of tape recorders developed from the German wartime Magnetophon system at the behest of Bing Crosby. Ampex quickly became a leader in audio technology, developing many of the analog recording formats for both music and movies that remained in use into the 1990s. They also introduced multi-track recording, slow-motion and instant playback television, Ampexs tape business was rendered obsolete during the 1990s, and the company turned to digital storage products. They never managed to become a player in this field, russian inventor Alexander Matthew Poniatoff established the company in San Carlos, California, in 1944 as the Ampex Electric and Manufacturing Company. The name came from his initials plus ex to avoid using the name AMP already in use, during World War II, Ampex was a small manufacturer of high quality electric motors and generators for radars that used alnico 5 magnets from General Electric. Ampexs first offices were at 1313 Laurel St. San Carlos California, near the end of the war, while serving in the U. S. Army Signal Corps, Major Jack Mullin was assigned to investigate German radio and electronics experiments. He discovered the Magnetophons with AC biasing on a trip to Radio Frankfurt, the device produced much better fidelity than shellac records. Mullin acquired two Magnetophon recorders and 50 reels of BASF Type L tape, and brought them to America and he demonstrated them to the Institute of Radio Engineers in San Francisco on May 16,1946. Bing Crosby, a big star on radio at the time, was receptive to the idea of pre-recording his radio programs and he disliked the regimentation of live broadcasts, and much preferred the relaxed atmosphere of the recording studio. This may have been what Crosby was hoping to avoid, as that was the argument Crosby used with the network when he asked to use transcription disc recordings of his show. Those recordings were made directly from the live east coast show, in June 1947, Mullin, who was pitching the technology to the major Hollywood movie studios, got the chance to demonstrate his modified tape recorders to Crosby. When Crosby heard a demonstration of Mullins tape recorders, he saw the potential of the new technology. Ampex was finishing its prototype of the Model 200 tape recorder, after a successful test broadcast, ABC agreed to allow Crosby to pre-record his shows on tape. Crosby immediately appointed Mullin as his engineer and placed an order for $50,000 worth of the new recorders so that Ampex could develop a commercial production model from the prototypes. Crosby Enterprises was Ampexs West Coast representative until 1957, the companys first tape recorder, the Ampex Model 200A, was first shipped in April 1948. The first two units, serial numbers 1 and 2, were used to record the Bing Crosby Show
7.
Quadruplex videotape
–
2-inch quadruplex videotape is the first practical and commercially successful analog recording videotape format. It was developed and released for the broadcast television industry in 1956 by Ampex, the first videotape recorder using this format was built and created in the same year. Broadcasters also sought a medium that was not as costly or time-consuming to edit. Faced with these challenges, broadcasters sought to adapt magnetic tape recording technology for use with television as well and this method was called quadrature scanning, as opposed to the helical scan transport used by later videotape formats. The cue track was used either as an audio track. A typical 4,800 ft reel of 2 in quad tape holds approximately one hour of recorded material at 15 inches per second, the quadruplex format employs segmented recording, each transversely recorded video track on a 2-inch quad videotape holds one-sixteenth or one-twentieth of a field of video. This meant that 2-inch quad did not support trick-play functions, such as still, shuttle, most quad machines made later in the 1960s and 1970s by Ampex could play back both low and high-band 2-inch quad tape. Time-shifting of television programming for the West Coast of the United States by the networks in the 1950s using kinescope films was quite a rushed and this usually meant the kinescope was aired almost immediately after it came straight out of the developing equipment, still warm from the film dryer. These were referred to by the networks as hot kines, by 1954, the networks used more raw film stock for kinescopes than all of the Hollywood film studios combined, spending up to $4,000 per half hour. They were desperate to obtain a quicker, less expensive, in the early 1950s, Ampex and several other companies such as Bing Crosby Enterprises and RCA were competing to release a videotape format. RCA and BCE did release working prototypes of their recorders, but their downfall was that all used a longitudinal method of recording. At the same time, the BBC developed a similar stationary-head video tape recorder system that saw some on-air use, starting in 1952, Ampex built the Mark I prototype VTR, using 2 in -wide tape. Ampex decided that instead of having the tape move fast across the head to record enough bandwidth for video and this resulted in the Mark I using arcuate scanning, which consisted of a spinning disk with a face which contacted the tape. This resulted in a track being recorded across the width of the tape. Ampex continued through the mid-1950s with the Mark II and Mark III prototype recorders, the Mark II used frequency modulation for recording video to tape, resulting in a much-improved, but still noisy, video image. The Mark III had improved signal-processing and servo electronics, resulting in much better video reproduction, the Mark III worked well, but its appearance was quite that of a prototype, and not a finished, saleable product. It was in a wooden case, with several parts of its chassis externally mounted in partially filled racks. Ampex then built the Mark IV by putting Mark III components into a sleek metal console, the Mark IV was the machine first publicly demonstrated at the National Association of Radio and Television Broadcasters convention in Chicago on April 14,1956
8.
Kinescope
–
Typically, the term can refer to the process itself, the equipment used for the procedure, or a film made using the process. Kinescopes were the practical way to preserve live television broadcasts prior to the introduction of videotape in 1956. A small number of theatrically released feature films have also produced as kinescopes. The term kinescope originally referred to the cathode ray tube used in television receivers, hence, the recordings were known in full as kinescope films or kinescope recordings. RCA was granted a trademark for the term in 1932, it released the term to the public domain in 1950. The General Electric laboratories in Schenectady, New York experimented with making still, there is some evidence to suggest that the BBC experimented with filming the output of the television monitor before its television service was suspended in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II. However, the evidence for this is anecdotal, and indeed there is no written record of any BBC Television production of The Scarlet Pimpernel during the 1936–1939 period. The incident is, however, dramatised in Jack Rosenthals 1986 television play The Fools on the Hill, according to a 1949 film produced by RCA, silent films had been made of early experimental telecasts during the 1930s. The films were shot off television monitors at a speed of eight frames per second, by the mid-1940s, RCA and NBC were refining the filming process and including sound, the images were less jerky but still somewhat fuzzy. By early 1946, television cameras were being attached to American guided missiles to aid in their remote steering, films were made of the television images they transmitted for further evaluation of the target and the missiles performance. The first known surviving example of the process in Britain is from October 1947. Hall sings Chi-Baba, Chi-Baba and I Cant Give You Anything But Love, as well as accompanying herself on ukulele, the six-minute footage of Miss Hall is all that survives of the show. A complete 7-hour set of telerecordings of Queen Elizabeth IIs 1953 coronation also exists, most, if not all, videotapes from the 405-line era have long since been wiped as have many from the introduction of 625-line video to the early days of color. Consequently, the majority of British shows that still exist before the introduction of color, a handful of shows, including some episodes of Doctor Who and most of the first series of Adam Adamant Lives. were deliberately telerecorded for ease of editing rather than being videotaped. Although the quality was less desirable, television programs of all types from prestigious dramas to regular news shows were handled in this manner. NBC, CBS, and DuMont set up their main kinescope recording facilities in New York City, while ABC chose Chicago. By 1951, NBC and CBS were each shipping out some 1,000 16mm kinescope prints each week to their affiliates across the United States, by 1954 the television industry’s film consumption surpassed that of all of the Hollywood studios combined. It was impossible to slow or freeze frame a videotape at that time, so the tape would be copied to a kinescope
9.
