1.
Arms industry
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The arms industry, also known as the defense industry or the arms trade, is a global industry responsible for the manufacturing and sales of weapons and military technology. It consists of a commercial industry involved in the research and development, engineering, production, and servicing of military material, equipment, and facilities. Arms-producing companies, also referred to as arms dealers, defense contractors, or as the industry, produce arms for the armed forces of states. Departments of government also operate in the industry, buying and selling weapons, munitions. An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition are made, maintained and repaired, stored, or issued, in any combination, the arms industry also provides other logistical and operational support. Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimated in 2012 that 2012 military expenditures were roughly 1.8 trillion United States dollars and this represents a relative decline from 1990 when military expenditures made up 4% of world GDP. Part of the money goes to the procurement of military hardware, the combined arms sales of the top 100 largest arms-producing companies amounted to an estimated $395 billion in 2012 according to SIPRI. In 2004 over $30 billion were spent in the arms trade. According to SIPRI, the volume of transfers of major weapons in 2010–14 was 16 per cent higher than in 2005–2009. The five biggest exporters in 2010–2014 were the United States, Russia, China, Germany and France, and the five biggest importers were India, Saudi Arabia, China, many industrialized countries have a domestic arms-industry to supply their own military forces. Some countries also have a legal or illegal domestic trade in weapons for use by its citizens, primarily for self-defense. Illegal trade in small arms occurs in countries and regions affected by political instability. The Small Arms Survey estimates that 875 million small arms circulate worldwide, contracts to supply a given countrys military are awarded by governments, making arms contracts of substantial political importance. Various corporations, some publicly held, others private, bid for these contracts, other times, no bidding or competition takes place. The modern arms industry emerged in the half of the nineteenth century as a product of the creation and expansion of the first large military-industrial companies. In 1854, the British government awarded a contract to the Elswick Ordnance Company of industrialist William Armstrong for the supply of his latest breech loading rifled artillery pieces and this galvanised the private sector into weapons production, with the surplus being increasingly exported to foreign countries. Armstrong became one of the first international arms dealers, selling his weapon systems to governments across the world from Brazil to Japan. In 1884, he opened a shipyard at Elswick to specialise in warship production—at the time, it was the factory in the world that could build a battleship
2.
Samuel Colt
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Samuel Colt was an American inventor and industrialist from Hartford, Connecticut. He founded Colts Patent Fire-Arms Manufacturing Company, and made the production of the revolver commercially viable. Colts first two ventures were producing firearms in Paterson, New Jersey and making underwater mines, both ended in disappointment. But his business expanded rapidly after 1847, when the Texas Rangers ordered 1,000 revolvers during the American war with Mexico, during the American Civil War, his factory in Hartford supplied firearms both to the North and the South. Later, his firearms were prominent during the settling of the western frontier, Colt died in 1862 as one of the wealthiest men in America. Colts manufacturing methods were at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution and his use of interchangeable parts helped him become one of the first to use the assembly line efficiently. Moreover, his use of art, celebrity endorsements, and corporate gifts to promote his wares made him a pioneer in the fields of advertising, product placement. Samuel Colt was born in Hartford, Connecticut, to Christopher Colt, a farmer who had moved his family to the city after he became a businessman, and Sarah Colt, born Caldwell. His mothers father, Major John Caldwell, had been an officer in the Continental Army, Sarah died from tuberculosis when Samuel was six years old, and his father remarried two years later, to Olivia Sargeant. Samuel had three sisters, one of whom died during her childhood and his oldest sister, Margaret, died of tuberculosis at 19 and the other, Sarah Ann, later committed suicide. One brother, James, became a lawyer, another, Christopher, was a textile merchant. Colt, a man of many occupations, killed a creditor in 1841 in New York City, was convicted of the murder, at age 11, Colt was indentured to a farmer in Glastonbury, where he did chores and attended school. Here he was introduced to the Compendium of Knowledge, an encyclopedia that he preferred to read rather than his Bible studies. Its articles on Robert Fulton and gunpowder motivated Colt throughout his life and he discovered that other inventors in the Compendium had accomplished things that were once deemed impossible, and he wanted to do the same. In 1829, at the age of 15, Colt began working in his fathers textile plant in Ware, Massachusetts, where he had access to tools, materials, sent to boarding school, he amused his classmates with pyrotechnics. In 1830, a July 4 accident caused a fire ended his schooling. On a voyage to Calcutta on board the brig Corvo, he noticed that regardless of which way the ships wheel was spun and he later said that this gave him the idea for the revolver. On the Corvo, Colt made a model of a pepperbox revolver out of scrap wood
3.
Hartford, Connecticut
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Hartford is the capital of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was the seat of Hartford County until Connecticut disbanded county government in 1960, as of the 2010 Census, Hartfords population was 124,775, making it Connecticuts third-largest city after the coastal cities of Bridgeport and New Haven. Census Bureau estimates since then have indicated Hartfords subsequent fall to fourth place statewide as a result of sustained growth in the coastal city of Stamford. Nicknamed the Insurance Capital of the World, Hartford houses many insurance company headquarters, founded in 1635, Hartford is among the oldest cities in the United States. In 1868, resident Mark Twain wrote, Of all the towns it has been my fortune to see this is the chief. Following the American Civil War, Hartford was the richest city in the United States for several decades, today, Hartford is one of the poorest cities in the nation with 3 out of every 10 families living below the poverty line. In sharp contrast, the Hartford metropolitan area is ranked 32nd of 318 metropolitan areas in total economic production, various tribes, all part of the loose Algonquin confederation, lived in or around present-day Hartford. The area was referred to as Suckiaug, meaning Black Fertile River-Enhanced Earth, the first Europeans known to have explored the area were the Dutch, under Adriaen Block, who sailed up the Connecticut in 1614. Dutch fur traders from New Amsterdam returned in 1623 with a mission to establish a trading post, the original site was located on the south bank of the Park River in the present-day Sheldon/Charter Oak neighborhood. This fort was called Fort Hoop, or the House of Hope, in 1633, Jacob Van Curler formally bought the land around Fort Hoop from the Pequot chief for a small sum. It was home to perhaps a couple families and a few dozen soldiers, the area today is known as Dutch Point, and the name of the Dutch fort, House of Hope, is reflected in the name of Huyshope Avenue. The fort was abandoned by 1654, but its neighborhood in Hartford is still known as Dutch Point, the Dutch outpost, and the tiny contingent of Dutch soldiers that were stationed there, did little to check the English migration. The Dutch soon realized they were vastly outnumbered, the House of Hope remained an outpost, but it was steadily swallowed up by waves of English settlers. The English began to arrive 1637, settling upstream from Fort Hoop near the present-day Downtown, the settlement was originally called Newtown, but was changed to Hartford in 1637 in honor of Stones hometown of Hertford, England. Hooker also created the town of Windsor. The etymology of Hartford is the ford where harts cross, the Seal of the City of Hartford features a male deer, which in full maturity was referred to by the medieval hunting term hart. The fledgling colony along the Connecticut River had issues with the authority by which it was to be governed because it was outside of the jurisdiction of the Massachusetts Bay Colonys charter. Historians suggest that Hookers conception of self-rule embodied in the Fundamental Orders went on to inspire the Connecticut Constitution, today, one of Connecticuts nicknames is the Constitution State
4.
Firearm
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A firearm is a portable gun - a barreled weapon that launches one or more projectiles, often driven by the action of an explosive force. The first primitive firearms originated in 13th-century China when the fire lance was combined with projectiles. The technology gradually spread through the rest of East Asia, South Asia, older firearms typically used black powder as a propellant, but modern firearms use smokeless powder or other propellants. Most modern firearms have rifled barrels to impart spin to the projectile for improved flight stability, modern firearms can be described by their caliber or in the case of shotguns their gauge, by the type of action employed together with the usual means of deportment. The word firearms usually is used in a sense restricted to small arms, shooters aim firearms at their targets with hand-eye co-ordination, using either iron sights or optical sights. The accurate range of pistols generally does not exceed 100 yards, while most rifles are accurate to 550 yards using iron sights, some purpose-built sniper rifles are accurate to ranges of more than 2,200 yards. The smallest of all firearms is the handgun, there are three common types of handguns, single-shot pistols, revolvers, and semi-automatic pistols. Revolvers have a number of firing chambers or charge holes in a revolving cylinder, semi-automatic pistols have a single fixed firing chamber machined into the rear of the barrel, and a magazine so they can be used to fire more than one round. Each press of the fires a cartridge, using the energy of the cartridge to activate the mechanism so that the next cartridge may be fired immediately. This is opposed to double-action revolvers which accomplish the end using a mechanical action linked to the trigger pull. Prior to the 19th century, virtually all handguns were single-shot muzzleloaders, with the invention of the revolver in 1818, handguns capable of holding multiple rounds became popular. Certain designs of auto-loading pistol appeared beginning in the 1870s and had largely supplanted revolvers in military applications by the end of World War I. By the end of the 20th century, most handguns carried regularly by military, police and civilians were semi-automatic, both designs are common among civilian gun owners, depending on the owners intention. A long gun is any firearm that is larger than a handgun and is designed to be held. Early long arms, from the Renaissance up to the century, were generally smoothbore firearms that fired one or more ball shot. Most modern long guns are either rifles or shotguns, both are the successors of the musket, diverging from their parent weapon in distinct ways. A rifle is so named for the spiral fluting machined into the surface of its barrel. Shotguns are predominantly smoothbore firearms designed to fire a number of shot, shotguns are also capable of firing single slugs, or specialty rounds such as bean bags, tear gas or breaching rounds
5.
World War I
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World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
6.
Revolver
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A revolver is a repeating handgun that has a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers and at least one barrel for firing. Revolvers might be regarded as a subset of pistols, or as a subset of handguns. Though the term revolver usually only refers to handguns, other firearms may also have a revolving chamber and these include some models of grenade launchers, shotguns, and rifles. Most revolvers contain five or six rounds in the cylinder, though the original name was revolving gun, the short-hand revolver is universally used. The revolver allows the user to fire multiple rounds without reloading, each time the user cocks the hammer, the cylinder revolves to align the next chamber and round with the hammer and barrel, which gives this type of firearm its name. In a single-action revolver, the user pulls the back with his free hand or thumb. In a double-action revolver, pulling the trigger moves the back, then releases it. Loading and unloading a double-action revolver requires the operator to swing out the cylinder and insert the proper ammunition, the first guns with multichambered cylinders that revolved to feed one barrel were made in the late 16th century in Europe. They were expensive and rare curiosities, not until the 19th century would revolvers become common weapons of industrial production. One of the first was a flintlock revolver patented by Elisha Collier in 1814, the first percussion revolver was made by Lenormand of Paris in 1820 and the first percussion cap revolver was invented by the Italian Francesco Antonio Broccu in 1833. He received a prize of 300 francs for his invention, although he did not patent it, however, in 1835 a similar handgun was patented by Samuel Colt, who would go on to make the first mass-produced revolver. The first cartridge revolvers were produced around 1854 by Eugene Lefaucheux, revolvers soon became standard for nearly all uses. In the early 20th century, semi-automatic pistols were developed, which can hold more rounds, Automatic pistols also have a flat profile, more suitable for concealed carry. Automatic pistols have almost completely replaced revolvers in military and law enforcement use, revolvers still remain popular as back-up and off-duty handguns among American law enforcement officers and security guards. Also, revolvers are still common in the American private sector as defensive, in the development of firearms, an important limiting factor was the time it took to reload the weapon after it was fired. While the user was reloading, the weapon was useless, several approaches to the problem of increasing the rate of fire were developed, the earliest being multi-barrelled weapons which allowed two or more shots without reloading. Later weapons featured multiple barrels revolving along a single axis, the earliest examples of what today is called a revolver were made in Germany in the late 16th century. These weapons featured a barrel with a revolving cylinder holding the powder
7.
