1.
Columbina (genus)
–
Columbina is a genus that contains seven species of small ground-doves that live in the New World. Species in Columbina have ranges from the southern United States through Central America, Columbina doves are normally found in pairs or small flocks. They generally occur in open country and they have maroon irides and pinkish legs. In flight, some show a distinctive flash of rufous in the wings. BirdLife International www. birdlife. org Howell, Steven N. G. & Webb, Sophie, A Guide to the Birds of Mexico, Oxford University Press, Oxford & New York. ISBN 0-19-854012-4 Gibbs, David, Barnes, Eustace, Cox, Pigeons and Doves, A Guide to the Pigeons and Doves of the World
2.
Harlequin
–
Harlequin is the best-known of the zanni or comic servant characters from the Italian Commedia dellarte. The Harlequin is characterized by his chequered costume and he later develops into a prototype of the romantic hero. As the Harlequinade portion of English dramatic genre pantomime developed, Harlequin was routinely paired with the character Clown, as developed by Joseph Grimaldi around 1800, Clown became the mischievous and brutish foil for the more sophisticated Harlequin, who became more of a romantic character. The most influential such pair in Victorian England were the Payne Brothers, although the origins of the Harlequin are obscure there are several theories for how the character came to be. These demons were led by a masked, club-wielding giant and they were known as familia herlequin and this medieval French version of the Germanic Wild Hunt, Mesnée dHellequin, has been connected to the English figure of Herla cyning. Hellequin was depicted as an emissary of the devil, roaming the countryside with a group of demons chasing the damned souls of evil people to Hell. The physical appearance of Hellequin offers an explanation for the colours of Harlequins red-and-black mask. The names origin could also be traced to a knight from the 9th century, Hellequin of Boulogne, cantos XXI and XXII from Dantes Inferno there is a devil by the name of Alichino. The re-interpretation of the stock character as a zanni character of the commedia dellarte took place in the 16th century in France. Zan Ganassa, whose troupe is first mentioned in Mantua in the late 1560s, is one of the earliest known actors suggested to have performed the part, although there is little hard evidence to support. Ganassa performed in France in 1571, and if he did play the part there, he left the open for another actor to take up the role. The motley costume is sometimes attributed to Martinelli, who wore a costume of colourful patches. Martinellis Harlequin also had a black leather half-mask, a moustache and he was very successful, even playing at court and becoming a favourite of Henry IV of France, to whom he addressed insolent monologues. 1630 in Bologna as well as Turin and Mantua, the Italians were expelled from France in 1697 for satirizing King Louis XIVs second wife, Madame de Maintenon, but returned in 1716, when Tommaso Antonio Vicentini became famous in the part. The rhombus shape of the patches arose by adaptation to the Paris fashion of the 17th century by Biancolelli, the primary aspect of Arlecchino was his physical agility. He was very nimble and performed the sort of acrobatics the audience expected to see, the character would never perform a simple action when the addition of a cartwheel, somersault, or flip would spice up the movement. By contrast with the first zanni Harlequin takes little or no part in the development of the plot and he has the more arduous task of maintaining the even rhythm of the comedy as a whole. Arlecchino is sometimes referred to as putting on a show of stupidity in a attempt to create chaos within the play
3.