Film chain
–
A film chain or film island is a television – professional video camera with one or more projectors aligned into the photographic lens of the camera. With two or more projectors a system of mirrors that can pop-up are used in a multiplexer. These mirrors switch different projectors into the camera lens, the camera could be fed live to air for broadcasting through a vision mixer or recorded to a VTR for post-production or later broadcast. In most TV use this has been replaced by a telecine, the projectors often are,16 mm film movie projector, a 35 mm slide projector and a 35 mm film movie projector. In low-end use the motion picture 35 mm projector would be replaced by a second 16 mm projector or 8 mm film, the multiplexer with the camera and projectors surrounding it would often be called a film island. The optical or mag or magnetic soundtrack on the motion picture would be picked up by the projector. The slide projector at a TV station would be used for the TV stations logo, some used a dual-rotating drum slide projector that would have its own mirrors to switch between the drums. The film projectors used in a chain are not standard. A special five-blade shutter is used to convert the films 24 frames per second into NTSCs 30 frame per second video, if this was not used, the video would have major flicker problems. This process is called a 3,2 pull down, modern telecines use the same process, but it is done electronically, not with a five-blade shutter. 3,2 pull down means that a frame is shown for three TV fields. The next film frame is shown for two TV fields, the add field in the 3 is used to convert the 24 frames per second to 30 frames per second. A normal projector has a shutter that shows the same frame twice. Before modern continuous motion telecines, film chains were sometime referred to as telecines, all film projectors use sprocket rollers to move the film and a pull-down claws to move and stop the film in the gate. The film is moved in the gate while the blocks the light. In PAL, SECAM, and other 25 frames per second systems and this gives a one-to-one film to video frame transfer ratio. Thus a standard two-bladed shutter can be used, see frame rate differences for more information. A film chain usually used a camera tube as this reduced flicker
10.
Post-production
–
Post-production, or postproduction, is part of the process of filmmaking, video production, and photography. It occurs in the making of pictures, television programs, radio programs, advertising, audio recordings, photography. It is a term for all stages of production occurring after shooting or recording individual program segments, traditional post-production has been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. Post-production is many different processes grouped under one name and these typically include, Video editing the picture of a television program using an edit decision list Writing, recording, and editing the soundtrack. Adding visual special effects - mainly computer-generated imagery and digital copy from which release prints will be made, sound design, sound effects, ADR, foley, and music, culminating in a process known as sound re-recording or mixing with professional audio equipment. Transfer of colour motion picture film to video or DPX with a telecine, the process of editing a movie is also seen as the second directing because through post-production it is possible to change the intention of the movie. Furthermore, through the use of color grading tools and the addition of music and sound, for instance, a blue-tinted movie is associated with a cold atmosphere and the choice of music and sound increases the effect of the shown scenes to the audience. Post-production was named a dying industry by Phil Izzo, the once exclusive service offered by high-end post-production facilities have been eroded away by video editing software that operates on a non-linear editing system. As such, traditional services are being surpassed by digital. In television, the phases of post-production include, editing, video editing, sound editing, animation and visual effects insertions, viewing and it is imperative that post-production executes and oversees the preparation until the final product is completely ready. Professional post-producers usually apply a certain range of image editing operations to the raw image format provided by a photographer or an image-bank, there is a range of proprietary and free and open-source software, running on a range of operating systems available to do this work. The first stage of post-production usually requires loading the RAW images into the post-production software, if there is more than one image, and they belong to a set, ideally post-producers try to equalize the images before loading them. After that, if necessary, the step would be to cut the objects in the images with the Pen Tool for a perfect. The next stage would be cleaning the image using tools such as the tool, clone tool. The next stages depend on what the client ordered, if its a photo-montage, the post-producers would usually start assembling the different images into the final document, and start to integrate the images with the background. In advertising, it usually requires assembling several images together in a photo-composition, types of work usually done, Advertising that requires one background and one or more models. Fashion photography that usually requires a really heavy post-production for editorial and/or advertising, techniques used in music post-production include comping, timing and pitch correction, and adding effects. This process is referred to as mixing and can also involve equalization
11.
Cathode ray tube
–
The cathode ray tube is a vacuum tube that contains one or more electron guns and a phosphorescent screen, and is used to display images. It modulates, accelerates, and deflects electron beam onto the screen to create the images, the images may represent electrical waveforms, pictures, radar targets, or others. CRTs have also used as memory devices, in which case the visible light emitted from the fluorescent material is not intended to have significant meaning to a visual observer. In television sets and computer monitors, the front area of the tube is scanned repetitively and systematically in a fixed pattern called a raster. An image is produced by controlling the intensity of each of the three beams, one for each additive primary color with a video signal as a reference. A CRT is constructed from an envelope which is large, deep, fairly heavy. The interior of a CRT is evacuated to approximately 0.01 Pa to 133 nPa. evacuation being necessary to facilitate the flight of electrons from the gun to the tubes face. That it is evacuated makes handling an intact CRT potentially dangerous due to the risk of breaking the tube and causing a violent implosion that can hurl shards of glass at great velocity. As a matter of safety, the face is made of thick lead glass so as to be highly shatter-resistant and to block most X-ray emissions. Flat panel displays can also be made in large sizes, whereas 38 to 40 was about the largest size of a CRT television, flat panels are available in 60. Cathode rays were discovered by Johann Hittorf in 1869 in primitive Crookes tubes and he observed that some unknown rays were emitted from the cathode which could cast shadows on the glowing wall of the tube, indicating the rays were traveling in straight lines. In 1890, Arthur Schuster demonstrated cathode rays could be deflected by electric fields, the earliest version of the CRT was known as the Braun tube, invented by the German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1897. It was a diode, a modification of the Crookes tube with a phosphor-coated screen. In 1907, Russian scientist Boris Rosing used a CRT in the end of an experimental video signal to form a picture. He managed to display simple geometric shapes onto the screen, which marked the first time that CRT technology was used for what is now known as television. The first cathode ray tube to use a hot cathode was developed by John B. Johnson and Harry Weiner Weinhart of Western Electric and it was named by inventor Vladimir K. Zworykin in 1929. RCA was granted a trademark for the term in 1932, it released the term to the public domain in 1950. The first commercially made electronic television sets with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, in oscilloscope CRTs, electrostatic deflection is used, rather than the magnetic deflection commonly used with television and other large CRTs
12.
Dichroic filter
–
A dichroic filter, thin-film filter, or interference filter is a very accurate color filter used to selectively pass light of a small range of colors while reflecting other colors. By comparison, dichroic mirrors and dichroic reflectors tend to be characterized by the color of light that they reflect, dichroic filters can filter light from a white light source to produce light that is perceived by humans to be highly saturated in color. Although costly, such filters are popular in architectural and theatrical applications, such an arrangement allows a given light to dramatically increase its forward intensity while allowing the heat generated by the backward-facing part of the fixture to escape. This improves whiteness by removing excess red, however, it poses a fire hazard if used in recessed or enclosed luminaires by allowing infrared radiation into those luminaires. For these applications non cool beam lamps must be used, dichroic filters use the principle of thin-film interference, and produce colors in the same way as oil films on water. When light strikes an oil film at an angle, some of the light is reflected from the top surface of the oil, and some is reflected from the bottom surface where it is in contact with the water. Because the light reflecting from the bottom travels a longer path, some light wavelengths are reinforced by this delay, while others tend to be canceled. In a dichroic mirror or filter, instead of using an oil film to produce the interference, the interfaces between the layers of different refractive index produce phased reflections, selectively reinforcing certain wavelengths of light and interfering with other wavelengths. The layers are added by vacuum deposition. By controlling the thickness and number of the layers, the frequency of the passband of the filter can be tuned, where white light is being deliberately separated into various color bands, the similar dichroic prism is used instead. For cameras, however it is now common to have an absorption filter array to filter individual pixels on a single CCD array. Recessed or enclosed luminaires that are unsuitable for use with dichroic reflector lights can be identified by the IEC60598 No Cool Beam symbol. Some LCD projectors use dichroic filters instead of prisms to split the light from the lamp into the three colours before passing it through the three LCD units. They are used as laser harmonic separators and they separate the various harmonic components of frequency doubled laser systems by selective spectral reflection and transmission. Dichroic filters are used to create gobos for high-power lighting products. Pictures are made by overlapping up to four colored dichroic filters, photographic enlarger color heads use dichoric filters to adjust the color balance in the print. Because the wavelength of light selected by the filter varies with the angle of incidence of the light, such jewelry often has an iridescent effect, another interesting application of dichroic filters is spatial filtering. With a technique licensed from Infitec, Dolby Labs uses dichroic filters for screening 3D movies
13.
