1.
Columbia University
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Columbia University is a private Ivy League research university in Upper Manhattan, New York City. It was established in 1754 as Kings College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain, after the American Revolutionary War, Kings College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. Columbia is one of the fourteen founding members of the Association of American Universities and was the first school in the United States to grant the M. D. degree. The university also has global research outposts in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Santiago, Asunción, Columbia administers annually the Pulitzer Prize. Additionally,100 Nobel laureates have been affiliated with Columbia as students, researchers, faculty, Columbia is second only to Harvard University in the number of Nobel Prize-winning affiliates, with over 100 recipients of the award as of 2016. In 1746 an act was passed by the assembly of New York to raise funds for the foundation of a new college. Classes were initially held in July 1754 and were presided over by the colleges first president, Dr. Johnson was the only instructor of the colleges first class, which consisted of a mere eight students. Instruction was held in a new schoolhouse adjoining Trinity Church, located on what is now lower Broadway in Manhattan, in 1763, Dr. Johnson was succeeded in the presidency by Myles Cooper, a graduate of The Queens College, Oxford, and an ardent Tory. In the charged political climate of the American Revolution, his opponent in discussions at the college was an undergraduate of the class of 1777. The suspension continued through the occupation of New York City by British troops until their departure in 1783. The colleges library was looted and its sole building requisitioned for use as a hospital first by American. Loyalists were forced to abandon their Kings College in New York, the Loyalists, led by Bishop Charles Inglis fled to Windsor, Nova Scotia, where they founded Kings Collegiate School. After the Revolution, the college turned to the State of New York in order to restore its vitality, the Legislature agreed to assist the college, and on May 1,1784, it passed an Act for granting certain privileges to the College heretofore called Kings College. The Regents finally became aware of the colleges defective constitution in February 1787 and appointed a revision committee, in April of that same year, a new charter was adopted for the college, still in use today, granting power to a private board of 24 Trustees. On May 21,1787, William Samuel Johnson, the son of Dr. Samuel Johnson, was unanimously elected President of Columbia College, prior to serving at the university, Johnson had participated in the First Continental Congress and been chosen as a delegate to the Constitutional Convention. The colleges enrollment, structure, and academics stagnated for the majority of the 19th century, with many of the college presidents doing little to change the way that the college functioned. In 1857, the college moved from the Kings College campus at Park Place to a primarily Gothic Revival campus on 49th Street and Madison Avenue, during the last half of the 19th century, under the leadership of President F. A. P. Barnard, the institution assumed the shape of a modern university
2.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
3.
1,000,000,000
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1,000,000,000 is the natural number following 999,999,999 and preceding 1,000,000,001. One billion can also be written as b or bn, in scientific notation, it is written as 1 ×109. The SI prefix giga indicates 1,000,000,000 times the base unit, one billion years may be called eon in astronomy and geology. Previously in British English, the word billion referred exclusively to a million millions, however, this is no longer as common as earlier, and the word has been used to mean one thousand million for some time. The alternative term one thousand million is used in the U. K. or countries such as Spain that uses one thousand million as one million million constitutes a billion. The worded figure, as opposed to the figure is used to differentiate between one thousand million or one billion. The term milliard can also be used to refer to 1,000,000,000, whereas milliard is seldom used in English, in the South Asian numbering system, it is known as 100 crore or 1 Arab. 1000000007 – smallest prime number with 10 digits,1023456789 – smallest pandigital number in base 10. 1026753849 – smallest pandigital square that includes 0,1073741824 –2301073807359 – 14th Kynea number. 1162261467 –3191220703125 –513 1232922769- 35113^2 Centered hexagonal number,1234567890 – pandigital number with the digits in order. 1882341361 – The least prime whose reversal is both square and triangular,1977326743 –7112147483647 – 8th Mersenne prime and the largest signed 32-bit integer. 2147483648 –2312176782336 –6122214502422 – 6th primary pseudoperfect number,2357947691 –1192971215073 – 11th Fibonacci prime. 3405691582 – hexadecimal CAFEBABE, used as a placeholder in programming,3405697037 – hexadecimal CAFED00D, used as a placeholder in programming. 3735928559 – hexadecimal DEADBEEF, used as a placeholder in programming,3486784401 –3204294836223 – 16th Carol number. 4294967291 – Largest prime 32-bit unsigned integer,4294967295 – Maximum 32-bit unsigned integer, perfect totient number, product of the five prime Fermat numbers. 4294967296 –2324294967297 – the first composite Fermat number,6103515625 –5146210001000 – only self-descriptive number in base 10. 6975757441 –1786983776800 – 15th colossally abundant number, 15th superior highly composite number 7645370045 – 27th Pell number,8589934592 –2339043402501 – 25th Motzkin number. 9814072356 – largest square pandigital number, largest pandigital pure power,9876543210 – largest number without redundant digits
4.
New York City
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The City of New York, often called New York City or simply New York, is the most populous city in the United States. With an estimated 2015 population of 8,550,405 distributed over an area of about 302.6 square miles. Located at the tip of the state of New York. Home to the headquarters of the United Nations, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has described as the cultural and financial capital of the world. Situated on one of the worlds largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, the five boroughs – Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, The Bronx, and Staten Island – were consolidated into a single city in 1898. In 2013, the MSA produced a gross metropolitan product of nearly US$1.39 trillion, in 2012, the CSA generated a GMP of over US$1.55 trillion. NYCs MSA and CSA GDP are higher than all but 11 and 12 countries, New York City traces its origin to its 1624 founding in Lower Manhattan as a trading post by colonists of the Dutch Republic and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under English control in 1664 and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England granted the lands to his brother, New York served as the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790. It has been the countrys largest city since 1790, the Statue of Liberty greeted millions of immigrants as they came to the Americas by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and is a symbol of the United States and its democracy. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. Several sources have ranked New York the most photographed city in the world, the names of many of the citys bridges, tapered skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattans real estate market is among the most expensive in the world, Manhattans Chinatown incorporates the highest concentration of Chinese people in the Western Hemisphere, with multiple signature Chinatowns developing across the city. Providing continuous 24/7 service, the New York City Subway is one of the most extensive metro systems worldwide, with 472 stations in operation. Over 120 colleges and universities are located in New York City, including Columbia University, New York University, and Rockefeller University, during the Wisconsinan glaciation, the New York City region was situated at the edge of a large ice sheet over 1,000 feet in depth. The ice sheet scraped away large amounts of soil, leaving the bedrock that serves as the foundation for much of New York City today. Later on, movement of the ice sheet would contribute to the separation of what are now Long Island and Staten Island. The first documented visit by a European was in 1524 by Giovanni da Verrazzano, a Florentine explorer in the service of the French crown and he claimed the area for France and named it Nouvelle Angoulême. Heavy ice kept him from further exploration, and he returned to Spain in August and he proceeded to sail up what the Dutch would name the North River, named first by Hudson as the Mauritius after Maurice, Prince of Orange
5.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
6.
U.S. News & World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
7.
Ivy League
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The Ivy League is a collegiate athletic conference comprising sports teams from eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The conference name is commonly used to refer to those eight schools as a group beyond the sports context. The eight institutions are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, the term Ivy League has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism. While the term was in use as early as 1933, it became official after the formation of the NCAA Division I athletic conference in 1954. Seven of the eight schools were founded during the United States colonial period, Ivy League institutions account for seven of the nine Colonial Colleges chartered before the American Revolution, the other two are Rutgers University and College of William & Mary. Ivy League schools are generally viewed as some of the most prestigious, all eight universities place in the top fifteen of the U. S. News & World Report 2017 nation university rankings, including the top four schools and five of the top eight. Undergraduate enrollments range from about 4,000 to 14,000, making them larger than those of a private liberal arts college. Total enrollments, including students, range from approximately 6,400 at Dartmouth to over 20,000 at Columbia, Cornell, Harvard. Ivy League financial endowments range from Browns $3 billion to Harvards $36.4 billion, as of 2014, Harvard University has an endowment of $36.4 billion. Additionally, each university receives millions of dollars in grants and other subsidies from federal. Harvard University uses the date that the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony formally allocated funds for the creation of a college, Harvard was chartered in 1650, although classes had been conducted for approximately a decade by then. The University of Pennsylvania initially considered its founding date to be 1750, later in Penns early history, the university changed its officially recognized founding date to 1749, which was used for all of the nineteenth century, including a centennial celebration in 1849. In 1899, Penns board of trustees adopted a third founding date of 1740. Penn was chartered in 1755, the same year classes began. Religious affiliation refers to financial sponsorship, formal association with, and promotion by, all of the schools in the Ivy League are private and not currently associated with any religion. Students have long revered the ivied walls of older colleges, planting the ivy was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893 an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson, In 1850, the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time. At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873, Ivy planting ceremonies are reported for Yale, Simmons, Bryn Mawr and many others
8.