Italian language
–
By most measures, Italian, together with Sardinian, is the closest to Latin of the Romance languages. Italian is a language in Italy, Switzerland, San Marino, Vatican City. Italian is spoken by minorities in places such as France, Montenegro, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Crimea and Tunisia and by large expatriate communities in the Americas. Many speakers are native bilinguals of both standardized Italian and other regional languages, Italian is the fourth most studied language in the world. Italian is a major European language, being one of the languages of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe. It is the third most widely spoken first language in the European Union with 65 million native speakers, including Italian speakers in non-EU European countries and on other continents, the total number of speakers is around 85 million. Italian is the working language of the Holy See, serving as the lingua franca in the Roman Catholic hierarchy as well as the official language of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Italian is known as the language of music because of its use in musical terminology and its influence is also widespread in the arts and in the luxury goods market. Italian has been reported as the fourth or fifth most frequently taught foreign language in the world, Italian was adopted by the state after the Unification of Italy, having previously been a literary language based on Tuscan as spoken mostly by the upper class of Florentine society. Its development was influenced by other Italian languages and to some minor extent. Its vowels are the second-closest to Latin after Sardinian, unlike most other Romance languages, Italian retains Latins contrast between short and long consonants. As in most Romance languages, stress is distinctive, however, Italian as a language used in Italy and some surrounding regions has a longer history. What would come to be thought of as Italian was first formalized in the early 14th century through the works of Tuscan writer Dante Alighieri, written in his native Florentine. Dante is still credited with standardizing the Italian language, and thus the dialect of Florence became the basis for what would become the language of Italy. Italian was also one of the recognised languages in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Italy has always had a dialect for each city, because the cities. Those dialects now have considerable variety, as Tuscan-derived Italian came to be used throughout Italy, features of local speech were naturally adopted, producing various versions of Regional Italian. Even in the case of Northern Italian languages, however, scholars are not to overstate the effects of outsiders on the natural indigenous developments of the languages
4.
Columbidae
–
Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae, which includes about 310 species. Pigeons and doves are stout-bodied birds with short necks, and short slender bills and they primarily feed on seeds, fruits, and plants. This family occurs worldwide, but the greatest variety is in the Indomalaya, in general, the terms dove and pigeon are used somewhat interchangeably. Pigeon is a French word that derives from the Latin pipio, for a peeping chick, the species most commonly referred to as pigeon is the rock dove, one subspecies of which, the domestic pigeon, is common in many cities as the feral pigeon. Pigeons and doves are likely the most common birds in the world, doves and pigeons build relatively flimsy nests – often using sticks and other debris – which may be placed in trees, on ledges, or on the ground, depending on species. They lay one or two eggs at a time, and both parents care for the young, which leave the nest after seven to 28 days. Unlike most birds, both sexes of doves and pigeons produce crop milk to feed to their young, secreted by a sloughing of fluid-filled cells from the lining of the crop, young doves and pigeons are called squabs. The adjective columbine refers to pigeons and doves, recent phylogenomic studies support the grouping of these pigeons and sandgrouse together, along with mesites, forming the sister taxon to Mirandornithes. The Columbidae are usually divided into five subfamilies, probably inaccurately, for example, the American ground and quail doves, which are usually placed in the Columbinae, seem to be two distinct subfamilies. The order presented here follows Baptista et al. with some updates, osteology and DNA sequence analyses indicate the dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are better considered as a subfamily Raphinae in the Columbidae pending availability of further information. The dodo and Rodrigues solitaire are in all part of the Indo-Australian radiation that produced the three small subfamilies mentioned above, with the fruit-doves and pigeons. Therefore, they are included as a subfamily Raphinae, pending better material evidence of their exact relationships. Exacerbating these issues, columbids are not well represented in the fossil record, no truly primitive forms have been found to date. The genus Gerandia has been described from Early Miocene deposits of France, apart from that, all other fossils belong to extant genera. For these, and for the number of more recently extinct prehistoric species. Phylogeny based on the work by John H. Boyd III, Pigeons and doves exhibit considerable variations in size. Overall, the Columbidae tend to have short bills and legs, the wings are large and have low wing loadings, pigeons have strong wing muscles and are among the strongest fliers of all birds. They are also highly manoeuvrable in flight, the plumage of the family is variable
5.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
6.