Colt Walker
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The Colt Walker, sometimes known as the Walker Colt, was a single-action revolver with a revolving cylinder holding six charges of black powder behind six bullets. It was designed in 1846 as a collaboration between Captain Samuel Hamilton Walker and American firearms inventor Samuel Colt, the 1847 Colt Walker was the largest and most powerful black powder repeating handgun ever made. It was created in the mid-1840s in a collaboration between Texas Ranger Captain Samuel Hamilton Walker and American firearms inventor Samuel Colt, building upon the earlier Colt Paterson design, Walker wanted a handgun that was extremely powerful at close range. Samuel Walker carried two of his revolvers in the Mexican–American War. He was killed in battle the same year his famous handgun was invented,1847, on October 9,2008, one specimen that had been handed down from a Mexican War veteran was sold at auction for US$920,000. The Republic of Texas had been the purchaser of the early Paterson Holster Pistol, a five shot cal.36 revolver. In 1847, Walker was engaged in the Mexican-American War as a captain in the United States Mounted Rifles and he approached Colt, requesting a large revolver to replace the single-shot Aston Johnson holster pistols then in use. The desired. 44-.45 caliber revolver would be carried in saddle mounted holsters, the Colt Walker was used in the Mexican-American War and on the Texas frontier. Medical officer John Rip Ford took a special interest in the Walkers when they arrived at Veracruz and he obtained two examples for himself and is the primary source for information about their performance during the war and afterward. The Walker, unlike most succeeding martial pistols and revolvers, was a weapon out to about 100 yards. The Colt Walker holds a charge of 60 grains in each chamber. It weighs 4 1⁄2 pounds unloaded, has a 9-inch barrel, the initial contract called for 1,000 of the revolvers and accoutrements. Colt commissioned Eli Whitney Junior to fill the contract and produced an extra 100 revolvers for private sales, notable recipients include John Coffee Hays. Colt commissioned New York engraver Waterman Ormsby to etch a scene on the cylinder that was based on Walkers description of the 1844 battle, in addition to its large size and weight, problems with the Walker included ruptured cylinders after firing. This has been attributed to primitive metallurgy, soldiers allowing powder to spill across the mouths of the chambers, under 300 of the original 1,000 were returned for repair due to a ruptured cylinder. The Walker had a loading lever catch that often allowed the loading lever to drop during recoil. Period-correct fixes for this often included placing a loop around both the barrel and loading lever, to prevent the loading lever from dropping under recoil. The Whitneyville-Hartford Dragoon is known as the first transitional model from the Walker to the Dragoon series, the Colt Walker has long maintained a unique position and mystique among handgun users, and its name is often used as a common expression of any overly large generic handgun example
8.
Eli Whitney
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Eli Whitney was an American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin. This was one of the key inventions of the Industrial Revolution, Whitneys invention made upland short cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery in the United States. Despite the social and economic impact of his invention, Whitney lost many profits in legal battles over patent infringement for the cotton gin, thereafter, he turned his attention into securing contracts with the government in the manufacture of muskets for the newly formed United States Army. He continued making arms and inventing until his death in 1825, Whitney was born in Westborough, Massachusetts, on December 8,1765, the eldest child of Eli Whitney Sr. a prosperous farmer, and his wife Elizabeth Fay, also of Westborough. Although the younger Eli, born in 1765, could technically be called a Junior and he was famous during his lifetime and afterward by the name Eli Whitney. His son, born in 1820, also named Eli, was known during his lifetime and afterward by the name Eli Whitney, Jr. Whitneys mother, Elizabeth Fay, died in 1777. At age 14 he operated a profitable nail manufacturing operation in his fathers workshop during the Revolutionary War, because his stepmother opposed his wish to attend college, Whitney worked as a farm laborer and school teacher to save money. He prepared for Yale at Leicester Academy and under the tutelage of Rev. Elizur Goodrich of Durham, Connecticut, he entered the class of 1789 and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1792. Whitney expected to study law but, finding himself short of funds, instead of reaching his destination, he was convinced to visit Georgia. In the closing years of the 18th century, Georgia was a magnet for New Englanders seeking their fortunes, when he initially sailed for South Carolina, among his shipmates were the widow and family of the Revolutionary hero Gen. Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island. Mrs. Greene invited Whitney to visit her Georgia plantation, Mulberry Grove and her plantation manager and husband-to-be was Phineas Miller, another Connecticut migrant and Yale graduate, who would become Whitneys business partner. Whitney is most famous for two innovations which later divided the United States in the century, the cotton gin. In the South, the cotton gin revolutionized the way cotton was harvested and reinvigorated slavery, in the North the adoption of interchangeable parts revolutionized the manufacturing industry, and contributed greatly to the U. S. victory in the Civil War. The cotton gin is a device that removes the seeds from cotton. The word gin is short for engine, the cotton gin was a wooden drum stuck with hooks that pulled the cotton fibers through a mesh. The cotton seeds would not fit through the mesh and fell outside, a single cotton gin could generate up to 55 pounds of cleaned cotton daily. Whitney received a patent for his cotton gin on March 14,1794, Whitney and his partner, Miller, did not intend to sell the gins. Rather, like the proprietors of grist and sawmills, they expected to charge farmers for cleaning their cotton – two-fifths of the value, resentment at this scheme, the mechanical simplicity of the device and the primitive state of patent law, made infringement inevitable
9.
Colt Single Action Army
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The Colt SAA has been offered in over 30 different calibers and various barrel lengths. Its overall appearance has remained consistent since 1873, Colt has discontinued its production twice, but brought it back due to popular demand. The revolver was popular with ranchers, lawmen, and outlaws alike and its design has influenced the production of numerous other models from other companies. The Colt SAA revolver is a piece of Americana, known as The Gun That Won the West. For the design, Colt turned to two of its best engineers, William Mason and Charles Brinckerhoff Richards who had developed a number of revolvers and black powder conversions for the company. Their effort was designed for the United States government service revolver trials of 1872 by Colts Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company, production began in 1873 with the Single Action Army model 1873, also referred to as the New Model Army Metallic Cartridge Revolving Pistol. The very first production Single Action Army, serial number 1, thought lost for years after its production, was found in a barn in Nashua. It was chambered in.45 Colt, a centerfire design containing charges of up to 40 grains of fine-grained black powder, relative to period cartridges and most later handgun rounds, it was quite powerful in its full loading. The Colt Single Action Army revolver, along with the 1870 and 1875 Smith & Wesson Model 3 Schofield revolver, the Colt.45 is a famous piece of American history, known as The Gun That Won the West. The Single Action Army became available in barrel lengths of 4¾, 5½ as well as the Cavalry standard. The shorter barrelled revolvers are sometimes called the Civilian or Gunfighter model, there was also a variant with a sub 4 barrel, without an ejector rod unofficially referred to as the Sheriffs Model, Bankers Special, or Storekeeper. From 1875 until 1880 Colt marketed a single-action revolver in.44 rimfire Henry caliber in a number range from no.1 to 1,863. A Flattop Target Model was listed in Colts catalogs from 1890 to 1898, Colt manufactured 914 of these revolvers with a frame which was flat on top and fitted with an adjustable leaf rear sight. The front sight consisted of a base with an interchangeable blade, in 1920, larger, highly visible sights replaced the original thin blade and notch. The revolvers remained essentially unchanged from that point until cessation of manufacture at the beginning of World War II, from 1873 through 1940, production of the Colt Single Action Army reached 357,859. This is identified as the Pre War or First Generation of the model, calibers, at least thirty in all, ranged from.22 rimfire through.476 Eley, with approximately half, or 158,884, chambered for.45 Colt. The next most prevalent were the. 44-40 Winchester Center fire at 71,392, 38-40 at 50,520, 32-20 Winchester at 43,284 and, the 41 Colt at 19,676. All original, good condition, U. S. Cavalry and Artillery Single Action Armies are among the most valuable to collectors, especially valuable, often going for well over $10,000, are the OWA and the rare Henry Nettleton inspected Single Action Army Colts
10.
Colt Python
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The Colt Python is a.357 Magnum caliber revolver formerly manufactured by Colts Manufacturing Company of Hartford, Connecticut. It is sometimes referred to as a Combat Magnum and it was first introduced in 1955, the same year as Smith & Wessons M29.44 Magnum. The now discontinued Colt Python targeted the premium market segment. The Colt Python is a double action handgun chambered for the.357 Magnum cartridge, Pythons have a reputation for accuracy, smooth trigger pull, and a tight cylinder lock-up. They are similar in size and function to the Colt Trooper, the Colt Python was first introduced in 1955 as Colts top-of-the-line model and was originally intended to be a large-frame 38 Special target revolver. As a result, it features precision adjustable sights, a trigger, solid construction. Pythons have an appearance due to a full barrel underlug, ventilated rib. Originally, Colt manufactured Pythons with hollow underlugs but left them solid to work as a barrel weight. When the revolver is at full cock, just as the trigger is pressed, other revolvers have a hint of looseness even at full-cock. The gap between the cylinder and forcing cone is very tight, further aiding accuracy and velocity, starting in the 1970s each Python revolver was boresighted at the factory with a laser and was the first mass-produced revolver to do so. In October 1999, Colt Manufacturing Co. announced the termination of its production of Python revolvers, the Colt Custom Gun Shop continued making a limited number of Pythons on special order until 2005, when even this limited production was terminated. The Python was originally available in two finishes, Royal Blue and Bright Nickel, the Bright Nickel model was discontinued with the introduction of the more durable satin stainless and mirror-polished Ultimate Stainless models. The stainless steel and Royal Blue finishes were offered until 2003 by Colt on the Python Elite model, Pythons were available with 2. 5-inch, 3-inch, 4-inch, 6-inch and 8-inch barrels. The six-inch model was the most popular generally, and the 8-inch model was intended for hunting, a 3-inch barrel version is very collectible, although not rare. The Python Hunter model, with 8-inch barrel and factory-installed 2X Leupold scope, was made in 1980, the Python Hunter was the first field-ready handgun hunting package made by a major handgun manufacturer. The scope was mounted on the barrel using Redfield mounts and the gun was packaged in a Haliburton case and it was discontinued by 1990 and briefly offered as a Custom Shop model afterward. A Python Target model was made for years in.38 Special only, in blue. Two variants of the Python were made in numbers by Colt
11.