John Jay
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John Jay was an American statesman, Patriot, diplomat, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, signatory of the Treaty of Paris, and first Chief Justice of the United States. Jay was born into a family of merchants and government officials in New York City. He became a lawyer and joined the New York Committee of Correspondence and he joined a conservative political faction that, fearing mob rule, sought to protect property rights and maintain the rule of law while resisting British rule. Jay served as the President of the Continental Congress, a position with little power. His major diplomatic achievement was to negotiate trade terms with Great Britain in the Jay Treaty in 1794. Jay, a proponent of strong, centralized government, worked to ratify the U. S, constitution in New York in 1788 by pseudonymously writing five of The Federalist Papers, along with the main authors Alexander Hamilton and James Madison. After the establishment of the U. S. government, Jay became the first Chief Justice of the United States, as a leader of the new Federalist Party, Jay was the Governor of the State of New York, where he became the states leading opponent of slavery. His first two attempts to end slavery in New York in 1777 and 1785 failed, but a third in 1799 succeeded, the 1799 Act, a gradual emancipation he signed into law, eventually granted all slaves in New York their freedom before his death in 1829. The Jays were a prominent merchant family in New York City, in 1685 the Edict of Nantes had been revoked, thereby abolishing the rights of Protestants and confiscating their property. Among those affected was Jays paternal grandfather, Augustus Jay and he moved from France to New York, where he built a successful merchant empire. Jays father, Peter Jay, born in New York City in 1704, became a trader in furs, wheat, timber. Johns mother was Mary Van Cortlandt, who had married Peter Jay in 1728 and they had ten children together, seven of whom survived into adulthood. Marys father, Jacobus Van Cortlandt, had born in New Amsterdam in 1658. Cortlandt served on the New York Assembly, was mayor of New York City. Two of his children married into the Jay family, Jay spent his childhood in Rye. He was educated there by his mother until he was eight years old, in 1756, after three years, he would return to homeschooling in Rye under the tutelage of his mother and George Murray. In 1760, Jay attended Kings College, during this time, Jay made many influential friends, including his closest, Robert Livingston—the son of a prominent New York aristocrat and Supreme Court justice. Jay took the political stand as his father, a staunch Whig
9.
Alexander Hamilton
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Alexander Hamilton was an American statesman and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. As the first Secretary of the Treasury, Hamilton was the author of the economic policies of the George Washington administration. He took the lead in the funding of the debts by the Federal government, as well as the establishment of a national bank, a system of tariffs. His vision included a central government led by a vigorous executive branch. This was challenged by Virginia agrarians Thomas Jefferson and James Madison who formed a rival party and they favored strong states based in rural America and protected by state militias as opposed to a strong national army and navy. They denounced Hamilton as too friendly toward Britain and toward monarchy in general, Hamilton was born out of wedlock in Charlestown, to a married mother of British and French Huguenot ancestry and a Scottish father. His father, James A. Hamilton, was the son of laird Alexander Hamilton of Grange. Orphaned as a child by his mothers death and his fathers abandonment, Hamilton was taken in by an older cousin and he was recognized for his intelligence and talent, and sponsored by a group of wealthy local men to travel to New York City to pursue his education. Hamilton attended Kings College, choosing to stay in the Thirteen Colonies to seek his fortune, discontinuing his studies before graduating when the college closed its doors during British occupation of the city, Hamilton played a major role in the American Revolutionary War. At the start of the war in 1775, he joined a militia company, in early 1776, he raised a provincial artillery company, to which he was appointed captain. He soon became the aide to General Washington, the American forces commander-in-chief. Hamilton was dispatched by Washington on numerous missions to convey plans to his generals, after the war, Hamilton was elected as a representative to the Congress of the Confederation from New York. He resigned to practice law, and founded the Bank of New York, Hamilton was among those dissatisfied with the weak national government. He led the Annapolis Convention, which successfully influenced Congress to issue a call for the Philadelphia Convention in order to create a new constitution, Hamilton became the leading cabinet member in the new government under President Washington. These programs were funded primarily by a tariff on imports, to overcome localism, Hamilton mobilized a nationwide network of friends of the government, especially bankers and businessmen, which became the Federalist Party. A major issue in the emergence of the American two-party system was the Jay Treaty and it established friendly trade relations with Britain, to the chagrin of France and the supporters of the French Revolution. Hamilton played a role in the Federalist party, which dominated national. In 1795, he returned to the practice of law in New York and he tried to control the policies of President Adams
10.
United States Secretary of the Treasury
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This position in the Federal Government of the United States is analogous to the Minister of Finance in many other countries. The Secretary of the Treasury is a member of the Presidents Cabinet, nominees for The Secretary of the Treasury undergo a confirmation hearing before the United States Senate Committee on Finance before being confirmed by the United States Senate. The Secretary of the Treasury is a member of the U. S. National Security Council. The Secretary along with the Treasurer must sign Federal Reserve notes before they can become legal tender, the Secretary also manages the United States Emergency Economic Stabilization fund. Most of the Departments law enforcement agencies such as the U. S. Customs Service, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, secret Service were reassigned to other Departments in 2003 in conjunction with the creation of the Department of Homeland Security. The Secretary of the Treasury salary is $205,700 annually,2 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury M. Peter McPherson served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from August 17,1988, to September 15,1988. 4 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Kenneth W. Dam served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from December 31,2002,5 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Robert M. Kimmitt served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from June 30,2006, to July 9,2006. 7 Deputy Secretary of the Treasury Neal Wolin served as Acting Secretary of the Treasury from January 25,2013, as of April 2017, there are eleven living former Secretaries of the Treasury, the oldest being George P. Shultz. The most recent Secretary of the Treasury to die was Lloyd M. Bentsen, United States Department of the Treasury
11.
The Federalist Papers
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The Federalist is a collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay promoting the ratification of the United States Constitution. Seventy-seven were published serially in the Independent Journal and the New York Packet between October 1787 and August 1788. and A. McLean, the collections original title was The Federalist, the title The Federalist Papers did not emerge until the 20th century. Though the authors of The Federalist Papers foremost wished to influence the vote in favor of ratifying the Constitution,78, also written by Hamilton, lays the groundwork for the doctrine of judicial review by federal courts of federal legislation or executive acts. Federalist No.70 presents Hamiltons case for a chief executive. 39, Madison presents the clearest exposition of what has come to be called Federalism,51, Madison distils arguments for checks and balances in an essay often quoted for its justification of government as the greatest of all reflections on human nature. Morris, they are an incomparable exposition of the Constitution, a classic in political science unsurpassed in breadth and depth by the product of any later American writer. The Federal Convention sent the proposed Constitution to the Confederation Congress, on September 27,1787, Cato first appeared in the New York press criticising the proposition, Brutus followed on October 18,1787. These and other articles and public letters critical of the new Constitution would eventually become known as the Anti-Federalist Papers, in response, Hamilton decided to launch a measured defense and extensive explanation of the proposed Constitution to the people of the state of New York. Hamilton recruited collaborators for the project and he enlisted John Jay, who after four strong essays, fell ill and contributed only one more essay, Federalist No. He also distilled his case into a pamphlet in the spring of 1788, An Address to the People of the State of New-York, Hamilton cited it approvingly in Federalist No.85. James Madison, present in New York as a Virginia delegate to the Confederation Congress, was recruited by Hamilton and Jay, gouverneur Morris and William Duer were also apparently considered, Morris turned down the invitation, and Hamilton rejected three essays written by Duer. Duer later wrote in support of the three Federalist authors under the name Philo-Publius, or Friend of Publius, Hamilton chose Publius as the pseudonym under which the series would be written. While many other pieces representing both sides of the debate were written under Roman names, Albert Furtwangler contends that Publius was a cut above Caesar or Brutus or even Cato. Publius Valerius was not a defender of the republic but one of its founders. His more famous name, Publicola, meant friend of the people and it was not the first time Hamilton had used this pseudonym, in 1778, he had applied it to three letters attacking fellow Federalist Samuel Chase. Chases patriotism was questioned when Hamilton revealed that Chase had taken advantage of knowledge gained in Congress to try to dominate the flour market. At the time of publication the authorship of the articles was a guarded secret, though astute observers discerned the identities of Hamilton, Madison. Following Hamiltons death in 1804, a list that he had drafted claiming fully two-thirds of the papers for himself became public, including some that seemed more likely the work of Madison
12.