Commedia dell'arte
–
Commedia dellarte translates to theatre of the professional and is known as the first form of professional theatre. Commedia dellarte also is considered commedia alla maschera, commedia improvviso, a commedia, such as The Tooth Puller, is both scripted and improvised. Characters entrances and exits are scripted, a special characteristic of commedia dellarte are the lazzi. A lazzo is a joke or something foolish or witty, another characteristic of commedia dellarte is pantomime, which is mostly used by the character Arlecchino. The characters of the commedia usually represent fixed social types, stock characters, such as old men, devious servants. The main categories of characters include servants, old men, lovers. The characters are exaggerated real characters, such as a know it all doctor called Il Dottore, many troupes were formed to perform commedia dellarte, including I Gelosi, Confidenti Troupe, Desioi Troupe, and Fedeli Troupe. Commedia dellarte was often performed outside on platforms or in areas such as a piazza. The form of theatre originated in Italy, but travelled throughout Europe, the commedia genesis may be related to carnival in Venice, where by 1570 the author/actor Andrea Calmo had created the character Il Magnifico, the precursor to the vecchio Pantalone. In the Flaminio Scala scenario for example, Il Magnifico persists and is interchangeable with Pantalone, while Calmos characters were not masked, it is uncertain at what point the characters donned the mask. However, the connection to carnival would suggest that masking was a convention of carnival and was applied at some point, the tradition in Northern Italy is centered in Mantua, Florence, and Venice, where the major companies came under the aegis of the various dukes. Concomitantly, a Neapolitan tradition emerged in the south and featured the prominent stage figure Pulcinella, Pulcinella has been long associated with Naples, and derived into various types elsewhere—the most famous as the puppet character Punch in England. Although commedia dellarte flourished in Italy during the Mannerist period, there has been a tradition of trying to establish historical antecedents in antiquity. While we can detect formal similarities between the commedia dellarte and earlier theatrical traditions, there is no way to establish certainty of origin, some date the origins to the period of the Roman Republic or the Empire. The Atellan Farces of the Roman Empire featured crude types wearing masks with grossly exaggerated features, some historians argue that Atellan stock characters, Pappus, Maccus+Buccus, and Manducus, are the primitive versions of the Commedia characters Pantalone, Pulcinella, and il Capitano. More recent accounts establish links to the medieval jongleurs, and prototypes from medieval moralities, the first recorded commedia dellarte performances came from Rome as early as 1551. This view may be somewhat romanticized since records describe the Gelosi performing Tassos Aminta, for example, by the mid-16th century, specific troupes of commedia performers began to coalesce, and by 1568 the Gelosi became a distinct company. In keeping with the tradition of the Italian Academies, I Gelosi adapted as their impress the two-faced Roman god Janus, Janus symbolized both the comings and goings of this traveling troupe, and the dual nature of the actor who impersonates the other
7.
Tricky slave
–
The tricky slave is a stock character. He is a clever, lower-class person who brings about the ending of a comedy for the lovers. Besides the actual slaves of classical theater, he appears as the scheming valet in Renaissance comedy. The zanni of Commedia dellarte are often slaves, as are Puss-in-Boots in Perraults fairy tale, Jeeves in P. G. Wodehouses work. In fairy tales, the function is often fulfilled by fairy godmothers, talking animals. Northrop Frye identified him as a portion of the Myth of Spring comedy. A female version of the slave would be Morgiana, a clever slave girl from Ali Baba. As reward, Ali frees her and Morgiana marries Cassims son, in contrast to these positive depictions, the tricky slave is portrayed as the antagonist in another Arabian Nights tale, The Three Apples, an early example of a murder mystery. After the murderer reveals himself near the middle of a story, within this flashback, a slave convinces him of his wifes infidelity, thus leading to her murder
8.