M1911 pistol
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The M1911 is a single-action, semi-automatic, magazine-fed, recoil-operated pistol chambered for the.45 ACP cartridge. It served as the sidearm for the United States Armed Forces from 1911 to 1986. It was first used in stages of the Philippine–American War, and was widely used in World War I, World War II, the Korean War. The pistols formal designation as of 1940 was Automatic Pistol, Caliber.45, M1911 for the model of 1911 or Automatic Pistol, Caliber.45, M1911A1 for the M1911A1. The designation changed to Pistol, Caliber.45, Automatic, the U. S. procured around 2.7 million M1911 and M1911A1 pistols in military contracts during its service life. The M1911 was replaced by the 9mm Beretta M9 pistol as the standard U. S. sidearm in October 1986, but due to its popularity among users, it has not been completely phased out. Modernized derivative variants of the M1911 are still in use by units of the U. S. Army Special Forces. Designed by John Browning, the M1911 is the best-known of his designs to use the short recoil principle in its basic design, the pistol was widely copied, and this operating system rose to become the preeminent type of the 20th century and of nearly all modern centerfire pistols. It is popular with civilian shooters in competitive events such as USPSA, IDPA, International Practical Shooting Confederation, compact variants are popular civilian concealed carry weapons in the U. S. because of the designs relatively slim width and stopping power of the.45 ACP cartridge. The M1911 pistol originated in the late 1890s as the result of a search for a suitable self-loading pistol to replace the variety of then in service. Maxim had designed a self-loading rifle in the 1880s, but was preoccupied with machine guns, nevertheless, the application of his principle of using cartridge energy to reload led to several self-loading pistols in 1896. The designs caught the attention of various militaries, each of which programs to find a suitable one for their forces. In the U. S. such a program would lead to a formal test at the turn of the 20th century, during the end of 1899 and start of 1900, a test of self-loading pistols was conducted, which included entries from Mauser, Mannlicher, and Colt. This led to a purchase of 1,000 DWM Luger pistols, chambered in 7. 65mm Luger, during field trials these ran into some problems, especially with stopping power. Other governments had made similar complaints, consequently, DWM produced an enlarged version of the round, the 9×19mm Parabellum, a necked-up version of the 7.65 mm round. Fifty of these were tested as well by the U. S. Army in 1903, American units fighting Moro guerrillas during the Philippine–American War using the then-standard Colt M1892 revolver. The problems prompted the then–Chief of Ordnance, General William Crozier and this led to the 1906 trials of pistols from six firearms manufacturing companies. Of the six designs submitted, three were eliminated early on, leaving only the Savage, Colt, and DWM designs chambered in the new.45 ACP cartridge and these three still had issues that needed correction, but only Colt and Savage resubmitted their designs
12.
Colt AR-15
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The Colt AR-15 is a lightweight,5. 56×45mm, magazine-fed, air-cooled semi-automatic, gas-operated rifle with a rotating bolt. It was designed to be manufactured with the use of aluminum alloys. Introduced in 1964, Colt has made many different types of AR-15 rifle and carbine models, including the AR-15, AR-15A2, AR-15A3, Sporter, HBAR, Government, Target, Match and it is based on the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle, a select-fire weapon intended for military sales. In 1959, ArmaLite sold the design to Colt due to financial difficulties, after some modifications, the rifle eventually became the United States military M16 rifle. Shortly thereafter, Colt began to make semi-automatic versions for civilian sales, the term AR-15 is a Colt registered trademark, which they use to denote only the semi-automatic rifle versions available for civilian and law enforcement sales. The term AR-15 signifies Armalite rifle, design 15, other manufacturers make AR-15 clones and variants marketed under separate designations, although these are frequently referred to as AR-15s. This article discusses the semiautomatic version manufactured by Colt, the Colt AR-15 is based on the 5.56 mm ArmaLite AR-15 rifle, which is a smaller lighter version of the 7.62 mm ArmaLite AR-10. Both of these rifles were designed by Eugene Stoner, Robert Fremont, in 1959, ArmaLite sold its rights to the AR-10 and AR-15 to Colt. After a Far East tour, Colt made its first sale of Colt made ArmaLite AR-15 rifles to Malaya on September 30,1959, Colt manufactured their first batch of 300 select-fire Colt ArmaLite AR-15 Model 01 rifles in December 1959. Colt marketed the Colt made ArmaLite AR-15 rifle to various military services around the world, after modifications, the new redesigned rifle was adopted by the United States military as the M16 rifle. Most Colt ArmaLite AR-15 rifles in U. S. service have long ago been upgraded to M16 rifle configuration, Colt continued to use the AR-15 trademark for its semi-automatic variants that were marketed to civilian and law-enforcement customers. The original AR-15 was a lightweight weapon, weighing less than 6 pounds with empty magazine. Later heavy-barrel versions of the civilian AR-15 can weigh upwards of 8.5 lb, patent 2,951,424 describes the cycling mechanism used in the original AR-15. The bolt carrier acts as a cylinder and the bolt itself acts as a stationary piston. This mechanism is called direct gas impingement, although it differs from prior gas systems. Stoner did not consider the AR-15 to be a direct impingement mechanism. Gas is tapped from the barrel as the bullet moves past a gas port located above the front sight base. The gas expands into the port and down a gas tube, here, the gas tube protrudes into a gas key, which accepts the gas and funnels it into the bolt carrier
13.
M16 rifle
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The M16 rifle, officially designated Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16, is a United States military adaptation of the Armalite AR-15 rifle. The original M16 was a select-fire,5. 56×45mm rifle with a 20-round magazine, in 1964, the M16 entered American military service and the following year was deployed for jungle warfare operations during the Vietnam War. In 1969, the M16A1 replaced the M14 rifle to become the U. S. militarys standard service rifle, the M16A1 improvements include a bolt-assist, chrome plated bore and a new 30-round magazine. In 1983, the USMC adopted the M16A2 rifle and the U. S. Army adopted it in 1986, the M16A2 fires the improved 5. Adopted in 1998, the M16A4 is the generation of the M16 series. It is equipped with a carrying handle and Picatinny rail for mounting optics. The M16 has also widely adopted by other militaries around the world. Total worldwide production of M16s has been approximately 8 million, making it the most-produced firearm of its 5.56 mm caliber. The U. S. Army has largely replaced the M16 in combat units with the shorter and lighter M4 carbine, however, early experiments with select-fire versions of the M1 Garand proved disappointing. During the Korean War, the select-fire M2 carbine largely replaced the gun in US service. However, combat experience suggested that the.30 Carbine round was under-powered, American weapons designers concluded that an intermediate round was necessary, and recommended a small-caliber, high-velocity cartridge. This culminated in the development of the 7. 62×51mm NATO cartridge, the US also adopted the M60 general purpose machine gun. Its NATO partners adopted the FN FAL and HK G3 rifles, as well as the FN MAG, the first confrontations between the AK-47 and the M14 came in the early part of the Vietnam War. Battlefield reports indicated that the M14 was uncontrollable in full-auto and that soldiers could not carry enough ammo to maintain fire superiority over the AK-47, and, while the M2 carbine offered a high rate of fire, it was under-powered and ultimately outclassed by the AK-47. A replacement was needed, a medium between the traditional preference for high-powered rifles such as the M14, and the firepower of the M2 Carbine. As a result, the Army was forced to reconsider a 1957 request by General Willard G. Wyman, continental Army Command to develop a.223 caliber select-fire rifle weighing 6 lb when loaded with a 20-round magazine. This request ultimately resulted in the development of a version of the Armalite AR-10. However, despite overwhelming evidence that the AR-15 could bring more firepower to bear than the M14, in January 1963, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara concluded that the AR-15 was the superior weapon system and ordered a halt to M14 production
14.
CAR-15
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The Colt Automatic Rifle-15 Military Weapons System or CAR-15 was a family of the AR-15 and M16 rifle–based firearms marketed by Colt in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Due to their size, the short-barreled Colt Commando and XM177 versions of this family continued to be issued to the U. S. military after the Vietnam War. The CAR-15 name was an attempt to re-associate the AR-15 name with Colt, since the AR initially stood for ArmaLite Rifle, the original manufacturer of the Armalite AR-15. Colt later abandoned the CAR-15 concept, but continued to make variations, using the M16 brand for military-oriented models, however, in present usage, CAR-15 is used as a generic name for carbine-length M16 and AR-15 variants from before the M4. Specifically, Colt Commando currently refers to the ultrashort 10.5 barrel of the model 609 and 11. 5-inch barrel assault rifle of the Model 733 series. By comparison, the M4 carbine has a 14. 5-inch barrel, following a long series of tests by the U. S. Army and U. S. Air force, resulted in an order for 8,500 AR-15 rifles for the Air Force in 1962. About the same time, the Advanced Research Projects Agency of the Department of Defense became interested, each variation had a Colt model number, meant for internal identification usage. The members of the CAR-15 family, with the exception of the Rifle and Commando, only existed as toolroom prototypes, as a result, wide variation due to experimentation exists within each model. The U. S. military only made significant purchases of the Rifle and Commando versions, the CAR-15 Rifle was already identified by most users as M16s or AR-15s, and the CAR-15 name was similarly associated with the short-barreled Submachine Gun and Commando models. Because of that, the term CAR-15 has been used to describe any M16-based carbine, however, the United States military had already committed to purchases before Colt created the concept of the CAR-15 weapons system. The principal difference between the Model 603 and Model 604 is that the former has a forward assist, allowing a user to close a stuck bolt. The Model 605A CAR-15 Carbine was a version for situations where longer weapons could be unwieldy. The only significant change from the M16 rifle was that the barrel was shortened to 15 inches in length, because of the shorter barrel, no bayonet mounting lugs were provided. One prototype used a shorter handguard and a 16-inch long barrel, the Model 605B had no forward assist, but had a four-position selector switch so that a user could select safe, semi-automatic, three-round burst, or full automatic modes of fire. Unlike the standard group, the four-position group went from safe, fully automatic, semi-automatic. The selector itself had 360 degrees of motion, and could be moved either clockwise or counterclockwise, instead of three-round burst, the burst cam could be modified to two-round or six-round burst. Both versions used the rifle-length buttstock, as early as 1962, United States Navy SEALs were using the CAR-15 Carbine. The Model 606 CAR-15 Heavy Assault Rifles used heavy barrels for sustained automatic fire, like the Browning Automatic Rifle, the CAR-15 HBARs did not have a quick-change barrel
15.