Photomultiplier
–
Elements of photomultiplier technology, when integrated differently, are the basis of night vision devices. Research that analyzes light scattering, such as the study of polymers in solution use a laser. Photomultipliers are typically constructed with an evacuated glass housing, containing a photocathode, several dynodes, incident photons strike the photocathode material, which is usually a thin vapor-deposited conducting layer on the inside of the entry window of the device. Electrons are ejected from the surface as a consequence of the photoelectric effect and these electrons are directed by the focusing electrode toward the electron multiplier, where electrons are multiplied by the process of secondary emission. The electron multiplier consists of a number of electrodes called dynodes, each dynode is held at a more positive potential, by ≈100 Volts, than the preceding one. A primary electron leaves the photocathode with the energy of the photon, or about 3 eV for blue photons. A small group of primary electrons is created by the arrival of a group of initial photons, the primary electrons move toward the first dynode because they are accelerated by the electric field. They each arrive with ≈100 eV kinetic energy imparted by the potential difference, upon striking the first dynode, more low energy electrons are emitted, and these electrons are in turn accelerated toward the second dynode. The geometry of the chain is such that a cascade occurs with an exponentially-increasing number of electrons being produced at each stage. This last stage is called the anode, the necessary distribution of voltage along the series of dynodes is created by a voltage divider chain, as illustrated in the Figure. In the example, the photocathode is held at a high voltage of order 1000V. The capacitors across the final few dynodes act as reservoirs of charge to help maintain the voltage on the dynodes while electron avalanches propagate through the tube. Many variations of design are used in practice, the design shown is merely illustrative, the side-on design is used, for instance, in the type 931, the first mass-produced PMT. Besides the different photocathode materials, performance is affected by the transmission of the window material that the light passes through. A large number of models are available having various combinations of these. Either of the manuals mentioned will provide the information needed to choose a design for a particular application. The invention of the photomultiplier is predicated upon two prior achievements, the discoveries of the photoelectric effect and of secondary emission. The first demonstration of the effect was carried out in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz using ultraviolet light
14.
Charge-coupled device
–
A charge-coupled device is a device for the movement of electrical charge, usually from within the device to an area where the charge can be manipulated, for example conversion into a digital value. This is achieved by shifting the signals between stages within the one at a time. CCDs move charge between capacitive bins in the device, with the shift allowing for the transfer of charge between bins, in recent years CCD has become a major technology for digital imaging. In a CCD image sensor, pixels are represented by p-doped metal-oxide-semiconductors capacitors, the charge-coupled device was invented in 1969 at AT&T Bell Labs by Willard Boyle and George E. Smith. The lab was working on bubble memory when Boyle and Smith conceived of the design of what they termed, in their notebook. The device could be used as a shift register, the essence of the design was the ability to transfer charge along the surface of a semiconductor from one storage capacitor to the next. The concept was similar in principle to the device, which was developed at Philips Research Labs during the late 1960s. The first patent on the application of CCDs to imaging was assigned to Michael Tompsett, the initial paper describing the concept listed possible uses as a memory, a delay line, and an imaging device. The first experimental device demonstrating the principle was a row of closely spaced metal squares on a silicon surface electrically accessed by wire bonds. The first working CCD made with integrated circuit technology was a simple 8-bit shift register and this device had input and output circuits and was used to demonstrate its use as a shift register and as a crude eight pixel linear imaging device. Development of the device progressed at a rapid rate, by 1971, Bell researchers led by Michael Tompsett were able to capture images with simple linear devices. Several companies, including Fairchild Semiconductor, RCA and Texas Instruments, picked up on the invention, fairchilds effort, led by ex-Bell researcher Gil Amelio, was the first with commercial devices, and by 1974 had a linear 500-element device and a 2-D100 x 100 pixel device. Steven Sasson, an engineer working for Kodak, invented the first digital still camera using a Fairchild 100 x 100 CCD in 1975. The first KH-11 KENNAN reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device array technology for imaging was launched in December 1976, under the leadership of Kazuo Iwama, Sony also started a large development effort on CCDs involving a significant investment. Eventually, Sony managed to mass-produce CCDs for their camcorders, before this happened, Iwama died in August 1982, subsequently, a CCD chip was placed on his tombstone to acknowledge his contribution. He was also awarded the 2012 IEEE Edison Medal For pioneering contributions to imaging devices including CCD Imagers, cameras, in a CCD for capturing images, there is a photoactive region, and a transmission region made out of a shift register. An image is projected through a lens onto the capacitor array, once the array has been exposed to the image, a control circuit causes each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor. The last capacitor in the array dumps its charge into a charge amplifier, by repeating this process, the controlling circuit converts the entire contents of the array in the semiconductor to a sequence of voltages
15.
Prism
–
In optics, a prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces that refract light. At least two of the surfaces must have an angle between them. The exact angles between the surfaces depend on the application, the traditional geometrical shape is that of a triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular sides, and in colloquial use prism usually refers to this type. Some types of optical prism are not in fact in the shape of geometric prisms, prisms can be made from any material that is transparent to the wavelengths for which they are designed. Typical materials include glass, plastic and fluorite, a dispersive prism can be used to break light up into its constituent spectral colors. Furthermore, prisms can be used to light, or to split light into components with different polarizations. Light changes speed as it moves from one medium to another and this speed change causes the light to be refracted and to enter the new medium at a different angle. The degree of bending of the lights path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes with the surface, the refractive index of many materials varies with the wavelength or color of the light used, a phenomenon known as dispersion. This causes light of different colors to be refracted differently and to leave the prism at different angles and this can be used to separate a beam of white light into its constituent spectrum of colors. Prisms will generally disperse light over a larger frequency bandwidth than diffraction gratings. Furthermore, prisms do not suffer from complications arising from overlapping spectral orders, prisms are sometimes used for the internal reflection at the surfaces rather than for dispersion. If light inside the prism hits one of the surfaces at a steep angle, total internal reflection occurs. This makes a prism a useful substitute for a mirror in some situations, ray angle deviation and dispersion through a prism can be determined by tracing a sample ray through the element and using Snells law at each interface. For the prism shown at right, the angles are given by θ0 ′ = arcsin θ1 = α − θ0 ′ θ1 ′ = arcsin θ2 = θ1 ′ − α. All angles are positive in the shown in the image. For a prism in air n 0 = n 2 ≃1 and this allows the nonlinear equation in the deviation angle δ to be approximated by δ ≈ θ0 − α + = θ0 − α + n α − θ0 = α. The deviation angle depends on wavelength through n, so for a thin prism the deviation angle varies with wavelength according to δ ≈ α, before Isaac Newton, it was believed that white light was colorless, and that the prism itself produced the color. It was only later that Young and Fresnel combined Newtons particle theory with Huygens wave theory to show that color is the manifestation of lights wavelength
16.