Pierrot
–
Performing unmasked, with a whitened face, he wears a loose white blouse with large buttons and wide white pantaloons. Sometimes he appears with a frilled collaret and a hat, usually with a crown and wide round brim. But most frequently, since his reincarnation under Jean-Gaspard Deburau, he wears neither collar nor hat, the defining characteristic of Pierrot is his naïveté, he is seen as a fool, often the butt of pranks, yet nonetheless trusting. It was a generally buffoonish Pierrot that held the European stage for the first two centuries of his history. For Jules Janin and Théophile Gautier, Pierrot was not a fool but an avatar of the post-Revolutionary People, struggling, sometimes tragically, in short, Pierrot became an alter-ego of the artist, specifically of the famously alienated artist of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Much of that mythic quality still adheres to the sad clown of the postmodern era and he is sometimes said to be a French variant of the sixteenth-century Italian Pedrolino, but the two types have little but their names and social stations in common. Both are comic servants, but Pedrolino, as a so-called first zanni, often acts with cunning and daring and his origins among the Italian players in France are most unambiguously traced to Molières character, the lovelorn peasant Pierrot, in Don Juan, or The Stone Guest. In 1673, probably inspired by Molières success, the Comédie-Italienne made its own contribution to the Don Juan legend with an Addendum to The Stone Guest and he acquires there a very distinctive personality. He seems an anomaly among the busy social creatures that surround him, he is isolated, Columbine laughs at his advances, his masters who are in pursuit of pretty young wives brush off his warnings to act their age. His is a voice, and his estrangement, however comic. But the character seems to have regarded as unimportant by this company. His real life in the theater in the century is to be found on the lesser stages of the capital. Sometimes he spoke gibberish, sometimes the audience itself sang his lines and this holds true even when sophisticated playwrights, such as Alain-René Lesage and his collaborators, Dorneval and Fuzelier, began to contribute more regular plays to the Foires. The broad satirical streak in Lesage often rendered him indifferent to Pierrots character, and sometimes the most opposed to his personality. Besides making him a valet, a roasting specialist, a chef, a hash-house cook, in not a few of the early Foire plays, Pierrots character is therefore quite badly defined. In the main, Pierrots inaugural years at the Foires were rather degenerate ones, an important factor that probably hastened his degeneration was the multiplicity of his fairground interpreters. Not only actors but also acrobats and dancers were quick to seize on his role, but in the 1720s, Pierrot at last came into his own. It was also in the 1720s that Alexis Piron loaned his talents to the Foires, the retirement of Hamoche in 1733, writes Barberet, was fatal to Pierrot
9.
Pantalone
–
Pantalone, spelled Pantaloon in English, is one of the most important principal characters found in commedia dellarte. With his exceptional greed and status at the top of the social order and his full name, including family name, is Pantalon de Bisognosi, Italian for Pantalone of the Needy. Pantalone originated as part of a master/servant duo and was the original il Magnifico stock character, goldoni, in his memoirs, named Pantalone as one of the four primary Commedia dellArte characters. Among other things, Pantalone is a character of Venetians, one theory of where his name derives from Saint Pantaleon, the other theory of where his name derives is from Ventian merchants who were called Piantaleoni. While the theories of the St Pantaleone and the lion of St Mark are common, the name Pantaloon generally means old fool or dotard. The role of Pantalone is usually entirely in the Venetian dialect. The character of Pantalone is entirely based on currency and ego, for he has the highest regards for his intelligence, with little else to occupy his thoughts after a life as a tradesman or merchant, Pantalone is the metaphorical representation of money in the commedia world. While the social standing of merchants may have changed throughout the centuries, Pantalone is usually the father to one of the innamorati, another stock character found in commedia. He is driven to keep his child and their respective lover apart, Pantalone is presented either as a widower or bachelor, and despite his age, makes numerous passes at the women within the commedia world, though he is always rejected. Pantalone never forgets a deal and his merit is based on actions and he is also described as being petty, and he never forgets or forgives even the smallest things. Pantalone is characterized as loving his money and having emotional extremes, with his sinister and often inhumane treatment towards his fellows, Pantalone is perceived to be a pivotal part of commedia. His importance is represented in almost every production, often placing him at the beginning of the comedy. In a commedia comedy, many zanni or lazzi routines will begin by an action delivered by Pantalone himself, Pantalone is described as being too self-absorbed to notice and interact much with the audience, but he is so obvious that it serves the same purpose. The traditional Pantalone stance is that of a old man. While it would generally be assumed the position may be one of an elderly old man. He walks with his hips forward, allowing him to make larger strides when he walks, the hunched shape restricts his legs, which are bent and turned out at the knees. The feet have the heels together with the toes facing apart and his hands and feet move quickly, though his body is stiff, and his head is constantly moving. When he walks, his feet should be picked up more than would occur naturally, Pantalone is slow moving, and he has bouts of agility when there is high emotion, but it is followed by asthmatic breathing and panting
10.