M4 carbine
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The M4 carbine is a shorter and lighter variant of the M16A2 assault rifle. The M4 is a 5. 56×45mm NATO, air-cooled, direct impingement gas-operated, magazine-fed carbine and it has a 14.5 in barrel and a telescoping stock. The M4 carbine is used by the United States Armed Forces and is replacing the M16 rifle in most United States Army. The M4 is also capable of mounting the M203 and M320 grenade launchers, the distinctive step in its barrel is for mounting the M203 with the standard hardware. The M4 is capable of firing in semi-automatic and three-round burst modes, while the M4A1 is capable of firing in semi-auto, following the adoption of the M16 rifle, carbine variants were also adopted for close quarters operations. The CAR-15 family of weapons served through the Vietnam War, nevertheless, as a short-range weapon it is quite adequate and thus, its caliber, is classed as a submachine gun. In 1988, Colt began work on a new design called the XM4 combining the best features of the Colt Commando. The XM4 was given a longer 14. 5-inch barrel with the M16A2s 1,7 inch rifle twist, the extended barrel improved the XM4s ballistics, reduced muzzle blast and gave the XM4 the ability to mount a bayonet and the M203 grenade launcher. The XM4 was also given the M16A2s improved rear sight and cartridge deflector, in 1994, the U. S. military officially accepted the XM4 into service as the M4 carbine to replace M16A2s in certain roles. The United States Marine Corps has ordered its officers and staff non-commissioned officers to carry the M4 carbine instead of the M9 handgun and this is in keeping with the Marine Corps doctrine, Every Marine a rifleman. The Marine Corps, however, chose the full-sized M16A4 over the M4 as its infantry rifle. United States Navy corpsmen E5 and below are also issued M4s instead of the M9, as of 2013, the U. S. Marine Corps had 80,000 M4 carbines in their inventory. By July 2015, major Marine Corps commands were endorsing switching to the M4 over the M16A4 as the infantry rifle. Approval of the change would move the M16 to support personnel, in October 2015, Commandant Robert Neller formally approved of making the M4 carbine the primary weapon for all infantry battalions, security forces, and supporting schools in the U. S. Marine Corps. The switch is to begin in early 2016 and be completed by September 2016, on 1 July 2009, the U. S. Army took complete ownership of the M4 design. This allowed companies other than Colt to compete with their own M4 designs, the Army planned on fielding the last of its M4 requirement in 2010. On 30 October 2009, Army weapons officials proposed a series of changes to the M4 to Congress, requested changes included an electronic round counter that records the number of shots fired, a heavier barrel, and possibly replacing the direct impingement system with a gas piston system. The benefits of this, however, have come under scrutiny from both the military and civilian firearms community. S
16.
Colt Defense
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Colt Defense LLC, together with its subsidiaries, is an American designer, developer and manufacturer of small arms weapons systems for individual soldiers and law enforcement personnel. Colt Defense LLC was formed in 2002 as a result of the re-organization of Colt’s Manufacturing Company and it is headquartered in West Hartford, Connecticut. On 15 June 2015, Colt Defense filed for bankruptcy, citing both assets and debts in the million to $500 million range. Colt Canada Corporation, its Canadian subsidiary, is the Canadian government’s Center of Excellence for small arms and is the Canadian military’s sole supplier of the C7 rifle, Colt Canada began as Diemaco in 1974 and acquired by Colt in 2005 from Héroux-Devtek. The company and its subsidiaries maintain manufacturing facilities in West Hartford, Connecticut and Kitchener and it was split off from Colts Manufacturing Company in 2002 in order to focus on the military, law enforcement and security markets. Barrel, an automatic rifle, a submachine gun chambered for 9mm ammunition. Colt Defense Colt Defense SEC Filings
17.
West Hartford, Connecticut
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West Hartford is a town in Hartford County, Connecticut, United States. Located 5 miles west of downtown Hartford, is an upmarket inner-ring suburb located in Greater Hartford, the population was 63,268 at the 2010 census. The town is known for its downtown area colloquially known as West Hartford Center, or simply The Center. West Hartford Center has been the main hub since the late 17th century. In 2008, Blue Back Square opened as a new addition to the central area, Blue Back includes a bookstore, a movie theater, two parking garages, various physician and medical offices, and several restaurants. Incorporated as a town in 1854, the town was previously a parish of Hartford, in 2010, Kiplingers Personal Finance magazine listed West Hartford as one of the nations 10 Great Cities for Raising Families. In 2010, Kiplingers ranked West Hartford #9 on its 10 Best Cities for the Next Decade list, in 2010, CNN Money ranked West Hartford as the 55th best small city in America. In 2010, the online magazine Travelandleisure. com cited West Hartford as one of 10 coolest suburbs in the nation. According to new evidence, the Wampanoag people used West Hartford as one of their winter camps. Fishing and hunting along the Connecticut River, the area of West Hartford offered the Wampanoag people a refuge from the winter wind. In 1636 Reverend Thomas Hooker led a group of followers from what is now Cambridge, Massachusetts to the Great River, as the colony grew, additional land was needed. In 1672 the Proprietors of Hartford ordered that a Division be created to the West, a total of 72 Long Lots were laid out between todays Quaker Lane in the East and Mountain Road in the West. The northern boundary was Bloomfield, and the Southern, present day New Britain Avenue, in the 1670s the area was referred to as the West Division of Hartford. This remained the name until 1806 when Connecticut General Assembly started referring to it as the Society of West Hartford. In 1679, Stephen Hosmers father sent him to establish a sawmill on the property, young Hosmer would eventually go back to live in Hartford, but in his 1693 estate inventory,310 acres in West Hartford along with a house and a sawmill are listed. For nearly a century the property would be handed down throughout the family, evidence still remains of the Towns first industry, as Stephen Hosmers mill pond and dam can still be found today on the westernmost side of North Main Street. At its core was the meeting house. The First Congregational Meeting House was built around 1712 and still stands today at what is now the northwest corner of Main Street
18.
Colt Ring Lever rifles
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The Colt First Model Ring Lever rifle and Colt Second Model Ring Lever rifle are two early caplock revolving rifles that were produced by the Patent Arms Manufacturing Company between 1837 and 1841. The First Model, produced between 1837 and 1838, was the first firearm manufactured by Samuel Colt, developed shortly before the advent of the Colt Paterson revolver. The First Model was succeeded by the Second Model, produced between 1838 and 1841, which featured minor variations in design and construction, both models are distinguished from later Colt revolving long-arms by the presence of a small ring lever located in front of the trigger. This lever, when pulled, would index the cylinder to the next position, although complicated in design and prone to failures, fifty First Model rifles were ordered by the U. S. Army for use against Seminole warriors in the Second Seminole War. The First Model Ring Lever rifle features a 32-inch octagonal barrel with a browned finish, the finishes of the other metal parts are blued. The rifle features a trigger guard, which lies behind the ring lever. The ring-shaped lever is used by the operator to both cock the hammer and rotate the cylinder. The First Model was offered in.34.36.38.40, the cylinder features a roll engraving depicting a deer hunted by a centaur and a group of horsemen. The front and rear edges of the cylinder were originally square and these improvements also included the addition of a cutout in the recoil shield to enable capping the nipples without disassembly and the addition of a loading lever. The rifle features a stock with crescent buttplate and a raised cheekpiece featuring an inlaid image of four horse-heads. Although the Second Model Ring Lever rifle is identical in operation to the First Model, most notably, the Second Model lacks the top strap included on the First Model, opting instead for an open top design. The Second Model also lacks the image on the cheekpiece. The Second Model was only offered in.44 caliber, but was offered in both 28-inch and 32-inch barrel lengths, as with the First Model, eight-shot cylinders were standard, only a small number of ten-shot cylinders were manufactured. Production of the First Model Ring Lever rifle began in 1837 in the Patent Arms Manufacturing Companys factory in Paterson, the First Model Ring Lever rifle was Samuel Colts first manufactured firearm, and was followed shortly thereafter in late 1837 by the introduction of the Colt Paterson pistol. The First Model remained in production until 1838, with a total of about 200 firearms manufactured, in 1838, the Second Model Ring Lever rifle began production and continued until 1841, with a total of about 500 manufactured. Although neither the First nor Second Model Ring Lever rifles saw widespread adoption by any organization, several were procured by the United States Army. At the request of Lieutenant Colonel William S. Harney of the Second Dragoon Regiment, the experiments found that the Ring Lever rifle could fire off sixteen shots in thirty-one seconds, with the ability to load and fire an eight-shot cylinder in forty-eight seconds. This board of officers advocated equipping select trained men in each company with Colts rifle, as the board was conducting its experiments, several friendly Indians had gathered to watch and described Colts rifle as great medicine
19.
Colt Paterson
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The Colt Paterson is a revolver. It was the first commercial repeating firearm employing a revolving cylinder with multiple chambers aligned with a single, stationary barrel. Its design was patented by Samuel Colt on February 25,1836, in the United States, France, and England, initially this 5-shot revolver was produced in.28 caliber, with a.36 caliber model following a year later. As originally designed and produced, no loading lever was included with the revolver, starting in 1839, however, a reloading lever and a capping window were incorporated into the design, allowing reloading without requiring partial disassembly of the revolver. This loading lever and capping window design change was incorporated after the fact into most Colt Paterson revolvers that had been produced from 1836 until 1839. Unlike later revolvers, a trigger was incorporated into the Colt Paterson. The trigger only became visible upon cocking the hammer, a subsequent patent renewal in 1849, and aggressive litigation against infringements, gave Colt a domestic monopoly on revolver development until the middle 1850s. Early Colt literature and later publications insist that Colt was inspired to design the revolver in 1830 by viewing the steering mechanisms aboard the brig Corvo while bound from Boston to Calcutta. However, some believe he saw examples of the Collier Flintlock Revolver while touring the Tower after the Corvo docked on the River Thames, in any event, sometime while aboard the Corvo he produced a wooden model and further developed the concept during the early 1830s. A creditor and business associate, John Ehlers, continued manufacture, revolving pistols held five shots and varied from pocket to belt and holster designations based upon size and intended mode of carry. Calibers ranged from 28/100s through 36/100s-inch, the model most identified with the Paterson Colt designation is the Number 5 Holster or Texas Paterson, which was manufactured in.36 caliber. The early Colt revolvers were of single-action design, meaning that the trigger functioned only to discharge the weapon and it was necessary to manually cock the hammer prior to firing. The first Paterson Models required partial disassembly for loading and had no provision for safely carrying the revolver with all chambers loaded. Replace the cylinder, barrel, and wedge and with the hammer at half cock, the revolvers came with spare cylinders, and the practice of the day was to carry spare cylinders loaded and capped for fast reloading. Period users had few qualms about this even though it presented a real hazard of accidental discharge if the caps were struck or the cylinder dropped. The first two options were extremely dangerous, in 1839, a hinged loading lever and capping window became standard for new revolvers and was retrofitted to the older designs. So modified, the revolvers could be loaded without disassembly, when the Paterson revolvers with loading levers finally reached Texas in 1842, Texas Ranger Captain John Coffee Hays was very pleased that his ranging companies could now reload from horseback. To fire the Paterson, the shooter thumbed the hammer back and this also caused the folding trigger to drop down from the frame into firing position
20.