Theodore Roosevelt
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Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was an American statesman, author, explorer, soldier, naturalist, and reformer who served as the 26th president of the United States from 1901 to 1909. As a leader of the Republican Party during this time, he became a force for the Progressive Era in the United States in the early 20th century. Born a sickly child with debilitating asthma, Roosevelt successfully overcame his health problems by embracing a strenuous lifestyle and he integrated his exuberant personality, vast range of interests, and world-famous achievements into a cowboy persona defined by robust masculinity. Home-schooled, he began a lifelong naturalist avocation before attending Harvard College and his first of many books, The Naval War of 1812, established his reputation as both a learned historian and as a popular writer. Upon entering politics, he became the leader of the faction of Republicans in New Yorks state legislature. Returning a war hero, he was elected governor of New York in 1898, the state party leadership distrusted him, so they took the lead in moving him to the prestigious but powerless role of vice presidential candidate as McKinleys running mate in the election of 1900. Roosevelt campaigned vigorously across the country, helping McKinleys re-election in a victory based on a platform of peace, prosperity. Following the assassination of President McKinley in September 1901, Roosevelt succeeded to the office at age 42, making conservation a top priority, he established a myriad of new national parks, forests, and monuments intended to preserve the nations natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America, where he began construction of the Panama Canal and he greatly expanded the United States Navy and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to end the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize, elected in 1904 to a full term, Roosevelt continued to promote progressive policies, but many of his efforts and much of his legislative agenda were eventually blocked in Congress. Roosevelt successfully groomed his close friend, William Howard Taft, to succeed him in the presidency, after leaving office, Roosevelt went on safari in Africa and toured Europe. Returning to the United States, he became frustrated with Tafts approach, failing to win the Republican presidential nomination in 1912, Roosevelt founded his own party, the Progressive, so-called Bull Moose Party, and called for wide-ranging progressive reforms. The split among Republicans enabled the Democrats to win both the White House and a majority in the Congress in 1912, Republicans aligned with Taft nationally would control the Republican Party for decades. Frustrated at home, Roosevelt led an expedition to the Amazon basin. During World War I, he opposed President Woodrow Wilson for keeping the country out of the war, and offered his military services, although planning to run again for president in 1920, Roosevelt suffered deteriorating health and died in early 1919. Roosevelt has consistently ranked by scholars as one of the greatest American presidents. Historians admire Roosevelt for rooting out corruption in his administration, but are critical of his 1909 libel lawsuits against the World and his face was carved into Mount Rushmore, alongside those of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Abraham Lincoln. Theodore Roosevelt Jr. was born on October 27,1858, at East 20th Street in New York City and he was the second of four children born to socialite Martha Stewart Mittie Bulloch and glass businessman and philanthropist Theodore Roosevelt Sr
13.
Franklin D. Roosevelt
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Franklin Delano Roosevelt, commonly known as FDR, was an American statesman and political leader who served as the 32nd President of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. A Democrat, he won a record four presidential elections and emerged as a figure in world events during the mid-20th century. He directed the United States government during most of the Great Depression and he is often rated by scholars as one of the three greatest U. S. Presidents, along with George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Roosevelt was born in 1882 to an old, prominent Dutch family from Dutchess County and he attended the elite educational institutions of Groton School, Harvard College, and Columbia Law School. At age 23 in 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt, and he entered politics in 1910, serving in the New York State Senate, and then as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson. In 1920, Roosevelt was presidential candidate James M. Coxs running mate and he was in office from 1929 to 1933 and served as a reform governor, promoting the enactment of programs to combat the depression besetting the United States at the time. In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated incumbent Republican president Herbert Hoover in a landslide to win the presidency, Roosevelt took office while in the United States was in the midst of the worst economic crisis in its history. Energized by his victory over polio, FDR relied on his persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit. He created numerous programs to support the unemployed and farmers, and to labor union growth while more closely regulating business. His support for the repeal of Prohibition in 1933 added to his popularity, the economy improved rapidly from 1933–37, but then relapsed into a deep recession in 1937–38. The bipartisan Conservative Coalition that formed in 1937 prevented his packing the Supreme Court, when the war began and unemployment ended, conservatives in Congress repealed the two major relief programs, the WPA and CCC. However, they kept most of the regulations on business, along with several smaller programs, major surviving programs include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the Wagner Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and Social Security. His goal was to make America the Arsenal of Democracy, which would supply munitions to the Allies, in March 1941, Roosevelt, with Congressional approval, provided Lend-Lease aid to Britain and China. He supervised the mobilization of the U. S. economy to support the war effort, as an active military leader, Roosevelt implemented a war strategy on two fronts that ended in the defeat of the Axis Powers and initiate the development of the worlds first atomic bomb. His work also influenced the creation of the United Nations. Roosevelts physical health declined during the war years, and he died 11 weeks into his fourth term. One of the oldest Dutch families in New York State, the Roosevelts distinguished themselves in other than politics. One ancestor, Isaac Roosevelt, had served with the New York militia during the American Revolution, Roosevelt attended events of the New York society Sons of the American Revolution, and joined the organization while he was president
14.
Supreme Court of the United States
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The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is the interpreter of federal constitutional law. The Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight justices who are nominated by the President. Once appointed, justices have life tenure unless they resign, retire, in modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and while many cases are decided unanimously, the Court meets in the United States Supreme Court Building in Washington, D. C. The Supreme Court is sometimes referred to as SCOTUS, in analogy to other acronyms such as POTUS. The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789 and its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court is the court specifically established by the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2,1790, by which five of its six initial positions had been filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session, he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street and they had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, the sixth member was not confirmed until May 12,1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was made by two-thirds. However, Congress has always allowed less than the Courts full membership to make decisions, under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth, the Court heard few cases, its first decision was West v. Barnes, a case involving a procedural issue. The Courts power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court, the Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshalls tenure, although beyond the Courts control, the impeachment, the Taney Court made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution, during World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens and the mandatory pledge of allegiance. Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated, and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend, the Warren Court dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote
15.
American Bar Association
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The American Bar Association, founded August 21,1878, is a voluntary bar association of lawyers and law students, which is not specific to any jurisdiction in the United States. The ABAs most important stated activities are the setting of standards for law schools. Its national headquarters are in Chicago, Illinois, it maintains a significant branch office in Washington. The ABA was founded on August 21,1878, in Saratoga Springs, New York, by 75 lawyers from 20 states, according to the ABA website, The legal profession as we know it today barely existed at that time. Lawyers were generally sole practitioners who trained under a system of apprenticeship, there was no national code of ethics, there was no national organization to serve as a forum for discussion of the increasingly intricate issues involved in legal practice. In 1918 the first women were admitted to the ABA – Judge Mary Belle Grossman of Cleveland, the ABA did not allow African-Americans to join until 1943. Roberta Cooper Ramo was the first female President of the ABA from 1995–1996, in 2016 ABA introduced a new ethics rule prohibiting attorneys from using sexist, racist and condescending terms. The goals and objectives are, Goal 1, Serve our members, Promote the highest quality legal education, 2) Promote competence, ethical conduct and professionalism, 3) Promote pro bono and public service by the legal profession. )Goal 3, Eliminate bias and enhance diversity. Promote full and equal participation in the association, our profession, and the system by all persons, 2) Eliminate bias in the legal profession. Its Board of Governors, with 44 members, has the authority to act for the ABA, consistent with previous action of the House of Delegates, when the House is not in session. The ABA president, elected to a term, is chief executive officer of the association, while the appointed. The conclusion of the ABA Annual Meeting, in August, is when a new president takes office, the Annual Meeting also gives the general membership the opportunity to participate in educational programs and hear speakers address many issues. In 2010, Jack L. Rives, formerly TJAG, was appointed Executive Director, one function of the ABA is its creation and maintenance of a code of ethical standards for lawyers. The Model Code of Professional Responsibility and/or the newer Model Rules of Professional Conduct have been adopted in 49 states, the District of Columbia and the United States Virgin Islands. The exception is the State Bar of California, however, a few sections of the California Rules of Professional Conduct were drawn from the ABA models, since 1923, law schools which meet ABA standards are listed as approved. ABA accreditation is important not only because it affects the recognition of the law schools involved, even states which recognize unaccredited schools within their borders will generally not recognize such schools from other jurisdictions for purposes of bar admission. For law students attending ABA-accredited schools, memberships are available for free, students attending non-ABA accredited law schools are permitted to join the ABA as associate members. On October 17,2011, the ABA announced it was considering penalties, employment information was filed separately to the Section
16.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
17.