Pagliacci
–
Pagliacci is an Italian opera in a prologue and two acts, with music and libretto by Ruggero Leoncavallo. It is the only Leoncavallo opera that is widely performed. Opera companies have frequently staged Pagliacci with Cavalleria rusticana by Mascagni, Nellie Melba played Nedda in London in 1893, soon after the Italian premiere, and it was given in New York on 15 June 1893, with Agostino Montegriffo as Canio. Around 1890, when Pietro Mascagnis Cavalleria rusticana premiered, Leoncavallo was a little-known composer, after seeing Mascagnis success, he decided to write an opera in response, one act composed in the verismo style. Leoncavallo claimed that he based the story of Pagliacci on an incident from his childhood, a murder in 1865, the murderer was Gaetano DAlessandro, with his brother Luigi an accomplice to the crime. The incident resulted from a series of perceived romantic entanglements involving Scavello, Luigi DAlessandro, Leoncavallos father, a judge, was the presiding magistrate over the criminal investigation. The composer pleaded ignorance of Mendès play, later there were counter-accusations that Mendès play resembled that of Don Manuel Tamayo y Baus Un Drama Nuevo. These would potentially have included Mendès play, another version of La femme de Tabarin by Paul Ferrier, and Tabarin, Leoncavallo originally titled his story Il pagliaccio. Pagliacci received mixed reviews upon its world premiere, but was instantly successful with the public and has remained so ever since. The UK premiere of Pagliacci took place at the Royal Opera House, the US premiere followed a month later at Grand Opera House in New York on 15 June, with American born tenor, Agostino Montegriffo, as Canio. The Metropolitan Opera first staged the work on 11 December as a double-bill with Orfeo ed Euridice, the Met again staged Pagliacci as a double-bill, this time followed by Cavalleria rusticana on 22 December 1893. The two operas have since been performed as a double-bill, a pairing referred to in the operatic world colloquially as Cav. Pagliacci was produced alone in Washington National Operas November 1997 production by Franco Zeffirelli, the re-organised New York City Opera presented Pagliacci in 2016 on a double bill with Rachmaninoffs Aleko. Place, Calabria, near Montalto, on the Feast of the Assumption Time, during the overture, the curtain rises. From behind a curtain, Tonio, dressed as his commedia character Taddeo. He reminds the audience that actors have feelings too, and that the show is real people. At three oclock in the afternoon, the commedia troupe enters the village to the cheering of the villagers, Canio describes the nights performance, the troubles of Pagliaccio. He says the play will begin at ventitré ore, a method of time-keeping that means the play will begin an hour before sunset
11.