Interchangeable parts
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Interchangeable parts are parts that are, for practical purposes, identical. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they fit into any assembly of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting and this interchangeability allows easy assembly of new devices, and easier repair of existing devices, while minimizing both the time and skill required of the person doing the assembly or repair. Additional innovations included jigs for guiding the machine tools, fixtures for holding the workpiece in the proper position, modern machine tools often have numerical control which evolved into CNC when microprocessors became available. Methods for industrial production of parts in the United States were first developed in the nineteenth century. The term American system of manufacturing was sometimes applied to them at the time, within a few decades such methods were in use in various countries, so American system is now a term of historical reference rather than current industrial nomenclature. Evidence of the use of parts can be traced back over two thousand years to Carthage in the First Punic War. Carthaginian ships had standardized, interchangeable parts that came with assembly instructions akin to tab a into slot b marked on them. In East Asia during the Warring States period and later the Qin Dynasty, bronze crossbow triggers and locking mechanisms were mass-produced and made to be interchangeable. One of the accomplishments of the system was that solid cast cannons were bored to precise tolerances, however, because cores were often off center, the wall thickness determined the size of the bore. Standardized boring allowed cannon to be shorter without sacrificing accuracy and range because of the fit of the shells. It also allowed standardization of the shells, before the 18th century, devices such as guns were made one at a time by gunsmiths, and each gun was unique. If one single component of a firearm needed a replacement, the entire firearm either had to be sent to a gunsmith for custom repairs. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, the idea of replacing these methods with a system of manufacture was gradually developed. The development took decades and involved many people, Gribeauval provided patronage to Honoré Blanc, who attempted to implement the Système Gribeauval at the musket level. By around 1778, Honoré Blanc began producing some of the first firearms with interchangeable flint locks, Blanc demonstrated in front of a committee of scientists that his muskets could be fitted with flint locks picked at random from a pile of parts. Muskets with interchangeable locks caught the attention of Thomas Jefferson through the efforts of Honoré Blanc when Jefferson was Ambassador to France in 1785. President George Washington approved of the idea, and by 1798 a contract was issued to Eli Whitney for 12,000 muskets built under the new system
21.
United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
22.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
23.
Samuel Hamilton Walker
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Samuel Hamilton Walker was a Texas Ranger captain and military officer of the Republic of Texas and the United States armies. Walker served in armed conflicts, including the American Indian Wars. He was born on February 24,1817 at Toaping Castle, Maryland, to Nathan and Elizabeth Walker, Walker enlisted in the Washington City Volunteers for the Creek Indian Campaign in Alabama in 1836. The following year he mustered out and worked as a scout in Florida until 1841 and he arrived in Galveston, Texas in 1842 and served under Captain Jesse Billingsley against a Mexican invasion led by General Adrian Woll. Walker was captured on December 26,1842 and marched to Mexico City as a prisoner of war and he survived what became known as the Black Bean Episode and was held prisoner for two years before he escaped to Louisiana and returned to Texas. He joined the Texas Rangers in 1844 under the command of Captain John Coffee Hays, promoted to captain, he led a Ranger company during the Mexican–American War, serving with General Zachary Taylor and General Winfield Scotts armies. Walker is best known as the co-inventor of the famous Walker Colt revolver, colts firearms company was no longer in business, but the large order allowed Colt to establish a new company. He hired Eli Whitney, Junior, already in the arms business, Colt used his prototype and Walkers improvements to create a new design. Blake produced the first thousand-piece order, known as the Colt Walker, the company then received an order for an additional one thousand more. Colts share of the profits was $10, by 1847, the new revolver was available. The United States Armys mounted rifle companies were issued them, Walker was killed on October 9,1847, at Huamantla, in Tlaxcala, while leading his troops in the Battle of Huamantla during the Mexican–American War. He was struck down by a shotgun fired from a balcony, the following year, his remains were moved to San Antonio. On April 21,1856, as part of a battle of San Jacinto anniversary memorial, Walker County, Texas, was renamed for him after the original namesake, Robert J. Walker, sided with the Union during the Civil War. History of the Texas Ranger Division K. Jack Bauer, The Mexican War, albert Gallatin Brackett, General Lanes Brigade in Central Mexico. Edmund L. Dana, Incidents in the Life of Capt. Samuel H. Walker, Texan Ranger, reminiscences of the War with Mexico, As Told by Col. Thos. Marilyn M. Sibley, ed. Samuel H. Walkers Account of the Mier Expedition, charles D. Spurlin, Ranger Walker in the Mexican War, Military History of Texas and the Southwest 9
24.
Arsenal
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An arsenal is a place where arms and ammunition are made, maintained and repaired, stored, or issued, in any combination, whether privately or publicly owned. Arsenal and armoury or armory are mostly regarded as synonyms, although differences in usage exist. A sub-armory is a place of storage or carrying of weapons and ammunition. From Italian, arsenale, and French, arsenal, from Arabic, دار تعبئة, dār a-tabiya, in a second-class arsenal, the factories would be replaced by workshops. The situation of an arsenal should be governed by strategic considerations. If of the first class, it should be situated at the base of operations and supply, secure from attack, not too near a frontier, the importance of a large arsenal is such that its defences would be on the scale of those of a large fortress. The usual subdivision of branches in a great arsenal is into storekeeping, under construction, Gun factory, carriage factory, laboratory, small-arms factory, harness and tent factory, powder factory, etc. In a second-class arsenal there would be instead of these factories. Frederick Taylor introduced command and control techniques to arsenals, including the U. S. s Watertown Arsenal, armorer Dresden Armory Halifax Armoury Harpers Ferry Armory Kremlin Armoury Royal Arsenal Royal Armouries Springfield Armory Zeughaus Magazine
25.
Texas Ranger Division
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The Texas Ranger Division, commonly called the Texas Rangers, is a law enforcement agency with statewide jurisdiction in Texas, based in the capital city of Austin. The Texas Rangers were unofficially created by Stephen F. Austin in a written in 1823 and were first headed by Captain Morris. After a decade, on August 10,1835, Daniel Parker introduced a resolution to the Permanent Council creating a body of rangers to protect the border. The unit was dissolved by the authorities during the post–Civil War Reconstruction Era. Since 1935, the organization has been a division of the Texas Department of Public Safety, as of 2014, there are 150 commissioned members of the Ranger force. During their history, a distinct Ranger tradition has evolved, their significance to Texians. There is a dedicated to the Texas Rangers in Waco. While there is discussion as to when Austin actually employed men as rangers. The Texas Rangers were formally constituted in 1835 and, in November, within two years the Rangers comprised more than 300 men. Following the Texas Revolution and the creation of the Republic of Texas, lamar, raised a force of 56 Rangers to fight the Cherokee and the Comanche, partly in retaliation for the support they had given the Mexicans at the Cordova Rebellion against the Republic. Ten rangers were killed in the Battle of Stone Houses in 1837 and they played important roles at various battles, acting as guides and participating in Counter-guerrilla warfare, soon establishing a fearsome reputation among both Mexicans and Americans. Richard Addison Gillespie, a famed Texas Ranger, died at Monterrey, John Jackson Tumlinson Sr. the first alcalde of the Colorado district, is considered by many Texas Ranger historians to be the first Texas Ranger killed in the line of duty. One of his most urgent issues was protection of settlers from theft, on his way to San Antonio, in 1823, to discuss the issue with the governor, Tumlinson was killed by Native Americans. His travelling companion, a Mr. Newman, escaped, the now 100-strong Rangers participated in campaigns against the Comanche and other tribes, whose raids against the settlers and their properties had become common. Ford and his Rangers fought the Comanche in the Battle of Little Robe Creek in 1858, the success of a series of campaigns in the 1860s marked a turning point in Rangers history. The U. S. Army could provide limited and thinly-stretched protection in the enormous territory of Texas. Such a force could use the deep familiarity with the territory and this option was not pursued, in view of the emerging national political problems, and the Rangers were again dissolved. Many Rangers enlisted to fight for the Confederacy following the secession of Texas from the United States in 1861 during the Civil War, in 1870, during Reconstruction, the Rangers were briefly replaced by a Union-controlled version called the Texas State Police, disbanded only three years later
26.
Connecticut River
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The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States. Flowing roughly southward for 406.12 miles through four U. S. states, the Connecticut rises at the U. S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges at Long Island Sound. Its watershed encompasses five U. S. states and one Canadian province –11,260 square miles – via 148 tributaries,38 of which are major rivers, discharging at 19,600 cubic feet per second, the Connecticut produces 70% of Long Island Sounds fresh water. The word Connecticut is a French corruption of the Mohegan word quinetucket, the word Connecticut came into existence during the early 1600s, describing the river, which was also called simply The Great River. Prior to Dutch exploration beginning in 1614, numerous native tribes lived throughout the fertile Connecticut River valley, information concerning how these tribes lived and interacted stems mostly from English accounts written during the 1630s. In the southernmost region of the Connecticut River valley, the Pequots dominated a territory stretching roughly from the rivers mouth northward to just below the Big Bend. Occasionally, these villages endured invasions from more aggressive confederated tribes living in modern-day New York, such as the Mohawk, Mahican and Iroquois tribes. In the northernmost reaches of the Connecticut River Valley, the Western Abenaki tribe lived in the Green Mountains region of Vermont and they later merged with members of other Algonquin tribes displaced by the wars and famines that accompanied the European settling of the Connecticut River Valley. In 1614, Dutch explorer Adriaen Block became the first European explorer to chart the Connecticut River, in charting the Connecticut, Bloeck called it the Fresh River, and claimed it for the Netherlands as the northeastern border of the New Netherland colony. In 1623, Dutch traders constructed a trading post at the site of modern Hartford, Connecticut. Less than a later, four separate Puritan-led groups settled the fertile Connecticut River Valley. In the process, they founded the two cities that continue to dominate the Connecticut River Valley today – Hartford and Springfield. In 1633, a left the Massachusetts Bay Colony from Watertown. With this in mind, they founded Wethersfield, Connecticut, in 1633 – several miles south of the Dutch fort at modern Hartford, shortly after Hookers arrival, Newtowne annexed Matianuck, based on laws supposedly articulated in Connecticuts settlement charter, the Warwick Patent of 1631. The patent, however, had been physically lost, and the annexation was almost certainly illegal, the fourth English settlement along the Connecticut came out of a 1635 scouting party commissioned by William Pynchon. Of these settlements, Hartford and Springfield quickly emerged as powers, in 1641, Springfield splintered off from the Hartford-based Connecticut Colony, instead allying itself with the Boston-based Massachusetts Bay Colony. For decades, Springfield remained the Massachusetts Bay Colonys westernmost settlement, by 1654 however, the success of these English settlements rendered the Dutch position on the Connecticut untenable. A treaty relocated the boundary between the Connecticut Colony and New Netherland Colony westward, near present-day Greenwich, the treaty allowed the Dutch to maintain their trading post at Foot Huys de Hoop, which they did until the 1664 British takeover of New Netherland
27.