James Kent
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James Kent was an American jurist and legal scholar. He was the author of Commentaries on American Law, Kent was the son of Moss Kent, a lawyer from Dutchess County, New York and the first Surrogate of Rensselaer County, New York. In 1791 and 1792-93 Kent was a member from Dutchess County of the New York State Assembly, in 1793, he removed to New York City, where he was appointed a master in chancery for the city. Kent was the first professor of law in Columbia College in 1793-98, in 1797, he was appointed Recorder of New York City and in 1798, a justice of the New York Supreme Court, in 1804 Chief Justice, and in 1814 Chancellor of New York. Kent was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814, in 1821 he was a member of the New York State Constitutional Convention where he unsuccessfully opposed the raising of the property qualification for African American voters. Two years later, Chancellor Kent reached the age limit and retired from his office. Kent has been remembered for his Commentaries on American Law, highly respected in England. The Commentaries treated state, federal and international law, and the law of rights and of property. Kent rendered his most essential service to American jurisprudence while serving as chancellor, chancery, or equity law, had been very unpopular during the colonial period, and had received little development, and no decisions had been published. His judgments of this class cover a range of topics. His brother Moss Kent was a Congressman, Kent County, Michigan and Kent City, Michigan are named in his honor, probably because he represented Michigan Territory in its dispute with Ohio over the Toledo Strip. Chicago-Kent College of Law is named in his honor, students who have high honors status during any one of their years at Columbia Law School are called James Kent Scholars in honor of James Kents status as Columbias first professor of law. The Chancellor Kent Professorship at Yale Law School is also named after him, Kent Place School, an independent all-girls school in New Jersey, is located where his summer house was. James Kents original Summit Lodge is now incorporated into a mansion at 50 Kent Place Boulevard, Summit. Most of the architecture including the kitchen and long room still exist today. C. These statues are among sixteen representing men whose works have shaped human development, notes Sources This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Kent, James
18.
Chief Justice of the United States
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The Chief Justice of the United States is the head of the United States federal court system and the chief judge of the Supreme Court of the United States. The Chief Justice is one of nine Supreme Court justices, the eight are the Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1789 until 1866, the office was known as the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Chief Justice also serves as a spokesperson for the judicial branch. The Chief Justice leads the business of the Supreme Court and presides over oral arguments, when the court renders an opinion, the Chief Justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the courts opinion. The Chief Justice also has significant agenda-setting power over the courts meetings, in the case of an impeachment of a President of the United States, which has occurred twice, the Chief Justice presides over the trial in the Senate. In modern tradition, the Chief Justice also has the duty of administering the oath of office of the President of the United States. The first Chief Justice was John Jay, the 17th and current Chief Justice is John G. Roberts, Jr. The office was known as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court and is still informally referred to using that title. However,28 U. S. C. §1 specifies that the title is Chief Justice of the United States, the title was changed from Chief Justice of the Supreme Court by Congress in 1866 at the suggestion of the sixth Chief Justice, Salmon P. Chase. Chase wished to emphasize the Supreme Courts role as a branch of government. The first Chief Justice commissioned using the new title was Melville Fuller in 1888, use of the previous title when referring to Chief Justices John Jay through Roger B. Taney is technically correct, as that was the title during their time on the court. The other eight members of the court are officially Associate Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States, the Chief Justice is the only member of the court to whom the Constitution refers as a Justice, and only in Article I. Article III of the Constitution refers to all members of the Supreme Court simply as Judges, the Chief Justice is nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed to sit on the Court by the United States Senate. The salary of the Chief Justice is set by Congress, the Constitution prohibits Congress from lowering the salary of any judge, including the Chief Justice, while that judge holds office. As of 2015, the salary is $258,100 per year, which is higher than that of the Associate Justices. Three serving Associate Justices have received promotions to Chief Justice, Edward Douglass White in 1910, Harlan Fiske Stone in 1941, Associate Justice Abe Fortas was nominated to the position of Chief Justice of the United States, but his nomination was filibustered by Senate Republicans in 1968. Despite the failed nomination, Fortas remained an Associate Justice until his resignation the following year, there have been 21 individuals nominated for Chief Justice, of whom 17 have been confirmed by the Senate, although a different 17 have served
19.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
20.
Madison Avenue
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Madison Avenue is a north-south avenue in the borough of Manhattan in New York City, United States, that carries northbound one-way traffic. It runs from Madison Square to meet the southbound Harlem River Drive at 142nd Street, in doing so, it passes through Midtown, the Upper East Side, East Harlem, and Harlem. It is named after and arises from Madison Square, which is named after James Madison. Ruggles who had purchased and developed New Yorks Gramercy Park in 1831, who was in part responsible for the development of Union Square. Since the 1920s, the name has been metonymous with the American advertising industry. Therefore, the term Madison Avenue refers specifically to the agencies, Madison Avenue techniques refers, according to William Safire, to the gimmicky, slick use of the communications media to play on emotions. Between East 135th Street and East 142nd Street, Madison Avenue carries southbound traffic only, the term Madison Avenue is often used metonymically for advertising, and Madison Avenue became identified with the American advertising industry after the explosive growth in this area in the 1920s. In recent decades, many agencies have left Madison Avenue, with some moving further downtown and others moving west. The continued presence of large agencies in the city makes New York the third largest job market per capita in the U. S. in 2016 according to a study by marketing recruitment firm MarketPro. Today, only a few agencies are located in the old business cluster on Madison Avenue, including StrawberryFrog, TBWA Worldwide. However, the term is used to describe the agency business as a whole and large. Madison Square is formed by the intersection of Fifth Avenue and Broadway at 23rd Street, the square was named for James Madison, fourth President of the United States. The focus of the square is Madison Square Park, a 6, the first Garden was a former rail station that was converted into an open-air circus venue by P. T. Barnum in 1871 and was renamed Madison Square Garden in 1879. The original Garden was demolished in 1889 and replaced by a new arena designed by Stanford White that opened the following year. The second Garden had a statue of the Roman goddess Diana on the tower of the sports arena. When it moved to a new building at 50th Street and Eighth Avenue in 1925 it kept its old name, Madison Square Garden is now located at Eighth Avenue between 31st and 33rd Street, however, it still retains the name. These buses use a bus lane between 42nd and 59th Street, but the bus lane is not present in any other portion of the avenue. In July 1987, then New York City Mayor Edward Koch proposed banning bicycling on Fifth, Park and Madison Avenues during weekdays, but many bicyclists protested and had the ban overturned
21.
Morningside Heights, Manhattan
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Morningside Heights is a neighborhood of the borough of Manhattan in New York City, on the border of the Upper West Side and Manhattanville. The neighborhood is home to St. Lukes Hospital. Most of the neighborhood is part of New Yorks 10th congressional district since 2013, in the 17th century, the land that is now Morningside Heights was known as Vandewaters Heights, named for the landowner. On September 16,1776, the Battle of Harlem Heights was fought in Morningside Heights, a plaque by the Columbia University gate on 117th Street and Broadway commemorates this battle. Use of the name Morningside Heights for the neighborhood arose in the 1890s when development of the area commenced, however, other names such as Morningside Hill and Riverside Heights were used for the area. No single name was used for the neighborhood by the time Columbia University, Teachers College, the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine. Two names eventually gained the most use, Morningside Heights was preferred by the two colleges, while Cathedral Heights was preferred by St. Johns and St. Lukes. After about 1898, Morningside Heights became the most generally accepted, by the mid-20th century the increasing prevalence of Single Room Occupancy hotels led to attendant socioeconomic problems and a decline in the neighborhood. Jane Jacobs The Death and Life of Great American Cities presented the neighborhood as a key example of the failure of the urban planning techniques of the era, in 1951 the organization developed Morningside Gardens, a six-building apartment complex to house middle-income families from all ethnic backgrounds. Morningside Gardens, an experimental project, opened in 1957 between 123rd and LaSalle Streets, Broadway, and Amsterdam Avenue. Social problems in the area prompted Columbia to purchase much of the real estate. This process reached its nadir in 1968, when protests erupted in both the neighborhood and on Columbias campus over the proposal to build a gym in Morningside Park. The university was forced to abandon the plan. However, Columbia University has still expanded its presence in the neighborhood markedly over the last few decades, in January 2008 the university received approval from the City Council to expand significantly in nearby Manhattanville. Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Morningside Heights was 55,929, covering an area of 465.11 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 120.2 inhabitants per acre. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 46. 0% White,13. 6% African American,0. 2% Native American,13. 3% Asian,0. 1% Pacific Islander,0. 4% from other races, and 2. 9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 23. 5% of the population, the label Academic Acropolis has been used to describe the area, which sits on a high natural point in Manhattan and contains numerous academic institutions. Much of the neighborhood is the campus of Columbia University, nASAs Goddard Institute for Space Studies is also located in the neighborhood, directly above Toms Restaurant in a building owned by Columbia University
22.