Ruggero Leoncavallo
–
Ruggero Leoncavallo was an Italian opera composer and librettist. His other well-known works include the song Mattinata, popularized by Enrico Caruso, the son of a judge, Leoncavallo was born in Naples on 23 April 1857. As a child, he moved with his father to the town of Montalto Uffugo in Calabria where Leoncavallo lived during his adolescence. He later returned to Naples and was educated at the citys San Pietro a Majella Conservatory, in 1879 Leoncavallos uncle Giuseppe, director of the press department at the Foreign Ministry in Egypt, suggested that his young nephew come to Cairo to showcase his pianistic abilities. Arriving shortly after the deposition of Khedive Ismail, Leoncavallo eventually secured work as a piano teacher and his time in Egypt concluded abruptly in 1882 after revolts in Alexandria and Cairo led by ‘Urabi in which the composer quickly departed for France. In Paris, Leoncavallo found lodging in Montmartre, an agent located in the Rue du Faubourg-Saint-Denis secured Leoncavallo employment as an accompanist and instructor for artists who performed in Sunday concerts mostly at cafés. It was during this time that he met Berthe Rambaud a preferred student, increasingly inspired by the French romantics, particularly Alfred de Musset, Leoncavallo began work on a symphonic poem based on Mussets poetry entitled La nuit de mai. The work was completed in Paris in 1886 and premiered in April 1887 to critical acclaim, with this success and now with enough accumulated money Leoncavallo and Rambaud would return to Milan to begin his career as a composer of opera. Back in Italy, Leoncavallo spent some years teaching and attempting ineffectively to obtain the production of more than one opera, in 1890 he saw the enormous success of Pietro Mascagnis Cavalleria rusticana and wasted no time in producing his own verismo work, Pagliacci. Pagliacci was performed in Milan in 1892 with immediate success, today it is the work by Leoncavallo in the standard operatic repertory. Its most famous aria Vesti la giubba was recorded by Enrico Caruso, the next year his I Medici was also produced in Milan, but neither it nor Chatterton —both early works—obtained much lasting favour. Much of Chatterton, however, was recorded by the Gramophone Company as early as 1908, Leoncavallo himself conducts the performance or at very least supervises the production. It was not until Leoncavallos La bohème was performed in 1897 in Venice that his talent obtained public confirmation, however, it was outshone by Puccinis opera of the same name and on the same subject, which was premiered in 1896. Two tenor arias from Leoncavallos version are still performed, especially in Italy. Subsequent operas by Leoncavallo were in the 1900s, Zazà, in 1906 the composer brought singers and orchestral musicians from La Scala to perform concerts of his music in New York, as well as an extensive tour of the United States. The tour was, all in all, a qualified success and he had a brief success with Zingari which premiered in Italian in London in 1912, with a long run at the Hippodrome Theatre. Zingari also reached the United States but soon disappeared from the repertoire, after a series of operettas, Leoncavallo appeared to have tried for one last serious effort with Edipo re. It had always assumed that Leoncavallo had finished the work but had died before he could finish the orchestration
12.
Harlequinade
–
Harlequinade is a British comic theatrical genre, defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as that part of a pantomime in which the harlequin and clown play the principal parts. It developed in England between the 17th and mid-19th centuries and it was originally a slapstick adaptation or variant of the Commedia dellarte, which originated in Italy and reached its apogee there in the 16th and 17th centuries. Originally a mime act with music and stylised dance, the harlequinade later employed some dialogue, early in its development, it achieved great popularity as the comic closing part of a longer evening of entertainment, following a more serious presentation with operatic and balletic elements. An often elaborate magical transformation scene, presided over by a fairy, connected the unrelated stories, changing the first part of the pantomime, and its characters, into the harlequinade. In the late 18th and 19th centuries, the became the larger part of the entertainment. During the 16th century, Commedia dellarte spread from Italy throughout Europe, in English versions, harlequinades differed in two important respects from the Commedia original. First, instead of being a rogue, Harlequin became the central figure, secondly, the characters did not speak, this was because of the large number of French performers who played in London, following the suppression of unlicensed theatres in Paris. Although this constraint was only temporary, English harlequinades remained primarily visual, by the early years of the 18th century, Italian night scenes presented versions of Commedia traditions in familiar London settings. From these, the standard English harlequinade developed, depicting the eloping lovers Harlequin and Columbine, pursued by the girls father, Pantaloon. The basic plot remained essentially the same for more than 150 