Color space
–
A color space is a specific organization of colors. In combination with physical device profiling, it allows for reproducible representations of color, for example, Adobe RGB and sRGB are two different absolute color spaces, both based on the RGB color model. When defining a color space, the reference standard is the CIELAB or CIEXYZ color spaces. For example, although several specific color spaces are based on the RGB color model, colors can be created in printing with color spaces based on the CMYK color model, using the subtractive primary colors of pigment. The resulting 3-D space provides a position for every possible color that can be created by combining those three pigments. Colors can be created on computer monitors with color spaces based on the RGB color model, a three-dimensional representation would assign each of the three colors to the X, Y, and Z axes. Note that colors generated on given monitor will be limited by the medium, such as the phosphor or filters. Another way of creating colors on a monitor is with an HSL or HSV color space, based on hue, saturation, with such a space, the variables are assigned to cylindrical coordinates. Many color spaces can be represented as three-dimensional values in this manner, but some have more, or fewer dimensions, Color space conversion is the translation of the representation of a color from one basis to another. The RGB color model is implemented in different ways, depending on the capabilities of the system used, by far the most common general-used incarnation as of 2006 is the 24-bit implementation, with 8 bits, or 256 discrete levels of color per channel. Any color space based on such a 24-bit RGB model is limited to a range of 256×256×256 ≈16.7 million colors. Some implementations use 16 bits per component for 48 bits total and this is especially important when working with wide-gamut color spaces, or when a large number of digital filtering algorithms are used consecutively. The same principle applies for any color space based on the color model. CIE1931 XYZ color space was one of the first attempts to produce a space based on measurements of human color perception. The CIERGB color space is a companion of CIE XYZ. Additional derivatives of CIE XYZ include the CIELUV, CIEUVW, RGB uses additive color mixing, because it describes what kind of light needs to be emitted to produce a given color. RGB stores individual values for red, green and blue, RGBA is RGB with an additional channel, alpha, to indicate transparency. Common color spaces based on the RGB model include sRGB, Adobe RGB, ProPhoto RGB, scRGB, one starts with a white substrate, and uses ink to subtract color from white to create an image
17.
Pandora International
–
Pandora International is a maker of hardware and software systems for video editing, Telecine Control and Colour Correction. Pandora was founded in 1985 By Steve Brett and Martin Greenwood, later Aine Marsland joined the team, Pandora International devices are able to colour-correct video and 16 mm and 35 mm motion picture film in real time. Pandora International is based in Greenhithe, Kent, England, Pandora Int. was the maker the Pogle colour corrector controller. The Pogle can control a Telecine machine, like the FDL60 the first digital telecine, New models could control FDL90, Quadra and Spirit DataCines Pogle used customized external control panels. The Pogle also included a VTR deck controller which was capable of controlling up to four video tape decks for field accurate editing including 3/2 sequence control, other systems made do with a separate computer system for this function. Pogle has a CPU rack which used twin Motorola 68020 CPUs, the first Pogles controlled the telecines internal colour corrector. Originally Pogles used a PDOS operating system which was replaced with a proprietary system named ANDIX. The program and list are stored on a SCSI hard disk, video display is to a multi-sync monitor. The Indy computer and O2 computers backup is usually to an external zip Drive or ext. floppy, the O2 has an internal CD-ROM. Pandoras DCP external colour corrector is a Rec.601 digital system so some telecines which only had analog outputs had to first send their signal to an external Analog to Digital Converter, DCP or Digital Color Processor was a standard-definition digital video processor controlled by a Pogle. DCP was one of the first commercially available systems which was entirely with digital circuitry using programmable logic. Until this time most color manipulation was predominantly analog, with the DCP, primary and secondary colour processing could be done outside the telecine and so input could be from film or video tape. Standard definition processing was of NTSC and PAL video, the DCP was a modular system so over the life of the product various add-ons and upgrades were made including the Electric Sunroof option. This was launched in direct competition to the Power Windows feature from DaVinci System in Florida and it enabled multiple secondary colour corrections to be applied each within a separate area of the image. The Pixi Colour Corrector was launched in 1995 and replaced the DCP, Pixi was a High Definition colour corrector and so could handle video resolutions up to 1920x1080 at 30 frames per second. The feature set was similar to the DCP but upgraded in many ways, for example, the Pixi also provided circularly shaped windows and vignettes rather than just squares and rectangles. A version of Pixi was incorporated into the Picasso system from Post Impressions Ltd and this was an HDTV capable disk server designed to handle 10bit RGB signals. Industrial Light & Magic purchased one of these systems for use on Star Wars episode I The Phantom Menace, in 1997, Pandora introduced the MegaDEF system
18.
Film tinting
–
Film tinting is the process of adding color to black-and-white film, usually by means of soaking the film in dye and staining the film emulsion. The effect is all of the light shining through is filtered. Film toning is the process of replacing the silver particles in the emulsion with colored, silver salts, unlike tinting, toning colored the darkest areas, leaving the white areas largely untouched. The process began in the 1890s, originally as a copy-guard against film pirates, the film was tinted amber, the color of the safelight on film printers. The discovery of bleaching methods by pirates soon put an end to this, both the Edison Studios and the Biograph Company began tinting their films for setting moods. Because orthochromatic film stock could not be used in situations, blue became the most popular tint, applied to scenes shot during the day. The first hand tinted movie was Annabelle Serpentine Dance, from Edison Studios, in it, Annabelle Moore, a young dancer from Broadway, is dressed in white veils that appear to change colors as she dances. Hand coloring was used in early trick and fantasy films from Europe. The distinctive use of color in VoyagoSome prints of the popular Edison film The Great Train Robbery had selected hand-colored scenes, pathé had 100 young women at its factory at Vincennes who were employed as colorists. They produced the Life of Christ in 1910, a still of which is above. By the early teens, with the onset of feature-length films, tinting was expanded upon as another mood setter, the Society of Motion Picture Engineers estimated that by 1920, tinting was used for 80 to 90 percent of all films. The director D. W. Griffith displayed a constant interest and concern about color, Griffith later invented a color system in which colored lights flashed on areas of the screen to achieve a color effect. In 1921, Kodak introduced pre-tinted stocks, with stained cellulose base, the colors available originally were lavender, red, green, blue, pink, light amber, dark amber, yellow, and orange. By the mid to late 1920s, tinting and toning were phased out for a number of reasons, the largest being that it was expensive and time-consuming. Since each color had to be dyed separately, then spliced into the print, it also meant that each print was already weakened by having numerous splices in it. The introduction of film stock, which registered all light rather than just blue light. This meant that it was possible to shoot dark scenes and not have to tint them to relate to the audience that it was night, eventually the rise of color film would make manual tinting obsolete. Another minor, but prevalent, factor was the coming of sound, in 1929, Kodak added to their tinted stocks a brand known as Sonochrome — pre-tinted stocks for sound films that did not interfere with the soundtrack
19.