Theodore William Dwight
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Theodore William Dwight, American jurist and educator, cousin of Theodore Dwight Woolsey and of Timothy Dwight V, was born July 18,1822 in Catskill, New York. His father was Benjamin Woolsey Dwight, a physician and merchant, and his grandfather was Timothy Dwight IV, a prominent theologian, educator, author, Theodore Dwight graduated from Hamilton College in 1840 where he studied physics under Samuel F. B. Dwight taught the classics at Utica Academy in 1840–1841 and he studied law at Yale and was admitted to the bar in 1845. Between 1842-1858, he taught at Hamilton, first as tutor and later as professor of law, history, civil polity, in 1853 he became dean of the Hamilton Law School. In 1858, he accepted an invitation to develop a department of law at Columbia and he was the sole professor of law at Columbia until the department was expanded in 1873, eventually becoming Columbia Law School. He served as the dean at Columbia Law School until 1891 and that year, he and other faculty, students, and alumni protested the Columbia trustees’ attempts to convert the law school to the case method, and left to found New York Law School. At Columbia, Dwight was the creator of the Dwight method of instruction, which emphasized memorization of treatises, practice drills. The Dwight method was in competition with the method developed by Christopher Columbus Langdell, then Dean of Harvard, which emphasized the study of individual cases. Today, the abstract case method dominates legal education, even at New York Law School. However, the Dwight method, while not described as such, is used in some law schools. Dwight-like memorization techniques are widely used to prepare for state bar exams. Dwight was also a prominent figure in political and social reforms, in 1873, Governor John Dix appointed Dwight a member of the commission of appeals, which in 1874–1875 aided the New York Court of Appeals to clear its docket. In 1886 he served as counsel for five Andover Theological Seminary professors charged with heresy and he helped draw up the bill for the establishment of the Elmira Reformatory and wrote an early report that helped lead to the organization the State Charities Aid Association. Dwight edited Sir Henry Maines Ancient Law, was editor of the American Law Register and legal editor of Johnsons Cyclopaedia. He was a non-resident professor of law at Cornell and at Amherst, Dwight died in Clinton, New York, on June 18,1892. He died while in the act of signing his will, because he had not finished writing his signature by the time he died, the will was not enforced
23.
Moot court
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The term moot traces its origins to Anglo-Saxon times, when a moot was a gathering of prominent men in a locality to discuss matters of local importance. In most countries, the moot court may be shortened to simply moot or mooting. Participants are either referred to as mooters or mooties, Moot court and law review are the two key extracurricular activities in many law schools. Procedural issues pertaining to jurisdiction, standing, and choice of law are also occasionally engaged, in most moot competitions, each side is represented by two speakers and a third member, sometimes known as of counsel, may be seated with the speakers or in the audience. Each speaker usually speaks between 10 and 25 minutes, covering one to three issues, after the main submissions are completed, there will usually be a short round of rebuttal and even surebuttal. Depending on the format of the moot, there may be one or two rounds of rebuttal and surebuttal, in larger competitions, teams have to participate in up to ten rounds. The knockout/elimination stages are usually preceded by a number of rounds to determine seeding. Teams almost always must switch sides throughout a competition, and, depending on the format of the moot, the scores of the written submissions are taken into consideration for most competitions to determine qualification and seeding, and sometimes even up to a particular knockout stage. International moot competitions are generally targeted at students and only allow participants who have not qualified to practice law in any jurisdiction. The first table lists some of the more notable international moot competitions for students, while the second table lists the champions. Some moot court organizations accept a group of people for membership. Other schools accept a number of members, and each member is matched with one competition. A few schools conduct moot court entirely intramurally, Moot court competitions are typically sponsored by organizations with interest in one particular area of law, and the moot court problems address an issue in that field. Competitions are often judged by legal practitioners with expertise in the area of law. The basic structure of a moot court competition roughly parallels what would happen in actual appellate practice. Participants will typically receive a problem ahead of time, which includes the facts of the underlying case, students must then research and prepare for that case as if they were lawyers or advocates for one or sometimes both of the parties. Depending on the competition, participants will be required to submit briefs, participate in oral argument. The case or problem is one of current interest, sometimes mimicking an actual case
24.
New York Law School
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New York Law School is an ABA-accredited private law school that was founded in 1891 in the Tribeca neighborhood of Lower Manhattan in New York City. The current Dean of New York Law School is Anthony W. Crowell, New York Law School’s faculty includes 54 full-time and 59 adjunct professors. NYLS features a day program, a part-time evening program. Prominent NYLS alumni include Maurice R. Greenberg, former Chairman and CEO of American International Group Inc. and current Chairman and CEO of C. V. Starr and Co. Inc. Charles E. Phillips Jr. CEO of Infor and former President of Oracle, and Judith Sheindlin, “Judge Judy, ” New York family court judge, author, and television personality. Other past graduates include United States Supreme Court Justice John Marshall Harlan II and Wallace Stevens, during the winter of 1890, a dispute arose at Columbia Law School over an attempt to introduce the Case Method of study. The Case Method had been pioneered at Harvard Law School by Christopher Columbus Langdell, the dean and founder of Columbia Law School, Theodore Dwight, opposed this method, preferring the traditional method of having students read treatises rather than court decisions. Because of this disagreement, Dwight and a number of faculty and students of Columbia Law School left. On June 11,1891, New York Law School was chartered by the State of New York, New York Law School held its first classes on October 1,1891, in the Equitable Building at 120 Broadway, in Lower Manhattans Financial District. In 1892, after only a year in operation, it was the second-largest law school in the United States, continuous growth led the Law School to acquire a building of its own in 1908, at 172 Fulton Street, in the Financial District. New York Law School would remain at this site until 1918, when New York Law School reopened in 1919, it was located in another building at 215 West 23rd Street, in Midtown. However, George Chase contracted an illness resulted in him running New York Law School for the last three years of his life from his bed, he died in 1924. New York Law School continued without Chase, seeing its enrollment peak in the mid-1920s, with much fewer and poorer performing students, the Law School moved to smaller facilities at 253 Broadway, just opposite City Hall. In 1936, the Law School moved to location at 63 Park Row, on the opposite side of City Hall Park. However, as enrollment was declining, both because of the Great Depression and because of the military draft started in 1940. The remaining students that were still enrolled finished their studies at St. Johns University School of Law, after reopening in 1947, the Law School started a new program that was influenced by a committee of alumni headed by New York State Supreme Court Justice Albert Cohn. The Law School resumed operations in a building at 244 William Street, in 1954, New York Law School was accredited by the American Bar Association, and in 1962, moved to facilities at 57 Worth Street, in Tribeca. In 1973, E. Donald Shapiro became the dean of the Law School and these reforms, combined with the addition of new Joint Degree Programs with City College of New York in 1975 and Manhattanville College in 1978, helped the Law School to recruit new students
25.
Financial District, Manhattan
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The neighborhood roughly overlaps with the boundaries of the New Amsterdam settlement in the late 17th century. The Financial District has witnessed growth in its population to approximately 43,000 as of 2014, the Financial District encompasses roughly the area south of City Hall Park in Lower Manhattan but excludes Battery Park and Battery Park City. The former World Trade Center complex was located in the neighborhood until the September 11 attacks, the heart of the Financial District is often considered to be the corner of Wall Street and Broad Street, both of which are contained entirely within the district. Until the late 20th and early 21st century, the neighborhood was considered to be primarily a destination for daytime traders and office workers from around New York City, the Financial District is part of Manhattan Community Board 1, which also includes five other neighborhoods. The Financial District has a number of tourist attractions such as the adjacent South Street Seaport Historic District, the New York City Police Museum, bowling Green is the starting point of traditional ticker-tape parades on Broadway, where here it is also known as the Canyon of Heroes. The Museum of Jewish Heritage and the Skyscraper Museum are both in adjacent Battery Park City which is home to the World Financial Center
26.