years, in 1716 John Weaver, the dancing master at Drury Lane, presented The Loves of Mars and Venus – a new Entertainment in Dancing after the manner of the Antient Pantomimes. At Lincolns Inn, John Rich presented and performed as Harlequin in similar productions, armed with a magic sword or bat, Richs Harlequin treated his weapon as a wand, striking the scenery to sustain the illusion of changing the setting from one locale to another. Objects, too, were transformed by Harlequins magic bat, Richs productions were a hit, and other producers, like David Garrick began producing their own pantomimes. For the rest of the century this pattern persisted in London theatres, when producers ran short of plots from Greek or Roman mythology they turned to British folk stories, popular literature, and, by 1800, nursery tales. But whatever the story shown in the first part of the entertainment, at the end of the first part, stage illusions were employed in a spectacular transformation scene, initiated by a fairy, turning the pantomime characters into Harlequin, Columbine and their fellows. In the early 19th century, the comic performer Joseph Grimaldi turned the role of Clown from a rustic booby into the star of metropolitan pantomime. Two developments in 1800, both involving Grimaldi, greatly changed the characters, For the pantomime Peter Wilkins, or Harlequin in the Flying World. Clown traded in his tatty servants costume for a flamboyant, colourful one, in Harlequin Amulet, or, The Magick of Mona, later the same year, Harlequin was modified, becoming an increasingly stylised romantic character leaving the mischief and chaos to Grimaldis Clown. Clown now appeared in a range of roles, from the rival suitor to household cook or nurse, in the 19th century, theatrical presentations typically ran for four hours or more, with the pantomime and harlequinade concluding the evening after a long drama
13.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
14.
Hero
–
The concept of the hero was first founded in classical literature. It is the main or revered character in heroic epic poetry celebrated through ancient legends of a people, often striving for military conquest and living by a continually flawed personal honor code. The definition of a hero has changed throughout time, and the Merriam Webster dictionary defines a hero as a person who is admired for great or brave acts or fine qualities. The word hero comes from the Greek ἥρως, hero, warrior, before the decipherment of Linear B the original form of the word was assumed to be *ἥρωϝ-, hērōw-, R. S. P. Beekes has proposed a Pre-Greek origin. According to the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, the Indo-European root is *ser meaning to protect, according to Eric Partridge in Origins, the Greek word Hērōs is akin to the Latin seruāre, meaning to safeguard. Partridge concludes, The basic sense of both Hera and hero would therefore be protector, the word hero is used in English to refer either explicitly to male heroes or as a gender neutral form. The use of the male form hero as a gender neutral substantive is a modern advent, see also Gender neutrality in English. A classical hero is considered to be a warrior who lives and dies in the pursuit of honor, each classical heros life focuses on fighting, which occurs in war or during an epic quest. Classical heroes are commonly semi-divine and extraordinarily gifted, like Achilles, or, alternatively, are like Beowulf, evolving into heroic characters through their perilous circumstances. While these heroes are incredibly resourceful and skilled, they are often foolhardy, court disaster, risk their followers lives for trivial matters, during classical times, people regarded heroes with the highest esteem and utmost importance, explaining their prominence within epic literature. Hector was a Trojan prince and the greatest fighter for Troy in the Trojan War, Hector acted as leader of the Trojans and their allies in the defense of Troy, killing 31,000 Greek fighters, offers Hyginus. Hector was known not only for his courage but also for his noble, indeed, Homer places Hector as peace-loving, thoughtful as well as bold, a good son, husband and father, and without darker motives. However, his familial values conflict greatly with his aspirations in The Iliad. Hector is ultimately betrayed by the gods when Athena appears disguised as his ally Deiphobus and convinces him to take on Achilles, Achilles was a Greek Hero who was considered the most formidable military fighter in the entire Trojan War and the central character of The Iliad. He was the child of Thetis and Peleus, making him a demi-god and he wielded superhuman strength on the battlefield and was blessed with a close relationship to the Gods. Achilles famously refuses to fight after his dishonoring at the hands of Agamemnon, Achilles was known for uncontrollable rage that defined many of his bloodthirsty actions, such as defiling Hectors corpse by dragging it around the city of Troy. Achilles plays a role in The Iliad brought about by constant de-humanization throughout the epic. Heroes in myth often had close but conflicted relationships with the gods, thus Heracless name means the glory of Hera, even though he was tormented all his life by Hera, the Queen of the Gods
15.