Marianne (2011 film)
–
Marianne is a 2011 Swedish horror film, written and directed by Filip Tegstedt, that premiered at the 2011 Fantasia International Film Festival on 2 August 2011. Thomas Hedengran plays a father who is plagued by guilt over the death of his wife, in the midst of his psychological turmoil, Krister suffers from terrible nightmares and becomes convinced that his troubles may be the work of a Mare that is haunting him. Thomas Hedengran as Krister, a teacher who begins to experience strange nightmares while trying to redeem his relationship with his daughter Sandra, dylan M. Johansson as Stiff, the pothead older boyfriend of Sandra who has an intense interest in Swedish Folklore. Peter Stormare as Sven, the therapist that Krister sees to help resolve his nightmares, tintin Anderzon as Eva, the wife of Krister and the mother of Sandra. Viktoria Sätter as Marianne, the creature of Nordic Folklore whom Stiff believes is responsible for Kristers nightmares. Sandra Larsson as Sandra, the daughter of Krister and Eva who resents her father for cheating on her Mother and this is a condition where patients report waking up paralyzed, unable to move, whilst feeling a presence in the room like someone is watching them. The paralysis often comes with the sense of a weight on their chest that makes it difficult to breathe. Contributing to the development of film was a reaction against the funding priorities of the Swedish Film Institute. Tegstedt has remarked that part of the reason why there are no good horror films in Sweden is that horror films are seen to be, culturally speaking, a lower class of film, less deserving of funding. In reaction to this perceived genre hierarchy, Tegstedt decided to all his assets in order to finance the production of Marianne. While other producers offered to finance his debut feature, they were only willing to do this on the condition that Marianne was filmed in Stockholm. Filip felt that a key part of the story was the location of Östersund, and the fact that it was his hometown. Tegstedt has remarked that the marketing strategy depends on getting press, the film premiered at Fantasia International Film Festival on 2 August 2011. In fact, he may already have done the former with Marianne. Scott Weinberg of Fearnet wrote, Although probably not recommended for the hardcore gorehounds, michael Gingold of Fangoria wrote, Tegstedt develops a sense of mystery and creeping fear that balance the sadness and make MARIANNE an absorbing viewing experience. Official website Marianne at the Internet Movie Database Marianne at Rotten Tomatoes Marianne at the Swedish Film Institute Database
20.
Sensitometry
–
Sensitometry is the scientific study of light-sensitive materials, especially photographic film. The study has its origins in the work by Ferdinand Hurter and they determined how the density of silver produced varied with the amount of light received, and the method and time of development. Plots of film density versus the log of exposure are called curves, Hurter–Driffield curves, H–D curves, HD curves, H & D curves, D–logE curves. At moderate exposures, the shape is typically a bit like an S slanted so that its base. There is usually a central region of the HD curve which approximates to a line, called the linear or straight-line portion. The low end is called the toe, and at the top, at extremely high exposures, the density may come back down, an effect known as solarisation. Different commercial film materials cover a range from about 0.5 to about 5. Often it is not the film that one views but a second or later generation. In these cases the end-to-end gamma is approximately the product of the separate gammas, photographic paper prints have end-to-end gammas generally somewhat over 1. Projection transparencies for dark surround viewing have end-to-end gamma approximately 1.5, a full set of HD curves for a film shows how these vary with developer type and time. Driffield, being a reprint of their papers, together with a history of their early work
21.
Digital cinematography
–
Digital cinematography is the process of capturing film using digital image sensors rather than through film stock. As digital technology has improved in recent years, this practice has become dominant, since the mid 2010s most of the movies across the world are captured as well as distributed digitally. Some filmmakers still prefer to use analogue picture formats to achieve the desired results, beginning in the late 1980s, Sony began marketing the concept of electronic cinematography, utilizing its analog Sony HDVS professional video cameras. The effort met with little success. However, this led to one of the earliest digitally shot feature movies, rainbow was the worlds first all digital film. The Digital High Definition image was transferred to 35mm negative via electron beam recorder for theatrical release, shot and released in 1998, The Last Broadcast is believed by some to be the first feature-length video shot and edited entirely on consumer-level digital equipment. The digital footage blended seamlessly with the shot on film. Also in 1999, digital projectors were installed in four theaters for the showing of The Phantom Menace, in June 2000, Star Wars, Episode II – Attack of the Clones began principal photography shot entirely using a Sony HDW-F900 camera as Lucas had previously stated. The film was released in May 2002, two lesser-known movies, Vidocq and Russian Ark, had also been shot with the same camera, the latter notably consisting of a single long take. Today, cameras from companies like Sony, Panasonic, JVC, at the high-end of the market, there has been an emergence of cameras aimed specifically at the digital cinema market. In late 2013, Paramount became the first major studio to distribute movies to theaters in digital format eliminating 35mm film entirely, anchorman 2 was the last Paramount production to include a 35mm film version, while The Wolf of Wall Street was the first major movie distributed entirely digitally. Digital cinematography captures motion pictures digitally in an analogous to digital photography. The term is applied when digital acquisition is substituted for video acquisition. Independent filmmakers have also pressed low-cost consumer and prosumer cameras into service for digital filmmaking, Digital cinematography cameras capture images using CMOS or CCD sensors, usually in one of two arrangements. Single chip cameras designed specifically for the digital cinematography market often use a single sensor and their large sensors also let these cameras achieve the same shallow depth of field as 35 or 65 mm motion picture film cameras, which many cinematographers consider an essential visual tool. Unlike other video formats, which are specified in terms of vertical resolution, here the K has a customary meaning corresponding to the binary prefix kibi. For instance, a 2K image is 2048 pixels wide, and this led to a plethora of motion-picture related video resolutions, which is quite confusing and often redundant with respect to nowadays few projection standards. All formats designed for digital cinematography are progressive scan, and capture usually occurs at the same 24 frame per second rate established as the standard for 35mm film
22.
Adobe Photoshop
–
Adobe Photoshop is a raster graphics editor developed and published by Adobe Systems for macOS and Windows. Photoshop was created in 1988 by Thomas and John Knoll and it can edit and compose raster images in multiple layers and supports masks, alpha compositing and several color models including RGB, CMYK, CIELAB, spot color and duotone. Photoshop has vast support for file formats but also uses its own PSD. In addition to graphics, it has limited abilities to edit or render text, vector graphics, 3D graphics. Photoshops featureset can be expanded by Photoshop plug-ins, programs developed and distributed independently of Photoshop that can run inside it, Photoshops naming scheme was initially based on version numbers. Photoshop CS3 through CS6 were also distributed in two different editions, Standard and Extended, in June 2013, with the introduction of Creative Cloud branding, Photoshops licensing scheme was changed to that of software as a service rental model and the CS suffixes were replaced with CC. Historically, Photoshop was bundled with software such as Adobe ImageReady, Adobe Fireworks, Adobe Bridge, Adobe Device Central. Alongside Photoshop, Adobe also develops and publishes Photoshop Elements, Photoshop Lightroom, Photoshop Express, collectively, they are branded as The Adobe Photoshop Family. It is currently a licensed software, Photoshop was developed in 1987 by the American brothers Thomas and John Knoll, who sold the distribution license to Adobe Systems Incorporated in 1988. Thomas Knoll, a PhD student at the University of Michigan, began writing a program on his Macintosh Plus to display images on a monochrome display. This program, called Display, caught the attention of his brother John Knoll, an Industrial Light & Magic employee, Thomas took a six-month break from his studies in 1988 to collaborate with his brother on the program. Thomas renamed the program ImagePro, but the name was already taken, during this time, John traveled to Silicon Valley and gave a demonstration of the program to engineers at Apple and Russell Brown, art director at Adobe. Both showings were successful, and Adobe decided to purchase the license to distribute in September 1988, while John worked on plug-ins in California, Thomas remained in Ann Arbor writing code. Photoshop 1.0 was released on 19 February 1990 for Macintosh exclusively, the Barneyscan version included advanced color editing features that were stripped from the first Adobe shipped version. The handling of color slowly improved with each release from Adobe, at the time Photoshop 1.0 was released, digital retouching on dedicated high end systems, such as the Scitex, cost around $300 an hour for basic photo retouching. Photoshop files have default file extension as. PSD, which stands for Photoshop Document, a PSD file stores an image with support for most imaging options available in Photoshop. These include layers with masks, transparency, text, alpha channels and spot colors, clipping paths and this is in contrast to many other file formats that restrict content to provide streamlined, predictable functionality. A PSD file has a height and width of 30,000 pixels
23.