Harvard Law School
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Harvard Law School is one of the professional graduate schools of Harvard University, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1817, it is the oldest continually-operating law school in the United States and is considered to be one of the most prestigious in the world. The school is ranked third by the U. S. News & World and its acceptance rate was 15. 4% in the 2013–14 admissions cycle, and its yield rate of 66. 2% was the second-highest of any law school in the United States. It is ranked first in the 2016 QS World University Rankings, Harvard Law admitted 16. 5% of applicants in its most recent class, compared to 9. 2% at Yale and 11. 2% at Stanford. With a current enrollment of 1,990, HLS has about as many students as its three closest-ranked peer institutions, first-ranked Yale, second-ranked Stanford, and fourth-ranked Chicago, combined. The first-year class is broken into seven sections of approximately 80 students, Harvards uniquely large class size and its prestige have led the law school to graduate a great many distinguished alumni in the judiciary, government, and the business world. According to Harvard Laws 2015 ABA-required disclosures,95. 33% of the Class of 2014 passed the Bar exam. Harvard Law Schools founding is linked to the funding of Harvards first professorship in law, paid for from a bequest from the estate of Isaac Royall. Today, it is home to the largest academic law library in the world, the current dean of Harvard Law School is Martha Minow, who assumed the role on July 1,2009. The law school has 328 faculty members, Harvard Law Schools founding is traced to the establishment of a law department at Harvard in 1817. Dating the founding to the year of the creation of the law department makes Harvard Law the oldest continuously-operating law school in the nation, William & Mary Law School opened first in 1779, but closed due to the American Civil War, reopening in 1920. The University of Maryland School of Law was chartered in 1816, but did not begin classes until 1824, and also closed during the Civil War. Or a Professor of Physick and Anatomy, whichever the said overseers and Corporation shall judge to be best. ”The value of the land, when fully liquidated in 1809, was $2,938, the Harvard Corporation allocated $400 from the income generated by those funds to create the Royall Professorship of Law in 1815. The dean of the law school traditionally held the Royall chair, deans Elena Kagan, royalls Medford estate, the Isaac Royall House, is now a museum which features the only remaining slave quarters in the northeast United States. The Royall family coat-of-arms, which shows three stacked wheat sheaves, was adopted as the school crest in 1936, topped with the university motto, in March 2016, following requests by students, the school decided to remove the emblem because of its association with slavery. By 1827, the school, with one faculty member, was struggling, nathan Dane, a prominent alumnus of the college, then endowed the Dane Professorship of Law, insisting that it be given to then Supreme Court Justice Joseph Story. For a while, the school was called Dane Law School, in 1829, John H. Ashmun, son of Eli Porter Ashmun and brother of George Ashmun, accepted a professorship and closed his Northampton Law School, with many of his students following him to Harvard. Enrollment remained low through the 19th century as university legal education was considered to be of little added benefit to apprenticeships in legal practice, at Harvard, Langdell also developed the case method of teaching law, now the dominant pedagogical model at U. S. law schools
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Harlan F. Stone
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Harlan Fiske Stone was an American political figure, lawyer, and jurist. A native of New Hampshire, he served as the dean of Columbia Law School, his alma mater, in the early 20th century. As a member of the Republican Party, he was appointed as the 52nd Attorney General of the United States before becoming an Associate Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court in 1925. In 1941, Stone became the 12th Chief Justice of the United States, Stone was the first Chief Justice not to have served in elected office. His most famous dictum was, Courts are not the only agency of government that must be assumed to have capacity to govern, Harlan Fiske Stone was born in Chesterfield, New Hampshire, to Fred Lauson Stone and his wife, Ann Sophia Stone. He prepared at Amherst High School, and graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Amherst College in 1894, from 1894 to 1895, he was the submaster of Newburyport High School. From 1895 to 1896 he was an instructor in history at Adelphi Academy in Brooklyn, Stone attended Columbia Law School from 1895 to 1898, received an LL. B. and was admitted to the New York bar in 1898. Stone practiced law in New York City, initially as a member of the firm Satterlee, Canfield & Stone, from 1899 to 1902 he lectured on law at Columbia Law School. He was a professor there from 1902 to 1905 and eventually served as the dean from 1910 to 1923. He lived in The Colosseum, an apartment building near campus, the Board was charged with determining the sincerity of each mans principles, but often devoted only a few minutes to interrogation and rendering a decision. Stone was impatient with men who took advantage of the benefits of life in America–using postage stamps was his example–without accepting the burdens of citizenship. In a majority of cases, the Boards subjects either relinquished their claims or were judged insincere. refused to yield to the opinions of others or to force. At the end of the war, he criticized Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer for his attempts to deport aliens based on administrative action without allowing for any review of their cases. During this time Stone also defended free speech claims for professors, Columbia soon became a center of a new school of jurisprudence, legal realism. Legal realists rejected formalism and static legal rules, instead, they searched for the experiential, although Dean Stone encouraged the realists, he was condemned by Columbia President Nicholas Murray Butler as an intellectual conservative who had let legal education at Columbia fall into the ruts. He received a higher salary and headed the firms litigation department. In full‑time private practice for only a time, Stone was considered a hard‑working, solid sort of person, willing on occasion to champion the rights of mankind. These scandals had besmirched Hardings Attorney General, Harry M. Daugherty, in one of his first acts as Attorney General, Stone fired Daughertys cronies in the Department of Justice and replaced them with men of integrity
28.
Sullivan and Cromwell
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Sullivan & Cromwell LLP is an international law firm headquartered in New York City. It has gained renown for its business and commercial law practices, founded in 1879 by Algernon Sydney Sullivan and William Nelson Cromwell, Sullivan & Cromwell has served many of the world’s foremost industrial, commercial and financial enterprises. Sullivan & Cromwell’s relationships with leading companies go back to its earliest days. The firm advised John Pierpont Morgan during the creation of Edison General Electric, the post-World War I era saw an expanded need for financing, both for the decade’s rapidly growing corporations and for governments that had borrowed heavily during the war. Sullivan & Cromwell designed many of the equity and debt agreements used during this period, the firm’s business expanded substantially during the 1930s, when it began to represent companies facing increased regulation and became for a time the world’s biggest law firm. The firm developed the first major registration statement under the Securities Act of 1933, changing political and regulatory trends continued to influence the firm’s business. By the middle of decade, the M&A unit generated a third of the firm’s revenue. Like its focus on business and commercial law, the international practice dates back to its early years. Sullivan & Cromwell represented European bankers financing the construction of railroads, Sullivan & Cromwell was one of the earliest U. S. firms to open overseas offices, beginning with Paris in 1911, and this further raised the profile of the firm’s international practice. By 1928, offices also were open in Buenos Aires and Berlin, in 1935, Allen Dulles, then a partner in the firm and later Director of Central Intelligence, visited Germany and returned somewhat disturbed by the direction of the regime. Over the opposition of his brother, John Foster Dulles also a partner, the firms partners voted to close the Berlin office, however, later the firm backdated the announcement of the closing of their German offices by one year, to 1934. The international profile of Sullivan & Cromwell was raised further by the participation in foreign affairs of members of the firm. S, secretary of State, and Arthur Dean, who represented the United States in negotiations resulting in the Korean Armistice Agreement. Advised Kraft Foods Group in 2015 during its $55 billion merger with H. J. Heinz Holding Corporation, making the combined Kraft Heinz North America’s third-largest food, represented BP plc in its global $18.7 billion settlement in the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill. The firm continues to represent BP in related securities and class action suits, advised AT&T in its acquisition of DIRECTV in a $67 billion transaction in 2014. Advised a special committee of Dole Food Company Inc. during the effort by major shareholder David Murdock to take the company private in 2013. Beginning in 2011, advised Kodak during its Chapter 11 bankruptcy restructuring, the transaction was named Technology, Media, Telecom Deal of the Year by M&A ADVISOR and Turnaround of the Year, Mega Company, by the Turnaround Management Association. Served as national coordinating counsel for German automaker Volkswagen Group in connection with the settlement of multidistrict litigation arising from the emissions violations. The settlement built upon Sullivan & Cromwell’s earlier representation of Porsche SE, represented Los Angeles Dodgers co-owner Frank McCourt in the $2.15 billion Chapter 11 bankruptcy sale of the team to Guggenheim Baseball Management
29.
William O. Douglas
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William Orville Douglas was an American jurist and politician who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. Nominated by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Douglas was confirmed at the age of 40 and his term, lasting 36 years and 209 days, is the longest term in the history of the Supreme Court. Douglas holds a number of records as a Supreme Court Justice and he was the 79th person appointed and confirmed to the bench of that court. In 1975 Time magazine called Douglas the most doctrinaire and committed civil libertarian ever to sit on the court. Douglas was born in 1898 in Maine Township, Otter Tail County, Minnesota, the son of Julia Bickford and William Douglas and his family moved to California, and then to Cleveland, Washington. At age two Douglas suffered through an intestinal colic, which Douglas would claim had been polio and his mother attributed his recovery to a miracle, telling Douglas that one day he would be President of the United States. His father died in Portland, Oregon, in 1904, when Douglas was six years old, Douglas would later claim his mother had been left destitute. After moving the family from town to town in the West, his mother, William, like the rest of the Douglas family, worked at odd jobs to earn extra money, and a college education appeared to be unaffordable. He was the valedictorian at Yakima High School and did enough in school to earn a scholarship to Whitman College in Walla Walla. While at Whitman, Douglas became a member of Beta Theta Pi fraternity and he worked at various jobs while attending school, including as a waiter and janitor during the school year, and at a cherry orchard in the summer. Picking cherries, Douglas would say later, inspired him to a legal career. He once said of his early interest in the law, I worked among the very, very poor, the migrant laborers, the Chicanos, I saw cruelty and hardness, and my impulse was to be a force in other developments in the law. Douglas was elected Phi Beta Kappa, participated on the debate team, after graduating in 1920 with a B. A. in English and economics, he taught English and Latin at Yakima high schools for the next two years, hoping to earn enough to attend law school. Finally, he said, I decided it was impossible to save money by teaching. He traveled to New York, with hopes to attend the Columbia Law School, six months later, Douglas funds were running out. The appointments office at the law school told him that a New York firm wanted a student to prepare a correspondence course for law. Douglas earned $600 for his work, enabling him to stay in school, hired for similar projects, he saved $1,000 by semesters end. His wife Mildred worked as a schoolteacher to support him throughout law school and he graduated fifth in his class in 1925, although he later claimed to have been second
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Mark Barnes
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Mark Barnes is an American attorney and advocate based in Boston. He worked on the National Health Care Reform Task Force in the Clinton Administration and his work includes focus on the fields of research compliance, the ethics of clinical trials, and medical privacy. He is President-Elect of the New York State Bar Associations Health Law Section, Barnes is a native of Dadeville, Tallapoosa County, Alabama. He is the son of Elaine Robinson and Mike Barnes, according to his family oral history, he is a direct descendant of Daniel Boone. Barnes plans to retire to Dadeville, where he purchased family property and he has been with his partner since 1983. In 1984 Barnes graduated from Yale Law School with a juris doctor, in 1988, as an associate professor of the Columbia Law School, Barnes founded the AIDS Law Clinic. He is a Lecturer at the Yale Medical School, where he teaches each Fall and he has also been an Adjunct Professor at a number of law schools, including NYU Law School, Brooklyn Law School, Cardozo Law School, and New York Law School. He has taught courses in the ethics and law of human research, healthcare law, public health, managed care law, occupational health and safety. The program was funded in part by the U. S. Department of Education and received referrals from the New York City Commission on Human Rights, the clinical education director at Columbia said of Barnes, is a leader in the field, and were lucky to have him. Hes highly knowledgeable, hes litigated on a discrimination case. The clinic was praised by health officials and by students as hands-on experience. When it did not renew Barnes contract, students protested, on April 12,1989,200 students protested Columbia Law Schools attempts to close the schools successful and much praised AIDS legal clinic. They held a sit-in at the law school building to demand the faculty committee renew Barness contract for another year. We thought one of the reasons for him not being reappointed is the lack of support for the clinic by the university, said Maya Wiley, 3L, dean Barbara Black said the school supported the clinic, but declined to say why Barnes was not offered another one-year contract. Student Matt Levine said, We do care about Mark Barnes because he has run the clinic extremely well, but the core issue is the continuation of the AIDS clinic. On April 19, co-founder Deborah Green announced the school would keep the clinic open, on June 28,1989, the Columbia Spectator reported that Barnes was reappointed and promoted from Clinic Advisor to the Assistant Clinical Professor of Law by the faculty. Im gratified that the clinic will continue for an additional semester, in 1989, Barnes began working as the AIDS policy director for the New York State Department of Health. In 1992, he was appointed commissioner for medical and legal policy at the New York City Department of Health
31.