Colt Armory
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The Colt Armory is a historic factory complex for the manufacture of firearms, created by Samuel Colt. It is located in Hartford, Connecticut along the Connecticut River, the armory was built on a 260-acre site beginning in 1855. Low-lying, often flooded meadows were set off from the river by a 2-mile dike, the dike and earliest armory buildings were completed in 1855, and Colts mansion Armsmear was constructed the following year on a hill overlooking the armory. Shortly afterwards Colt added 20 six/eight-family houses on Huyshope and Van Block Avenues for skilled workers, Colts 1855 East Armory was almost totally destroyed by a disastrous fire in 1864, only two small outbuildings remain of this original construction. The West Armory was demolished before World War II, after the 1864 fire, the East Armory was rebuilt on its predecessors foundation, to designs by General William B. Franklin, the general manager and a former U. S. Army engineer. It is a 5-story brick structure with brownstone accents,508 by 61 feet in dimensions, the building is capped with a distinctive onion-shaped, sheet metal dome, painted deep blue with gold stars, and resembling that of the 1855 armory. A gilded ball sits atop the dome, above which is a fiberglass replica of the original Rampant Colt. Four Porter-Allen steam engines drove the machine tools through a maze of shafts and belts. In 1994, Colts Manufacturing Company vacated the Hartford complex amid financial difficulties, consolidating operations at a West Hartford, a current tenant in the East Armory, U. S. Fire Arms Manufacturing Company, originally manufactured replicas of historic Colt pistols, in addition to Colt firearms, the factory produced a number of items under contract for other companies. The most famous of these was a printing press designed by Merrit Gally. From 1873 to 1902, the Armory manufactured a series of presses that developed a reputation as the finest hand-fed platen press ever made. These presses eventually became known generically as Colts Armory presses, although they were distributed under names including Colts Armory, Universal, Victoria, Hartford, National and Laureate. The fascinating history of the design, production, sales and business battles behind these storied presses was summarized in a 1983 article in the typographic journal Type & Press. National Register of Historic Places listings in Hartford, Connecticut Charles Louis Flint, One Hundred Years Progress of the United States, L. Stebbins and H. Howe,1870, Hartford Advocate Oct.2007 article on setbacks in the redevelopment of the Colt factory building. Briar Press entry on the Colts Armory Press U. S, fire Arms Mfg. Co. company website Editorials section contains many clippings on the struggle to secure National Historic Landmark status for Coltsville. Fire Arms Mfg. Co. manufactured firearms in the Colt Armory on Van Dyke Avenue from 1993 to 2003
28.
Armsmear
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Armsmear, also known as the Samuel Colt Home, is a historic house located at Hartford, Connecticut. It was the home of firearm manufacturer Samuel Colt. Armsmear was originally listed as a National Historic Landmark in 1976, this designation was expanded in 2008 to form the Coltsville Historic District, a National Historic Landmark District. It features a roof, heavy bracketed cornice, round-arched doors and windows, iron balconies, Italianate tower and details. The Colts occupied Armsmear in 1857 and promptly began to develop its gardens, landscape architects Cleveland and Copeland provided the plans. Unusual, glass-domed conservatories, inspired by Londons Crystal Palace, were added in 1861-1862, ultimately the estate contained some 2,600 feet of greenhouses, as well as ponds, fountains, and a deer park. The house and manicured grounds were the residence of Samuel Colt. Samuel Colt lived in Armsmear for approximately 5 years from 1857 until his death in 1862, the Colonel was buried on the grounds of Armsmear near the graves of Sam and Elizabeths young children, amidst a copse of weeping willows known as the Grove of Graves. Following her husbands death, Elizabeth Hart Colt and her son Caldwell Hart Colt lived together in the home for several decades. The Colts entertained lavishly at the estate, holding parties that were the highlight of the Hartford society season. After Elizabeth Colt died in 1905, the house was converted to a home for Episcopal women under the terms of her will, the residential community to this day is administrated by the Colt Trust. She also gave 140 acres of Armsmears grounds to create Hartfords Colt Park, the city has subsequently replaced the greenhouse, garden, and ponds with ball fields and a skating rink. CT-357, Samuel Colt House Johnston, Phillip M. Dialogues between Designer and Client, Furnishings Proposed by Leon Marcotte to Samuel Colt in the 1850s, barnard, Henry, ed. Armsmear, The Home, The Arm, and the Armory of Samuel Colt. Colt, The Making of an American Legend
29.
Potsdam
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Potsdam is the capital and largest city of the German federal state of Brandenburg. It directly borders the German capital Berlin and is part of the Berlin/Brandenburg Metropolitan Region and it is situated on the River Havel,24 kilometres southwest of Berlins city centre. Potsdam was a residence of the Prussian kings and the German Kaiser, around the city there are a series of interconnected lakes and cultural landmarks, in particular the parks and palaces of Sanssouci, the largest World Heritage Site in Germany. The Potsdam Conference in 1945 was held at the palace Cecilienhof, the Filmstudio Babelsberg is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world. Potsdam developed into a centre of science in Germany in the 19th century, today, there are three public colleges, the University of Potsdam, and more than 30 research institutes in the city. The area was formed from a series of large moraines left after the last glacial period, today, the city is three-quarters green space, with just a quarter as urban area. There are about 20 lakes and rivers in and around Potsdam, such as the Havel, the Griebnitzsee, Templiner See, Tiefer See, Jungfernsee, Teltowkanal, Heiliger See, the highest point is the 114-metre high Kleiner Ravensberg. Potsdam is divided into seven city districts and nine new Ortsteile. The appearances of the city districts are quite different, the districts in the north and in the centre consist mainly of historical buildings, the south of the city is dominated by larger areas of newer buildings. Potsdam has an Oceanic climate, with cool, snowy winters, the average winter high temperature is 3.5 °C, with a low of −1.7 °C. Snow is common in the winter, summers are mild, with a high of 23.6 °C and a low of 12.7 °C. The name Potsdam originally seems to have been Poztupimi, a common theory is that it derives from an old West Slavonic term meaning beneath the oaks, i. e. the corrupted pod dubmi/dubimi. The area around Potsdam shows occupancy since the Bronze Age and was part of Magna Germania as described by Tacitus. After the great migrations of the Germanic peoples, Slavs moved in and it was first mentioned in a document in 993 AD as Poztupimi, when Emperor Otto III gifted the territory to the Quedlinburg Abbey, then led by his aunt Matilda. By 1317, it was mentioned as a small town and it gained its town charter in 1345. In 1573, it was still a market town of 2,000 inhabitants. Potsdam lost nearly half of its due to the Thirty Years War. After the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Potsdam became a centre of European immigration and its religious freedom attracted people from France, Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia
30.
Willow
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Most species are known as willow, but some narrow-leaved shrub species are called osier, and some broader-leaved species are referred to as sallow. Some willows are low-growing or creeping shrubs, for example, the dwarf willow rarely exceeds 6 cm in height, though it spreads widely across the ground. Willows all have abundant watery bark sap, which is charged with salicylic acid, soft, usually pliant, tough wood, slender branches. The roots are remarkable for their toughness, size, and tenacity to life, the leaves are typically elongated, but may also be round to oval, frequently with serrated edges. Most species are deciduous, semievergreen willows with coriaceous leaves are rare, e. g. Salix micans, all the buds are lateral, no absolutely terminal bud is ever formed. The buds are covered by a single scale, usually, the bud scale is fused into a cap-like shape, but in some species it wraps around and the edges overlap. The leaves are simple, feather-veined, and typically linear-lanceolate, usually they are serrate, rounded at base, acute or acuminate. The leaf petioles are short, the often very conspicuous, resembling tiny, round leaves. On some species, however, they are small, inconspicuous, in color, the leaves show a great variety of greens, ranging from yellowish to bluish. Willows are dioecious, with male and female flowers appearing as catkins on separate plants and this scale is square, entire, and very hairy. The anthers are rose-colored in the bud, but orange or purple after the flower opens, they are two-celled, the filaments are threadlike, usually pale brown, and often bald. The ovary is one-celled, the style two-lobed, and the ovules numerous, almost all willows take root very readily from cuttings or where broken branches lie on the ground. The few exceptions include the willow and peachleaf willow. One famous example of such growth from cuttings involves the poet Alexander Pope and this twig was planted and thrived, and legend has it that all of Englands weeping willows are descended from this first one. Willows are often planted on the borders of streams so their interlacing roots may protect the bank against the action of the water, frequently, the roots are much larger than the stem which grows from them. Willows are very cross-compatible, and numerous hybrids occur, both naturally and in cultivation, a well-known ornamental example is the weeping willow, which is a hybrid of Peking willow from China and white willow from Europe. The hybrid cultivar Boydii has gained the Royal Horticultural Societys Award of Garden Merit, Willows are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, such as the mourning cloak butterfly. Ants, such as ants, are common on willows inhabited by aphids, coming to collect aphid honeydew
31.
Assembly line
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Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods. Assembly lines are designed for the organization of workers, tools or machines. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible, all parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as fork lifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by such as overhead cranes or fork lifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation, use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances. Consider the assembly of a car, assume that certain steps in the line are to install the engine, install the hood. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time, if engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes. In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously, when one station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the time, each one at a different stage of its assembly. After finishing its work on the first car, the installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station. After the engine has been installed on the car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car’s engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the station, meanwhile. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand, a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts and they would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together. Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book The Wealth of Nations, the Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed, although the Venice Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then
32.
The Great Exhibition
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It was the first in a series of Worlds Fairs, exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the 19th century, and it was a much anticipated event. The Great Exhibition was organized by Henry Cole and Prince Albert, husband of the reigning monarch, Queen Victoria. It was arguably a response to the highly successful French Industrial Exposition of 1844, indeed, Queen Victoria and her family visited three times. Although the Great Exhibition was a platform on which countries from around the world could display their achievements, Britain sought to prove its own superiority. The British exhibits at the Great Exhibition held the lead in almost every field where strength, durability, utility and quality were concerned, whether in iron and steel, Britain also sought to provide the world with the hope of a better future. Europe had just struggled through two decades of political and social upheaval, and now Britain hoped to show that technology. Technology and moving machinery were popular, especially working exhibits and she also notes that visitors could watch the entire process of cotton production from spinning to finished cloth. Scientific instruments were found in class X, and included electric telegraphs, microscopes, air pumps and barometers, a special building, nicknamed The Crystal Palace, or The Great Shalimar, was built to house the show. The building was architecturally adventurous, drawing on Paxtons experience designing greenhouses for the sixth Duke of Devonshire. It took the form of a glass house,1851 feet long by 454 feet wide and was constructed from cast iron-frame components and glass made almost exclusively in Birmingham. From the interior, the large size was emphasized with trees and statues, this served, not only to add beauty to the spectacle. The Crystal Palace was an success, considered an architectural marvel. The building was moved and re-erected in 1854 in enlarged form at Sydenham Hill in south London. It was destroyed by fire on 30 November 1936, six million people—equivalent to a third of the entire population of Britain at the time—visited the Great Exhibition. The average daily attendance was 42,831 with an attendance of 109,915 on 7 October. The event made a surplus of £186,000, which was used to found the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and they were all built in the area to the south of the exhibition, nicknamed Albertopolis, alongside the Imperial Institute. The remaining surplus was used to set up an educational trust to provide grants and scholarships for industrial research, the Exhibition caused controversy as its opening approached. Some conservatives feared that the mass of visitors might become a revolutionary mob, must shock every honest and well-meaning Englishman
33.