Match moving
–
The term is used loosely to describe several different methods of extracting camera motion information from a motion picture. Sometimes referred to as motion tracking or camera solving, match moving is related to rotoscoping, match moving is sometimes confused with motion capture, which records the motion of objects, often human actors, rather than the camera. Typically, motion capture requires special cameras and sensors and a controlled environment, match moving is also distinct from motion control photography, which uses mechanical hardware to execute multiple identical camera moves. Match moving, by contrast, is typically a software-based technology, match moving is primarily used to track the movement of a camera through a shot so that an identical virtual camera move can be reproduced in a 3D animation program. When new animated elements are composited back into the original live-action shot, they appear in perfectly matched perspective. The process of match moving can be broken down two steps. The first step is identifying and tracking features, a feature is a specific point in the image that a tracking algorithm can lock onto and follow through multiple frames. Often features are selected because they are bright/dark spots, edges or corners depending on the particular tracking algorithm, popular programs use template matching based on NCC score and RMS error. What is important is that each represents a specific point on the surface of a real object. As a feature is tracked it becomes a series of two-dimensional coordinates that represent the position of the feature across a series of frames and this series is referred to as a track. Once tracks have been created they can be used immediately for 2D motion tracking, the second step involves solving for 3D motion. This process attempts to derive the motion of the camera by solving the inverse-projection of the 2D paths for the position of the camera and this process is referred to as calibration. To explain further, when a point on the surface of a three dimensional object is photographed its position in the 2D frame can be calculated by a 3D projection function. We can consider a camera to be an abstraction that holds all the necessary to model a camera in a real or virtual world. Exactly how this vector is constructed is not important as long as there is a compatible projection function P. The projection function P takes as its input a camera vector and another vector the position of a 3D point in space and we can express this, XY = P The projection function transforms the 3D point and strips away the component of depth. We can express the inverse projection as, xyz ∈ P or Lets say we are in a situation where the features we are tracking are on the surface of an object such as a building. So, xyzi = xyzj where the subscripts i and j refer to frames in the shot we are analyzing
24.
Pleasantville (film)
–
Pleasantville is a 1998 fantasy comedy-drama film written, co-produced, and directed by Gary Ross, and co-produced by Jon Kilik, Bob Degus, and Steven Soderbergh. It stars Tobey Maguire, Jeff Daniels, Joan Allen, William H. Macy, J. T. Walsh, and Reese Witherspoon, with Don Knotts, Paul Walker, and Jane Kaczmarek in supporting roles. The story centers around two siblings who wind up trapped in a 1950s TV show, set in a small Iowa town, in their attempts to get comfortable, the two become more aware of social issues such as racism and freedom of speech. The film was released in the United States by New Line Cinema on October 23,1998. It was a box office bomb, only acquiring about $49.8 million of a $60 million budget, but received positive reviews for its visuals, acting, the film was J. T. Walshs final performance, and was dedicated to his memory. David and his twin sister Jennifer lead very different high-school social lives, Jennifer is shallow and extroverted, David is introverted and spends most of his time watching television. One evening while their mother is away, they fight over the TV, Jennifer wants to watch a concert on MTV, but David wants to watch a marathon of Pleasantville, a black and white 1950s sitcom about the idyllic Parker family. During the fight, the remote control breaks, and the TV cannot be turned on manually, a mysterious TV repairman shows up, quizzes David about Pleasantville, then gives him a strange remote control. The repairman leaves, and David and Jennifer resume fighting, however, they are transported into the Parkers black and white Pleasantville living room. David tries to reason with the repairman, but he succeeds only in chasing him away, David and Jennifer must now pretend they are Bud and Mary Sue Parker, the son and daughter on the show. David and Jennifer witness the wholesome nature of the town, such as a group of firemen rescuing a cat from a tree. David tells Jennifer they must stay in character and not disrupt the lives of the towns citizens, to keep the shows plot, Jennifer dates a boy from high school but has sex with him, a concept unknown to him and everyone else in town. Slowly, Pleasantville begins changing from black and white to color, including flowers, David introduces Mr. Johnson, owner of the burger joint/soda fountain where Bud works, to colorful modern art via a book from the library, sparking in him an interest in painting. Johnson and Betty Parker fall in love, causing her to home, throwing George Parker, Bud and Mary Sues father. The only people who remain unchanged are the fathers, led by the mayor, Big Bob. They resolve to do something about their increasingly independent wives and rebellious children, as the townsfolk become more colorful, a ban on colored people is initiated in public venues. Eventually, a riot is touched off by a painting of Betty on the window of Mr. Johnsons soda fountain. The soda fountain is destroyed, books are burned, and people who are colored are harassed in the street
25.
O Brother, Where Art Thou?
–
Set in 1937 rural Mississippi during the Great Depression, the films story is a modern satire loosely based on Homers epic poem, Odyssey. The title of the film is a reference to the 1941 film Sullivans Travels, in which the protagonist wants to film O Brother, a fictional book about the Great Depression. Much of the used in the film is period folk music. The movie was one of the first to use digital color correction, to give the film an autumnal. The film received positive reviews, and the American folk music soundtrack won a Grammy for Album of the Year in 2001, the three get a lift from a blind man driving a handcar on a railway. He tells them, among other prophecies, that they find a fortune. The trio make their way to the house of Wash, Petes cousin and they sleep in the barn, but Wash reports them to Sheriff Cooley, who, along with his men, torches the barn. They pick up Tommy Johnson, a black man, who claims he sold his soul to the devil in exchange for the ability to play guitar. In need of money, the four stop at a radio broadcast tower where they record a song as The Soggy Bottom Boys and that night, the trio part ways with Tommy after their car is discovered by the police. Unbeknownst to them, the recording becomes a major hit, near a river, the group hears singing. They see three women washing clothes and singing, the women drug them with corn whiskey and they lose consciousness. Upon waking, Delmar finds Petes clothes lying next to him, Delmar is convinced the women were Sirens and transformed Pete into the toad. Later, one-eyed Bible salesman Big Dan Teague invites them for a lunch, then mugs them. Everett and Delmar arrive in Everetts home town, Everett confronts his wife Penny, who changed her last name and told his daughters he was dead. He gets into a fight with Vernon T. Waldrip, her new suitor and they later see Pete working on a chain gang. Later that night, they sneak into Petes holding cell and free him, as it turns out, the women had dragged Pete away and turned him in to the authorities. Under torture, Pete gave away the location to the police. Everett then confesses that there is no treasure and he made it up to convince the guys he was chained with to escape with him
26.
Spirit DataCine
–
Spirit DataCine is a telecine and/or a motion picture film scanner. This device is able to transfer 16mm and 35mm motion picture film to NTSC or PAL television standards or one of many High-definition television standards, with the data transfer option a Spirit DataCine can output DPX data files. The image pick up device is a solid state charge-coupled device and this eliminated the need for glass vacuum tube CRTs used on older telecines. The units can transfer negative film, primetime, intermediate film and print film, one option is a Super 8 gate for the transfer of Super 8 mm film. With a sound pick up option, optical 16mm and 35mm sound can be reproduced, the unit can operate stand alone or be controlled by a scene by scene color corrector. Ken Burns, the creator of the The Civil War documentary film included in the DVD release, the operator of the unit is called a Colorist or Colorist Assistant. The Spirit DataCine has become the standard for high-end real-time film transfer, over 370 units are used in post production facilities around the world. The Spirit DataCine is made by DFT Digital Film Technology GmbH in Darmstadt, all Spirit DataCines use continuous transport motion, using a capstan and constant film tension. An optional optic audio, pick up system can be mounted in the capstan, all Spirit DataCines use a xenon lamp for illumination into a diffusion chamber to minimize dust and scratch visibility. With the standard 35mm lens gate, super 35 mm and academy 35 mm are supported, also 2,3,4, perf are supported. VistaVision 8-perf and 6 perf are an option, the unit comes with select-a-speed, this gives the section of a film speeds from 2.00 frames per second to 57.00 fps in SDTV and 2.00 to 31.00 fps in HDTV interlace format. With the optional 16mm lens gate standard 16mm and Super 16 mm are supported, with the 16mm lens gate an optional Super 8 mm film gate can be added. 16mm audio system also support 16mm mag or magnetic sound track on the motion picture would be picked up by a head. Spirit DataCines use a charge-coupled device Line Array - CCD for imaging, in print mode a “white” light is shone through the exposed film image into a lens and then to prism, color glass separates out the image into the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Each beam of colored light is projected at a different CCD. Spirit DataCines can output to different TV standards, or HDTV, the Spatial Processor can change the size of the image, pan and scan, letterbox or make other aspect ratio and rotation changes, also product interlaced video if needed. The Spatial Processor also produces the 2,3 pulldown, if needed for the format, an optional Scream grain reducer can reduce film grain in all three color channels. The DFT Digital Film Technology, formerly Grass Valley Spirit 4K/2K/HD replaced the Spirit 2000 Datacine, the SDC-2000 did not use a color prisms and/or dichroic mirrors, color separation was done in the CCD
27.