Yale Law School
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Yale Law School is the law school of Yale University, located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. The schools small size and prestige make its admissions process the most selective of any law school in the United States, Yale has the lowest acceptance rate among all law schools. Roughly 8 in 10 admits ultimately matriculate, which marks the best yield rate among the top U. S. law schools, established in 1824, Yale Law offers the J. D. LL. M. M. S. L. and Ph. D. degrees in law, Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and World Report every year since the magazine began publishing law school rankings, through 2017. Yale Law School is widely considered to be the preeminent law school in the nation and is one of the most prestigious law schools in the world, Yale Law has produced a significant number of luminaries in law and politics, including United States presidents Gerald Ford and Bill Clinton. Former president William Howard Taft was a professor of law at Yale Law School from 1913 until he resigned to become chief justice of the United States in 1921. Each class in Yale Laws three-year J. D. program enrolls approximately 200 students, Yales flagship law review is the Yale Law Journal. Another feature of Yale Laws culture since the 1930s, among both faculty and student graduates, has been an emphasis on the importance of spending at least a few years in government service, a similar emphasis has long been placed on service as a judicial law clerk upon graduation. Its 7.6,1 student-to-faculty ratio is the third lowest among U. S. law schools, Yale Law does not have a traditional grading system, a consequence of student unrest in the late 1960s. Instead, it grades first-semester first-year students on a simple Credit/No Credit system, for their remaining two-and-a-half years, students are graded on an Honors/Pass/Low Pass/Fail system. Similarly, the school does not rank its students and it is also notable for having only a single semester of required classes, instead of the full year most U. S. schools require. Students publish nine law journals that, unlike those at most other schools, although the Journal identifies a target maximum number of members to accept each year, it is not a firm number. Other leading student-edited publications include the Yale Law and Policy Review, the Yale Journal on Regulation, the Yale Journal of Law and Technology, and the Yale Journal of International Law. In November 2013, it was announced that a $25 million donation would bring student dormitory living back onto campus, with renovations to begin in 2018. Yale Law has been ranked the number one law school in the country by U. S. News and it is currently ranked as the second best law school in U. S and fourth in the world by the 2016 QS Rankings. Additionally, a 2010 survey of scholarly impact, measured by per capita citations to faculty scholarship, the School began in the New Haven law office of Seth P. Staples in the 1800s, who began training lawyers, by 1810 he was operating a law school. He took on a student, Samuel J. Hitchcock as a law partner
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Stanford Law School
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Stanford Law School is a professional graduate school of Stanford University, located in the Silicon Valley near Palo Alto, California. Stanford Law has consistently been regarded as one of the most prestigious law schools in the world, Stanford Law School employs more than 90 full-time and part-time faculty members and enrolls over 550 students who are working toward their Doctor of Jurisprudence degree. Stanford Law also confers four advanced degrees, a Master of Laws, a Master of Studies in Law, a Master of the Science of Law. Each fall, Stanford Law enrolls a J. D. class of approximately 180 students, Stanford also maintains eleven full-time legal clinics, including the nations first and most active Supreme Court litigation clinic, and offers 27 formal joint degree programs. Stanford first offered a curriculum in legal studies in 1893, when the university hired its first two law professors, former U. S. president Benjamin Harrison and Nathan Abbott, Abbott headed the new program and assembled a small faculty over the next few years. In 1900, the department moved from its location in Encina Hall to the northeast side of the Inner Quadrangle. These larger facilities included Stanford’s first law library, beginning to focus more on professional training, the school implemented its first three-year curriculum and became one of 27 charter members of the Association of American Law Schools. In 1901, the school awarded its first professional degree, the Bachelor of Laws, eight years later, Frederic Campbell Woodward became the first dean of the law school, and in 1923, the law school received accreditation from the American Bar Association. In 1924, Stanfords law program officially transitioned into a professional school when it began requiring a bachelors degree for admission. The 1940s and 1950s brought considerable change to the law school, after World War II caused the law schools enrollment to drop to fewer than 30 students, the school quickly expanded once the war ended in 1945. The decision that Stanford should remain a law school with a very limited enrollment emerged during this period. For the third time in its history, the law school relocated in the 1970s, in the 1960s and 1970s, the law school aimed to diversify its student body. Additionally, in 1966, the sought to academically diversify its student body by collaborating with the Stanford Business School to create its first joint-degree program. In 1968, Stanford appointed Thelton Henderson, future judge of the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of California, Henderson expanded minority enrollment from a single student to approximately a fifth of the student body. Stanford Laws commitment to diversity continues today, and The Princeton Review currently ranks Stanford Law as one of the ten best law schools for minority students, earning national recognition in the 1980s and 1990s, the law school embarked on innovating its curriculum. Stanford offered new courses focusing on law and technology, environmental law, intellectual property law, in 1984, the law school launched its first clinical program, the East Palo Alto Community Law Project. By the 21st century, a new focus on interdisciplinary education emerged, in 2009, the law school transitioned from a semester system to a quarter system to align itself with Stanfords other graduate schools. Stanford Law School is known for its student-to-faculty ratio, one of the lowest in the country, the first-year class of approximately 180 students is divided into six smaller sections of 30 students each
33.
Forbes
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Forbes is an American business magazine. Published bi-weekly, it features articles on finance, industry, investing. Forbes also reports on related subjects such as technology, communications, science, politics and its headquarters is located in Jersey City, New Jersey. Primary competitors in the business magazine category include Fortune and Bloomberg Businessweek. The magazine is known for its lists and rankings, including its lists of the richest Americans. Another well-known list by the magazine is The Worlds Billionaires list, the motto of Forbes magazine is The Capitalist Tool. Its chairman and editor-in-chief is Steve Forbes, and its CEO is Mike Perlis, Forbes, a financial columnist for the Hearst papers, and his partner Walter Drey, the general manager of the Magazine of Wall Street, founded Forbes magazine on September 15,1917. Forbes provided the money and the name and Drey provided the publishing expertise, the original name of the magazine was Forbes, Devoted to Doers and Doings. Drey became vice-president of the B. C. Forbes Publishing Company, while B. C. Forbes became editor-in-chief, B. C. Forbes was assisted in his later years by his two eldest sons, Bruce Charles Forbes and Malcolm Stevenson Forbes. Bruce Forbes took over on his fathers death, and his strengths lay in streamlining operations, during his tenure, 1954–1964, the magazines circulation nearly doubled. On Malcolms death, his eldest son Malcolm Stevenson Steve Forbes Jr. became President and Chief Executive of Forbes, between 1961 and 1999 the magazine was edited by James Michaels. In 1993, under Michaels, Forbes was a finalist for the National Magazine Award. com, a 2009 New York Times report said,40 percent of the enterprise was sold. For a reported $300 million, setting the value of the enterprise at $750 million, according to Mark M. Edmiston of AdMedia Partners, Its probably not worth half of that now. The companys headquarters moved to the Newport section of downtown Jersey City. In November 2013, Forbes Media, which publishes Forbes magazine, was put up for sale and this was encouraged by Elevation Partners, of whom were minority shareholders. Sales documents prepared by Deutsche Bank revealed that the publishers 2012 EBITDA was $15 million, Forbes reportedly sought a price of $400 million. In July 2014, Forbes sold a majority of itself to Integrated Whale Media Investments, Steve Forbes and his magazines writers offer investment advice on the weekly Fox TV show Forbes on Fox and on Forbes On Radio. Other company groups include Forbes Conference Group, Forbes Investment Advisory Group, from the 2009 Times report, Steve Forbes recently returned from opening up a Forbes magazine in India, bringing the number of foreign editions to 10
34.