Hyde Park, London
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Hyde Park is one of the largest parks in London and one of its Royal Parks. The park is divided by the Serpentine and the Long Water, the park is contiguous with Kensington Gardens, which are often assumed to be part of Hyde Park, Kensington Gardens has been separate since 1728, when Queen Caroline divided them. To the southeast, outside the park, is Hyde Park Corner, during daylight, the two parks merge seamlessly into each other, but Kensington Gardens closes at dusk, and Hyde Park remains open throughout the year from 5 a. m. until midnight. The Great Exhibition of 1851 was held in the park, for which the Crystal Palace, the park became a traditional location for mass demonstrations. The Chartists, the Reform League, the suffragettes, and the Stop the War Coalition have all held protests there, many protesters on the Liberty and Livelihood March in 2002 started their march from Hyde Park. Hyde Park is also a ward of the City of Westminster, the population of the ward at the 2011 Census was 12,462. Hyde Park was created for hunting by Henry Vlll in 1536, Charles I created the Ring, and in 1637 he opened the park to the general public. In 1652, during the Interregnum, Parliament ordered the then 620-acre park to be sold for ready money and it realised £17,000 with an additional £765 6s 2d for the resident deer. In 1689, when William III moved his residence to Kensington Palace on the far side of Hyde Park, public transport entering London from the west runs parallel to the Kings private road along Kensington Gore, just outside the park. In the late 1800s, the row was used by the wealthy for horseback rides, the first coherent landscaping was undertaken by Charles Bridgeman for Queen Caroline, under the supervision of Charles Withers, the Surveyor-General of Woods and Forests, who took some credit. It was completed in 1733 at a cost to the public purse of £20,000, the 2nd Viscount Weymouth was made Ranger of Hyde Park in 1739 and shortly after began digging the Serpentine lakes at Longleat. The Serpentine is divided from the Long Water by a bridge designed by George Rennie, one of the most important events to take place in the park was the Great Exhibition of 1851. The Crystal Palace was constructed on the side of the park. The public did not want the building to remain after the closure of the exhibition and he had it moved to Sydenham Hill in South London. At the age of twenty-five, Decimus Burton was commissioned by the Office of Woods and he laid out the paths and driveways and designed a series of lodges, the Screen/Gate at Hyde Park Corner and the Wellington Arch. The Screen and the Arch originally formed a single composition, designed to provide a transition between Hyde Park and Green Park, although the arch was later moved. An early description reports, It consists of a screen of handsome fluted Ionic columns, the extent of the whole frontage is about 107 ft. The two side gateways, in their elevations, present two insulated Ionic columns, flanked by antae, all these entrances are finished by a blocking, the sides of the central one being decorated with a beautiful frieze, representing a naval and military triumphal procession
34.
Institution of Civil Engineers
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The Institution of Civil Engineers is an independent professional association for civil engineers and a charitable body which exists to deliver benefits to the public. Based in London, ICE has nearly 89,000 members, ICE supports the civil engineering profession by offering professional qualification, promoting education, maintaining professional ethics, and liaising with industry, academia and government. Under its commercial arm, it delivers training, recruitment, publishing and it sets standards for membership of the body, works with industry and academia to progress engineering standards and advises on education and training curricula. The late 18th century and early 19th century saw the founding of many learned societies, groups calling themselves civil engineers had been meeting for some years from the late 18th century, notably the Society of Civil Engineers formed in 1771 by John Smeaton. The institution made little headway until a key step was taken - the appointment of Thomas Telford as the first President of the body and this official recognition helped establish ICE as the pre-eminent organisation for engineers of all disciplines. Its members, notably William Cubitt, were prominent in the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851. For 29 years ICE provided the forum for engineers practising in all the disciplines recognised today, by the end of the 19th century, ICE had introduced examinations for professional engineering qualifications to help ensure and maintain high standards among its members – a role it continues today. The ICEs Great George Street headquarters, designed by James Miller, was built by John Mowlem & Co, the institution is a membership organisation comprising 88,810 members worldwide, around three quarters are located in the United Kingdom. Members who are Chartered Engineers can use the protected title Chartered Civil Engineer, ICE is also licensed by the Society for the Environment to award the Chartered Environmentalist professional qualification. The Institution of Civil Engineers also publishes technical studies covering research, under its commercial arm, Thomas Telford Ltd, it delivers training, recruitment, publishing and contract services, such as the NEC Engineering and Construction Contract. All the profits of Thomas Telford Ltd go back to the Institution to further its aim of putting civil engineers at the heart of society. The publishing division has existed since 1836 and is today called ICE Publishing, the ICE Science series is now also published by ICE Publishing. ICE Science currently consists of five journals, Nanomaterials and Energy, Emerging Materials Research, Bioinspired, Biomimetic and Nanobiomaterials, Green Materials, ICE members, except for students, also receive the weekly New Civil Engineer magazine. The societies provide continuing professional development and assist in the transfer of knowledge concerning specialist areas of engineering, the President is the public face of the institution and day-to-day management is the responsibility of the Director General. The ICE President is elected annually and the holder for 2016-2017 is Professor Tim Broyd, each year a number of young engineers have been chosen as Presidents apprentices. The scheme was started in 2005 during the Presidency of Gordon Masterton, each incoming President sets out the main theme of his or her year of office in a Presidential Address. Many of the professions greatest engineers have served as President of the ICE including, One of Britains greatest engineers, the first woman member of ICE was Dorothy Donaldson Buchanan in 1927. The first female Fellows elected were Molly Fergusson, Marie Lindley, Helen Stone, the first female President was Jean Venables who became the 144th holder of the office in 2008
35.
Telford Medal
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It can be awarded in gold, silver or bronze, the Telford Gold Medal is the highest award the institution can bestow. The awards were to be open to both Englishmen and foreigners equally, after provision for the Telford Medal, the remaining income is used for up to four annual prizes for papers presented to the Institution. The bust of Telford was a design by William Wyon and the medal is also signed J. S. and A. B, Wyon a collaboration of Joseph Shepherd Wyon and his brother, Alfred Benjamin Wyon. John Macneill, James M. Rendel, Michael A. Borthwick, Peter Barlow, the Telford gold medal is issued generally once a year. See below for the Telford Premium of which a larger number, barton David William Brunton Telford Premiums are issued initially as a monetary or book award with multiple awards in most years, some of the awards also going to Medal winners. 1897 Colonel John Pennycuick The Diversion of the Periyar,1897 Edward Clapp Shankland Steel Skeleton Construction in Chicago. 1897 Thomas Holgate The Enrichment of Coal-Gas,1897 Dugald Drummond Investigation into the Use of Progressive High Pressures in Non-compound Locomotive Engines
36.
River Thames
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The River Thames is a river that flows through southern England, most notably through London. At 215 miles, it is the longest river entirely in England and it also flows through Oxford, Reading, Henley-on-Thames and Windsor. The lower reaches of the river are called the Tideway, derived from its tidal reach up to Teddington Lock. It rises at Thames Head in Gloucestershire, and flows into the North Sea via the Thames Estuary, the Thames drains the whole of Greater London. Its tidal section, reaching up to Teddington Lock, includes most of its London stretch and has a rise, in Scotland, the Tay achieves more than double the average discharge from a drainage basin that is 60% smaller. Along its course are 45 navigation locks with accompanying weirs and its catchment area covers a large part of South Eastern and a small part of Western England and the river is fed by 38 named tributaries. The river contains over 80 islands, in 2010, the Thames won the largest environmental award in the world – the $350,000 International Riverprize. The Thames, from Middle English Temese, is derived from the Brittonic Celtic name for the river, Tamesas, recorded in Latin as Tamesis and yielding modern Welsh Tafwys Thames. It has also suggested that it is not of Celtic origin. A place by the river, rather than the river itself, indirect evidence for the antiquity of the name Thames is provided by a Roman potsherd found at Oxford, bearing the inscription Tamesubugus fecit. It is believed that Tamesubugus name was derived from that of the river, tamese was referred to as a place, not a river in the Ravenna Cosmography. The rivers name has always pronounced with a simple t /t/, the Middle English spelling was typically Temese. A similar spelling from 1210, Tamisiam, is found in the Magna Carta, the Thames through Oxford is sometimes called the Isis. Ordnance Survey maps still label the Thames as River Thames or Isis down to Dorchester, richard Coates suggests that while the river was as a whole called the Thames, part of it, where it was too wide to ford, was called *lowonida. An alternative, and simpler proposal, is that London may also be a Germanic word, for merchant seamen, the Thames has long been just the London River. Londoners often refer to it simply as the river in such as south of the river. Thames Valley Police is a body that takes its name from the river. The marks of human activity, in cases dating back to Pre-Roman Britain, are visible at various points along the river
37.
Charles Dickens
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Charles John Huffam Dickens was an English writer and social critic. He created some of the worlds best-known fictional characters and is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian era and his works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the twentieth century critics and scholars had recognised him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories enjoy lasting popularity, born in Portsmouth, Dickens left school to work in a factory when his father was incarcerated in a debtors prison. Dickenss literary success began with the 1836 serial publication of The Pickwick Papers, within a few years he had become an international literary celebrity, famous for his humour, satire, and keen observation of character and society. His novels, most published in monthly or weekly instalments, pioneered the publication of narrative fiction. The instalment format allowed Dickens to evaluate his audiences reaction, and he modified his plot. For example, when his wifes chiropodist expressed distress at the way Miss Mowcher in David Copperfield seemed to reflect her disabilities and his plots were carefully constructed, and he often wove elements from topical events into his narratives. Masses of the poor chipped in hapennies to have each new monthly episode read to them, opening up. Dickens was regarded as the literary colossus of his age and his 1843 novella, A Christmas Carol, remains popular and continues to inspire adaptations in every artistic genre. Oliver Twist and Great Expectations are also adapted, and, like many of his novels. His 1859 novel, A Tale of Two Cities, set in London, Dickens has been praised by fellow writers—from Leo Tolstoy to George Orwell and G. K. Chesterton—for his realism, comedy, prose style, unique characterisations, and social criticism. On the other hand, Oscar Wilde, Henry James, and Virginia Woolf complained of a lack of depth, loose writing. The term Dickensian is used to something that is reminiscent of Dickens and his writings. Charles John Huffam Dickens was born on 7 February 1812, at 1 Mile End Terrace, Landport in Portsea Island and his father was a clerk in the Navy Pay Office and was temporarily stationed in the district. He asked Christopher Huffam, rigger to His Majestys Navy, gentleman, Huffam is thought to be the inspiration for Paul Dombey, the owner of a shipping company in Dickenss eponymous Dombey and Son. In January 1815 John Dickens was called back to London, when Charles was four, they relocated to Sheerness, and thence to Chatham, Kent, where he spent his formative years until the age of 11. His early life seems to have been idyllic, though he himself a very small. Charles spent time outdoors but also read voraciously, including the novels of Tobias Smollett and Henry Fielding, as well as Robinson Crusoe
38.