Digital cinema
–
Digital cinema refers to the use of digital technology to distribute or project motion pictures as opposed to the historical use of reels of motion picture film, such as 35 mm film. Digital movies are projected using a digital projector instead of a film projector. Digital cinema is distinct from high-definition television and is not dependent on using television or high-definition video standards, aspect ratios, in digital cinema, resolutions are represented by the horizontal pixel count, usually 2K or 4K. As digital cinema technology improved in the early 2010s, most of the theaters across the world converted to digital, Digital media playback of high-resolution 2K files has at least a 20-year history. Early video data storage units fed custom frame buffer systems with large memories, in early digital video units, content was usually restricted to several minutes of material. Transfer of content between remote locations was slow and had limited capacity and it was not until the late 1990s that feature-length films could be sent over the wire. In conjunction with Texas Instruments, the movie was publicly demonstrated in five theaters across the United States. In Europe, on February 2,2000, Texas Instruments DLP Cinema projector technology was demonstrated, by Philippe Binant. On January 19,2000, the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, in the United States, by December 2000, there were 15 digital cinema screens in the United States and Canada,11 in Western Europe,4 in Asia, and 1 in South America. Digital Cinema Initiatives was formed in March 2002 as a joint project of many motion picture studios to develop a specification for digital cinema. In April 2004, in cooperation with the American Society of Cinematographers, DCI created standard evaluation material for testing of 2K and 4K playback, DCI selected JPEG2000 as the basis for the compression in the system the same year. In China, in June 2005, an E-Cinema System called dMs was established and was used in over 15,000 screens spread across Chinas 30 provinces, DMS estimated that the system would expand to 40,000 screens in 2009. In 2005 the UK Film Council Digital Screen Network launched in the UK by Arts Alliance Media creating a chain of 250 2K digital cinema systems, the roll out was completed in 2006. This was the first mass roll out in Europe, axis IT/Christie Digital also started a roll out in the United States and Canada. By mid 2006, about 400 theaters were equipped with 2K digital projectors with the number increasing every month, several digital 3D films surfaced in 2006 and several prominent filmmakers committed to making their next productions in stereo 3D. VUE West End was one of the first 3D Digital Cinemas along with Odeon Printworks Manchester and this was done by Emil and Eric Digital Films, a company based at Thrissur using the end-to-end digital cinema system developed by Singapore-based DG2L Technologies. This film was mastered at Real Image Media Technologies in India. In June 2007, Arts Alliance Media announced the first European commercial digital cinema Virtual Print Fee agreements, by June 2010, there were close to 16,000 digital cinema screens, with over 5000 of them being stereoscopic setups
28.
Film-out
–
Film-out is the process in the computer graphics, video production and filmmaking disciplines of transferring images or animation from videotape or digital files to a traditional film print. Film-out is a term that encompasses the conversion of frame rates, color correction, as well as the actual printing. Many modern documentaries and low-budget films are shot on videotape or other digital media, instead of film stock. Video production means substantially lower costs than 16 mm or 35 mm film production on all levels, until recently, the relatively low cost of video ended when the issue of a theatrical presentation was raised, which required a print for film projection. With the growing presence of digital projection, this is becoming less of a factor, film-out of standard-definition video – or any source that has an incompatible frame rate – is the up-conversion of video media to film for theatrical viewing. To understand these two steps, it is important to understand how video and film differ, Film has remained unchanged for almost a century and creates the illusion of moving images through the rapid projection of still images, frames, upon a screen, typically 24 per second. Traditional interlaced SD video has no frame rate. Since visual movement in video is infused in this cascade of scans lines. Therefore, when transferring video to film, it is necessary to invent individual film frames,24 for every second of elapsed time, the bulk of the work done by a film-out company is this first step, creating film frames out of the stream of interlaced video. Each company employs its own technology for turning interlaced video into high-resolution digital video files of 24 discrete images every second, the technology must filter out all the visually unappealing artifacting that results from the inherent mismatch between video and film movement. Moreover, the process usually requires human intervention at every edit point of a video program. The use of footage in video especially calls for extra attention. Step two, the scanning to film, is the part of the process. This is the step where lasers print each of the newly created frames of the 24p video, stored on computer files or HD videotape. Most companies that do film-out, do all the stages of the process themselves for a lump sum, the job includes converting interlaced video into 24p and often a color correction session –, before scanning to physical film, – is offered. At the very least, film-out can be understood as the process of converting interlaced video to 24p, NTSC is the most challenging of the formats when it comes to standards conversion and, specifically, converting to film prints. NTSC runs at the rate of 29.97 video frames per second. In this way, NTSC resolves actual live action movement at almost –, because of this 29.97 rate, no direct correlation to film frames at 24 frames per second can be achieved
29.
Graphics processing unit
–
GPUs are used in embedded systems, mobile phones, personal computers, workstations, and game consoles. In a personal computer, a GPU can be present on a video card, the term GPU was popularized by Nvidia in 1999, who marketed the GeForce 256 as the worlds first GPU, or Graphics Processing Unit. It was presented as a processor with integrated transform, lighting, triangle setup/clipping. Rival ATI Technologies coined the visual processing unit or VPU with the release of the Radeon 9700 in 2002. Arcade system boards have been using specialized graphics chips since the 1970s, in early video game hardware, the RAM for frame buffers was expensive, so video chips composited data together as the display was being scanned out on the monitor. Fujitsus MB14241 video shifter was used to accelerate the drawing of sprite graphics for various 1970s arcade games from Taito and Midway, such as Gun Fight, Sea Wolf, the Namco Galaxian arcade system in 1979 used specialized graphics hardware supporting RGB color, multi-colored sprites and tilemap backgrounds. The Galaxian hardware was used during the golden age of arcade video games, by game companies such as Namco, Centuri, Gremlin, Irem, Konami, Midway, Nichibutsu, Sega. In the home market, the Atari 2600 in 1977 used a video shifter called the Television Interface Adaptor,6502 machine code subroutines could be triggered on scan lines by setting a bit on a display list instruction. ANTIC also supported smooth vertical and horizontal scrolling independent of the CPU and it became one of the best known of what were known as graphics processing units in the 1980s. The Williams Electronics arcade games Robotron,2084, Joust, Sinistar, in 1985, the Commodore Amiga featured a custom graphics chip, with a blitter unit accelerating bitmap manipulation, line draw, and area fill functions. Also included is a coprocessor with its own instruction set, capable of manipulating graphics hardware registers in sync with the video beam. In 1986, Texas Instruments released the TMS34010, the first microprocessor with on-chip graphics capabilities and it could run general-purpose code, but it had a very graphics-oriented instruction set. In 1990-1992, this chip would become the basis of the Texas Instruments Graphics Architecture Windows accelerator cards, in 1987, the IBM8514 graphics system was released as one of the first video cards for IBM PC compatibles to implement fixed-function 2D primitives in electronic hardware. Fujitsu later competed with the FM Towns computer, released in 1989 with support for a full 16,777,216 color palette, in 1988, the first dedicated polygonal 3D graphics boards were introduced in arcades with the Namco System 21 and Taito Air System. In 1991, S3 Graphics introduced the S3 86C911, which its designers named after the Porsche 911 as an implication of the performance increase it promised. The 86C911 spawned a host of imitators, by 1995, all major PC graphics chip makers had added 2D acceleration support to their chips. By this time, fixed-function Windows accelerators had surpassed expensive general-purpose graphics coprocessors in Windows performance, throughout the 1990s, 2D GUI acceleration continued to evolve. As manufacturing capabilities improved, so did the level of integration of graphics chips, arcade systems such as the Sega Model 2 and Namco Magic Edge Hornet Simulator in 1993 were capable of hardware T&L years before appearing in consumer graphics cards
30.