The Princeton Review
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The Princeton Review is a college admission services company offering test preparation services, tutoring and admissions resources, online courses, and books published by Random House. The company has more than 4,000 teachers and tutors in the United States and Canada, the company is headquartered in Natick, Massachusetts, and is privately held. It is not associated with Princeton University, the Princeton Review was founded in 1981 by John Katzman, who—shortly after leaving college—taught SAT preparation to 15 students in New York City. He served as CEO until 2007, and was replaced by Michael Perik, in March 2010, Perik resigned and was replaced by John M. Connolly. In 2012, the company was acquired by Charlesbank Capital, an equity fund. On August 1,2014, the Princeton Review brand name and operations were bought for a sum by Tutor. com, an IAC company. The company is no longer affiliated with its parent, Education Holdings 1. The Princeton Review offers preparation courses for various tests at the Princeton Review website, The company offers courses worldwide through company-owned, test preparation providers have been criticized in the past on the grounds that their courses claim larger score increases than they deliver. College rankings, including those published by the Princeton Review, have criticized for failing to be accurate or comprehensive by assigning objective rankings formed from subjective opinions. Princeton Review officials counter that their rankings are unique in that they rely on student opinion, in 2002 an American Medical Association affiliated program, A Matter of Degree, funded by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, criticized the Princeton Review list of Best Party Schools. The editorial commended The Princeton Review for reporting the list, calling it a service for student applicants. Rankings for LGBT-related lists have also criticized as inaccurate due to outdated methodologies. The Princeton Review also publishes The Gay & Lesbian Guide to College Life, do parents know that when their underage kids enroll for exam prep or tutoring, personal information may be shared with hookup sites that could then target their kids to become customers. Asked one critic, who concluded that the company makes no guarantee that data sharing among its entities will not include those whose sole aim is to improve their grades
35.
Brian Leiter
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Leiter taught from 1995 to 2008 at the University of Texas School of Law, where he was founder and Director of the Law and Philosophy Program. He joined the University of Chicago faculty in 2008 and his scholarly writings have been primarily in legal philosophy and Continental philosophy, especially Nietzsche and Marx. He has also been a professor at universities in the United States and Europe, including Yale University. He is founding editor of a series entitled Routledge Philosophers. He is also a prolific blogger, Leiter was also the founder and for 25 years the editor of the Philosophical Gourmet Report, an influential but also controversial ranking of philosophy PhD programs in the English-speaking world. After repeated protests, one in 2002 and one in 2014, Leiter resigned as editor and turned over the PGR to Berit Brogaard, a philosopher at the University of Miami. Leiter taught for two years at the University of San Diego School of Law, and was an assistant professor of philosophy at the University of California. Before joining the faculty at the University of Texas School of Law in 1995, at Texas, Leiter was founder and Director of the Law and Philosophy Program. He edited the journal Legal Theory from 2000 to 2008, and is editor of the Routledge Philosophers, a series of introductions to major philosophers, author Walter K. Olson described Leiter as left-leaning in his book Schools for Misrule, Legal Academia and an Overlawyered America. Leiters scholarly writings have been in two main areas--legal philosophy and Continental philosophy--although he has written about metaethics, religious liberty. Philosophical naturalism has been a theme in both contexts. Upon publication, Jeremy Horder wrote that the book will confirm Brian Leiter s place in the front rank of legal theorists in the world today, Leiter also wrote the entry on Naturalism in Legal Philosophy for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. This methodological view, however, raises questions about why the legal philosopher should study only judicial behavior, more generally, the naturalist owes an account of what features of law are most in need of explication and why. Leiter is also a scholar of Continental Philosophy, and is co-editor with Michael Rosen of The Oxford Handbook of Continental Philosophy and he has written a considerable amount on the philosophical work of Friedrich Nietzsche, including an article for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Leiters most recent book, Why Tolerate Religion, published by Princeton University Press, has proved controversial. Christopher L. Eisgruber, the President of Princeton University, said, every reader will learn something from this remarkable book, and, beginning now, every serious scholar of religious toleration will have to contend with Leiters bold claims. By contrast, the website of the conservative Family Research Council said the book was one of the most troubling, the book was named an Outstanding Academic Title by Choice in 2013. Leiter has also published work on meta-ethics, social epistemology, the law of evidence, and on philosophers Karl Marx, Martin Heidegger, and Ronald Dworkin
36.
LSAT
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The Law School Admission Test is a half-day standardized test administered four times each year at designated testing centers throughout the world. Administered by the Law School Admission Council for prospective law school candidates, the LSAT is designed to assess reading comprehension, logical, and verbal reasoning proficiencies. The test is an part of the law school admission process in the United States, Canada, the University of Melbourne, Australia. An applicant cannot take the LSAT more than three times within a two-year period, the test has existed in some form since 1948, when it was created to give law schools a standardized way to assess applicants aside from GPA. The current form of the exam has been used since 1991, the exam has six total sections, four scored multiple choice sections, an unscored experimental section, and an unscored writing section. Raw scores are converted to a score with a high of 180, a low of 120. When an applicant applies to a law school all scores from the past five years are reported, though, depending on the school, the 2016–2017 price to take the LSAT is US$180. The purpose of the LSAT is to aid in predicting student success in law school, researchers Balin, Fine, and Guinier performed research on the LSATs ability to predict law school grades at the University of Pennsylvania. They found that the LSAT could explain about 14% of the variance in first year grades, the goal was to find a test that would correlate with first year grades rather than bar passage rates. This led to an invitation of representatives from Harvard Law School and Yale Law School who ultimately accepted the invitation and began to draft the first administration of the LSAT exam. At a meeting on November 10,1947, with representatives of law schools extending beyond the original Columbia, Harvard, and Yale representatives, the first administration of the LSAT followed and occurred in 1948. LSAC administers the LSAT four times per year, June, September/October, December, the June examination marks the start of a new cycle of testing as most test-takers plan to apply for admission the following year. The September/October administration is typically the most popular with the February administration being the least popular, the number of LSATs administered fell more than 25% over a two-year period. The October 2012 administration reflected a 16. 4% drop in volume from its 2011 counterpart, LSAT numbers continued to drop over the next two cycles but to a lesser degree, with 13. 4% and 6. 2% drops, respectively, for the 2012–13 and 2013–14 cycles. February 2014 showed the first increase in test takers since June 2010, LSAT—India is a test conducted to test an aspirants reasoning and reading skills. LSAT—India is designed by the USA based Law School Admission Council and is conducted in India by Pearson VUE, on the basis of a students score in LSAT—India 2016, he/she can secure admission in law programmes offered in more than 70 colleges in India. The LSAT consists of five 35-minute multiple choice sections followed by a writing sample section. Modern tests have 99–102 scored items in total, the LSAT contains two logical reasoning sections, commonly known as arguments, designed to test the takers ability to dissect and analyze arguments
37.
MacArthur Fellows Program
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The MacArthur Fellows Program, MacArthur Fellowship, or Genius Grant, is a prize awarded annually by the John D. and Catherine T. According to the Foundations website, the fellowship is not a reward for past accomplishment, but rather an investment in a persons originality, insight, the current prize is $625,000 paid over five years in quarterly installments. This figure was increased from $500,000 in 2013 with the release of a review of the MacArthur Fellows Program, since 1981,942 people have been named MacArthur Fellows, ranging in age from 18 to 82. The award has been called one of the most significant awards that is no strings attached. Anonymous and confidential nominations are invited by the Foundation and reviewed by an anonymous, the committee reviews all nominees and recommends recipients to the President and board of directors. Most new Fellows first learn of their nomination upon receiving a phone call. MacArthur Fellow Jim Collins described this experience in a column of The New York Times. Cecilia Conrad is the Managing Director leading the MacArthur Fellows Program and she debunked several myths about the Fellowship in The Washington Post. Guggenheim Fellowship MacArthur Fellows Program website