Household Words
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Household Words was an English weekly magazine edited by Charles Dickens in the 1850s. It took its name from the line in Shakespeares Henry V, during the planning stages, titles originally considered by Dickens included The Robin, The Household Voice, The Comrade, The Lever, and The Highway of Life. Household Words was published every Saturday from March 1850 to May 1859, each number cost a mere tuppence, thereby ensuring a wide readership. Theoretically, the paper championed the cause of the poor and working classes, only the name of Dickens, the journals conductor, appeared, articles were unsigned and, in spite of its regularly featuring an advertiser, the paper was unillustrated. To boost slumping sales Dickens serialised his own novel, Hard Times and that Dickens owned half of the company and his agents, John Forster and William Henry Wills, owned a further quarter of it was insurance that the author would have a free hand in the paper. Wills was also appointed editor and, in December 1849, Dickenss acquaintance, writer. The journal contained a mixture of fiction and nonfiction, a large amount of the non-fiction dealt with the social issues of the time. These included, The Seven Poor Travellers in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, Eliza Lynn Linton, Adelaide Anne Procter, the Holly Tree Inn in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, William Howitt, Harriet Parr, and Adelaide Anne Procter. The Wreck of the Golden Mary in the Extra Christmas Number with Wilkie Collins, Percy Hetherington Fitzgerald, Adelaide Anne Procter, Harriet Parr, the Frozen Deep, a play written with Wilkie Collins and initially performed in the converted schoolroom of Dickens London residence, Tavistock House. Other contributors to Household Words included author James Payn, a complete key to who wrote what and for how much in Household Words was compiled in 1973 by Anne Lohrli, using an analysis of the office account book maintained by Dickens subeditor, W. H. Wills. Household Words, A Weekly Journal 1850–1859, Toronto, University of Toronto Press,1973. See also Household Words, Faculty of English Library, Cambridge University, Dickens Journals Online, an online edition of Dickenss journals, Household Words and All the Year Round
39.
Admiralty
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The new Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board. It is common for the authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply The Admiralty. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011, the title was awarded to Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom, the office of Admiral of England was created around 1400 although there had already been Admirals of the Northern and Western Seas. In 1546, King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine, later to become the Navy Board, operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. In 1628, Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission, the office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709 after which the office was almost permanently in commission. In 1831, the first Navy Board was abolished as a separate entity, in 1964, the Admiralty along with the War Office and the Air Ministry as separate departments of state were abolished, and re-emerged under one single new Ministry of Defence. Within the expanded Ministry of Defence are the new Admiralty Board which has a separate Navy Board responsible for the running of the Royal Navy. The Army Board and the Air Force Board, each headed by the Secretary of State for Defence, the Board of Admiralty consisted of a number of Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. The Lords Commissioners were always a mixture of admirals, known as Naval Lords or Sea Lords and Civil Lords, the quorum of the Board was two commissioners and a secretary. The president of the Board was known as the First Lord of the Admiralty, after 1806, the First Lord of the Admiralty was always a civilian while the professional head of the navy came to be known as the First Sea Lord. The first real concerted effort to organise the Admiralty was started by Henry VIII. Between 1860 and 1908 there was no study of strategy and of staff work conducted within the naval service. All the navys talent flowed to the great technical universitys and it was perceived by officials within the Admiralty at this time that the running of war was quite a simple matter for any flag officer who required no formal training. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign, there was no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions in 1914 a Trade Division was created. In 1916, Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty, he organized the staff as following, Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilization, Trade. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the Board, the would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations
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Colt 1851 Navy Revolver
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The Colt Revolving Belt Pistol of Naval Caliber, later known as the Colt 1851 Navy or Navy Revolver, is a cap and ball revolver that was designed by Samuel Colt between 1847 and 1850. Colt first called this Revolver Ranger model, but the designation Navy quickly took over, after the Civil War revolvers using fixed metallic cartridges came into widespread use. The Colt Navy remained in production until 1873, being replaced in the Colt line with what would become the manufacturers most famous handgun, as the factory designation implied, the Navy revolver was suitably sized for carrying in a belt holster. It became very popular in North America at the time of Western expansion, Colts aggressive promotions distributed the Navy and his other revolvers across Europe, Asia, and Africa. The cylinder of this revolver is engraved with a scene of the victory of the Second Texas Navy at the Battle of Campeche on May 16,1843, the engraving was provided by Waterman Ormsby. Despite the Navy designation, the revolver was purchased by civilians. The.36 caliber round ball weighs 80 grains and. A very small number of Navy revolvers were produced in.34 caliber, another rarity in the 1851 Navy production is the.40 caliber model, probably 5 were made 1858 for testing by the U. S. Navy Bureau of Ordnance. Sighting consists of a brass cone front sight pressed into the muzzle end of the top barrel flat with a notch in the top of the hammer. In spite of the crudity of the sighting arrangement, these revolvers. A small number of Model 1851 Navy revolvers was converted, using front-loaded, famous Navy users included Wild Bill Hickok, John Henry Doc Holliday, Richard Francis Burton, Ned Kelly, Bully Hayes, Richard H. Barter, Robert E. Lee, Nathan B. Use continued long after more modern cartridge revolvers were introduced, canadian issue 1851 Colts are stamped in the wooden grip upside down with letters U_C or L_C, a letter code for the unit, and the number of the weapon in that unit. E. g. U_C D21 This decodes as Upper Canada, D = Toronto Cavalry Troop, percussion Pistols and Revolvers, History, Performance and Practical Use. Famous Firearms of the Old West, From Wild Bill Hickoks Colt Revolvers to Geronimos Winchester, hounshell, David A. Sixguns, The Standard Reference Work. Roberts, Gary L. Doc Holliday, The Life and Legend, wilson, R. L. Colt, An American Legend. New York, London, Atabras, A Division of Abbeville Publishing Group
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British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
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Crimean War
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The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to March 1856 in which the Russian Empire lost to an alliance of France, Britain, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia. The immediate cause involved the rights of Christian minorities in the Holy Land, the French promoted the rights of Roman Catholics, while Russia promoted those of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The longer-term causes involved the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the unwillingness of Britain and France to allow Russia to gain territory and power at Ottoman expense. While the churches eventually worked out their differences and came to an agreement, Nicholas I of Russia, Nicholas issued an ultimatum that the Orthodox subjects of the Empire be placed under his protection. Britain attempted to mediate and arranged a compromise that Nicholas agreed to, when the Ottomans demanded changes, Nicholas refused and prepared for war. Having obtained promises of support from France and Britain, the Ottomans declared war on Russia in October 1853. The war started in the Balkans, when Russian troops occupied the Danubian Principalities, until then under Ottoman suzerainty and now part of modern Romania, led by Omar Pasha, the Ottomans fought a strong defensive campaign and stopped the advance at Silistra. A separate action on the town of Kars in eastern Anatolia led to a siege. Fearing an Ottoman collapse, France and Britain rushed forces to Gallipoli and they then moved north to Varna in June, arriving just in time for the Russians to abandon Silistra. Aside from a skirmish at Köstence, there was little for the allies to do. Karl Marx quipped that there they are, the French doing nothing, after extended preparations, the forces landed on the peninsula in September 1854 and fought their way to a point south of Sevastopol after a series of successful battles. The Russians counterattacked on 25 October in what became the Battle of Balaclava and were repulsed, a second counterattack, ordered personally by Nicholas, was defeated by Omar Pasha. The front settled into a siege and led to conditions for troops on both sides. Smaller actions were carried out in the Baltic, the Caucasus, Sevastopol fell after eleven months, and neutral countries began to join the Allied cause. Isolated and facing a bleak prospect of invasion from the west if the war continued and this was welcomed by France and Britain, as their subjects were beginning to turn against their governments as the war dragged on. The war was ended by the Treaty of Paris, signed on 30 March 1856, Russia was forbidden from hosting warships in the Black Sea. The Ottoman vassal states of Wallachia and Moldavia became largely independent, Christians there were granted a degree of official equality, and the Orthodox Church regained control of the Christian churches in dispute. The Crimean War was one of the first conflicts to use technologies such as explosive naval shells, railways
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Machine tool
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A machine tool is a machine for shaping or machining metal or other rigid materials, usually by cutting, boring, grinding, shearing, or other forms of deformation. Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping, all machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Thus the relative movement between the workpiece and the tool is controlled or constrained by the machine to at least some extent. The precise definition of the machine tool varies among users. While all machine tools are machines that help people to make things, today machine tools are typically powered other than by human muscle, used to make manufactured parts in various ways that include cutting or certain other kinds of deformation. With their inherent precision, machine tools enabled the production of interchangeable parts. In this view of the definition, the term, arising at a time when all tools up till then had been hand tools and this lathe produced screw threads out of wood and employed a true compound slide rest. The mechanical toolpath guidance grew out of various concepts, First is the spindle concept itself. The machine slide, which has many forms, such as dovetail ways, box ways, Machine slides constrain tool or workpiece movement linearly. If a stop is added, the length of the line can also be accurately controlled, tracing, which involves following the contours of a model or template and transferring the resulting motion to the toolpath. Cam operation, which is related in principle to tracing but can be a step or two removed from the traced elements matching the reproduced elements final shape. For example, several cams, no one of which matches the desired output shape. Abstractly programmable toolpath guidance began with mechanical solutions, such as in musical box cams, later, electromechanical solutions and soon electronic solutions were added, leading to numerical control and computer numerical control. The value that machine tools added to these human talents is in the areas of rigidity, accuracy and precision, efficiency, as an example, it is physically possible to make interchangeable screws, bolts, and nuts entirely with freehand toolpaths. But it is practical to make them only with machine tools. In the 1930s, the U. S. National Bureau of Economic Research referenced the definition of a tool as any machine operating by other than hand power which employs a tool to work on metal. The narrowest colloquial sense of the reserves it only for machines that perform metal cutting—in other words. These processes are a type of deformation that produces swarf, thus presses are usually included in the economic definition of machine tools
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