Video tape recorder
–
A video tape recorder is a tape recorder designed to record video material on magnetic tape. The first practical tape recorder, using transverse tape head scanning, was developed by Ampex Corporation in 1956. The early VTRs were reel to reel devices which recorded on reels of 2 inch wide magnetic tape. They were used in studios, serving as a replacement for motion picture film stock. Beginning in 1963, videotape machines made instant replay during televised sporting events possible, improved formats, in which the tape was contained inside a videocassette, were introduced around 1969, the machines which play them are called videocassette recorders. The first efforts at recording, using recorders similar to audio recorders with fixed heads, were unsuccessful. The problem was that a signal has a much wider bandwidth than an audio signal. One of the first efforts was the Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus and this machine used a thin steel tape on a 21-inch reel traveling at over 200 inches per second. Despite 10 years of research and improvements, it was never used due to the immense length of tape required for each minute of recorded video. Many other fixed-head recording systems were tried but all required impractically high tape speed and it became clear that practical video recording technology depended on finding some way of recording the wide-bandwidth video signal without the high tape speed required by linear-scan machines. The Ampex VRX-1000 became the worlds first commercially successful videotape recorder in 1956 and it used the 2 Quadruplex format, using two-inch tape. Because of its US$50,000 price, the Ampex VRX-1000 could be afforded only by the television networks and the largest individual stations. In 1963, Philips introduced its EL34001 helical scan recorder and Sony marketed the 2 PV-100, its first reel-to-reel VTR intended for business, medical, airline and educational use. The Telcan, produced by the Nottingham Electronic Valve Company and demonstrated on June 24,1963, was the first home video recorder and it could be bought as a unit or in kit form for £60. However, there were drawbacks, it was expensive, not easy to put together. The Sony model CV-2000, first marketed in 1965, was its first VTR intended for use and was based on half-inch tape. Ampex and RCA followed in 1965 with its own reel-to-reel monochrome VTRs priced under US $1,000 for the consumer market. Prerecorded movies for home replay became available in 1967, the EIAJ format was a standard half-inch format used by various manufacturers
31.
Non-linear editing system
–
A pointer-based playlist – effectively an edit decision list – for video or a directed acyclic graph for still images is used to keep track of edits. Each time the edited audio, video, or image is rendered, played back, or accessed, it is reconstructed from the original source, a non-linear editing system is a video or audio editing digital audio workstation system that performs non-destructive editing on source material. The name is in contrast to 20th century methods of video editing. When ingesting audio or video feeds, metadata are attached to the clip and those metadata can be attached automatically or manually. It is now possible to access any frame by entering directly the timecode or the descriptive metadata, an editor can, for example at the end of the day in the Olympic Games, easily retrieve all the clips related to the players who received a gold medal. The non-linear editing method is similar in concept to the cut, however, with the use of non-linear editing systems, the destructive act of cutting of film negatives is eliminated. It can also be viewed as the equivalent of word processing. Video and audio data are first captured to video servers, other hard disk-based systems, the data are either direct to disk recording or are imported from another source. Once imported, the material can be edited on a computer using application software. For a comprehensive list of software, see List of video editing software, whereas Comparison of video editing software gives more detail of features. In non-linear editing, the source files are not lost or modified during editing. This is one of the biggest advantages of non-linear editing compared to linear editing, professional editing software records the editors decisions in an edit decision list that is exportable to other editing tools. Many generations and variations of the source files can exist without storing many different copies. It also makes it easy to change cuts and undo previous decisions simply by editing the edit decision list, generation loss is also controlled, due to not having to repeatedly re-encode the data when different effects are applied. Compared to the method of tape-to-tape editing, non-linear editing offers the flexibility of film editing, with random access. With the edit decision lists, the editor can work on low-resolution copies of the video, the costs of editing systems have dropped such that non-linear editing tools are now within the reach of home users. The non-linear editing retrieves video media for editing, the editor previews material directly on the server and edits directly on the server without transcoding or transfer. Shared storage, the video server transfers feeds to and from shared storage that is accessible by all editors, Media in the appropriate codec on the server need only transferred
32.
Fernseh
–
The Fernseh AG television company was registered in Berlin on July 3,1929 by John Logie Baird, Robert Bosch and other partners with an initial capital of 100,000 Reichsmark. Fernseh AG did research and manufacturing of television equipment, the word Fernseh is a short form of the German word Fernsehapparat meaning television. In German, fern means far, seh means see, the company was mainly known by its German abbreviation FESE. In 1929 Fernseh AGs original board of directors included, Emanuel Goldberg, Oliver George Hutchinson, David Ludwig Loewe, Carl Zeisss company worked alongside the early Bosch company. Much of the work was in the area of research. Along with early TV sets Fernseh AG made the first Remote Truck/OB van and this was a film camera that had its film developed in the truck and a telecine then transmitted the signal almost live. In 1939 Robert Bosch GmbH took complete ownership of Fernseh AG when Zeiss Ikon AG sold its share of Fernseh AG, in 1952 Fernseh moved to Darmstadt, Germany and increase its Broadcast product line. In 1967 Fernseh, by then commonly called Bosch Fernseh, introduced color TV products, Fernseh offered a full line of video and film equipment, professional video cameras, VTRs and telecine devices. On August 27,1967 the first color TV program in Germany aired, the networks ZDF, NDR and WDR each acquired a new color OB van from Bosch Fernseh to begin broadcasting in color. In 1972 Robert Bosch renamed its TV division, Fernsehanlagen GmbH, the company supplied almost all the studio equipment for the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich. In October 1979 Bell and Howells TeleMation Inc. Division located in Salt Lake City, Utah, entered a joint venture with Robert Bosch GmbH, the new joint venture was call Fernseh Inc. This new Company was called Broadcast Television Systems or BTS inc, Philips had been in the Broadcast market for many years with a line of PC- and LDK- Norelco professional video cameras and other video products. In 1995 Philips Electronics North America Corp. fully acquired BTS Inc. renaming it Philips Broadcast-Philips Digital Video Systems, in March 2001 this division was sold to Thomson SA, the Division was call Thomson Multimedia. In 2002, the French electronics giant Thomson SA also acquired the Grass Valley Group from an investor that had acquired it three years earlier from Tektronix in Beaverton, Oregon, USA. The current name of division of Thomson is Grass Valley. The Fernsehs Darmstadt factory, near the Darmstadt Train Station and European Space Operations Centre was moved a distance to Weiterstadt. The sale was made public on Sept.9,2008, the new Headquarters was still in Weiterstadt, the former Bosch Fernseh — BTS factory. Parter Capital Group continued to have offices to support products from Weiterstadt