Action hero
–
The archetypal action hero or heroine is the protagonist of an action film or other entertainment which portrays action and adventure. Other media in which such heroes appear include swashbuckler films, Westerns on television, old-time radio, adventure novels, dime novels, pulp magazines, anandalok Best Action Hero Award Osgerby, Bill, Anna Gough-Yates, and Marianne Wells. Action TV, Tough-Guys, Smooth Operators and Foxy Chicks, female action heroes photo gallery - The Boston Globe The Lost Action Hero - The Washington Post
16.
Superhero
–
A female superhero is sometimes called a superheroine. Fiction centered on characters, especially in American comic books since the 1930s, is known as superhero fiction. By most definitions, characters do not require actual supernatural or superhuman powers or phenomena to be deemed superheroes, some superheroes use their powers to counter daily crime while also combating threats against humanity from supervillains, who are their criminal counterparts. Often at least one of these supervillains will be the superheros archenemy, some long-running superheroes such as Iron Man, Captain America, Superman, Wonder Woman, Batman, and Spider-Man have a rogues gallery of many villains. The word superhero dates to at least 1917, antecedents of the archetype include such folkloric heroes as Robin Hood, who adventured in distinctive clothing. The 1903 play The Scarlet Pimpernel and its spinoffs popularized the idea of a masked avenger, during the 1940s there were many superheroes, and only a few of these were female. The Flash, Green Lantern and Blue Beetle debuted in this era, most of the other female costumed crime-fighters during this era lacked superpowers. The most iconic comic book superheroine, who debuted during the Golden Age, is Wonder Woman, inspired by the Amazons of Greek mythology, she was created by psychologist William Moulton Marston, with help and inspiration from his wife Elizabeth and their mutual lover Olive Byrne. Wonder Womans first appearance was in All Star Comics #8, published by All-American Publications, in 1952, Osamu Tezukas manga Tetsuwan Atom was published. The series focused upon a robot boy built by a scientist to replace his deceased son, the 1950s saw the Silver Age of Comics. During this era DC introduced the likes of Batwoman in 1956, Supergirl, Miss Arrowette,1958 saw the debut of superhero Moonlight Mask on Japanese television. In 1963, Astro Boy was adapted into a highly influential anime television series, Phantom Agents in 1964 focused on ninjas working for the Japanese government and would be the foundation for Sentai-type series. Another important event was the debut of Mazinger Z by Go Nagai, Go Nagai also wrote the manga Cutey Honey in 1973, although the Magical Girl genre already existed, Nagais manga introduced Transformation sequences that would become a staple of Magical Girl media. The dark Skull Man manga would later get a television adaptation, the protagonist was redesigned resemble a grasshopper, becoming the renowned first masked hero of the Kamen Rider series. Kamen Rider is a motorcycle riding hero in an insect-like costume, both major publishers began introducing new superheroines with a more distinct feminist theme as part of their origin stories or character development. Examples include Big Barda, Power Girl, and the Huntress by DC comics, and from Marvel, the second Black Widow, Shanna the She-Devil, and The Cat. In 1975 Shotaro Ishinomoris Himitsu Sentai Gorenger debuted on what is now TV Asahi, it brought the concepts of multi-colored teams, in 1978, Toei adapted Spider-Man into a live-action series. In subsequent decades, popular characters like Dazzler, She-Hulk, Elektra, Catwoman, Witchblade, Spider-Girl, Batgirl, volume 4 of the X-Men comic book series featured an all-female team as part of the Marvel NOW. branding initiative in 2013
17.
Byronic hero
–
The Byronic hero is a variant of the Romantic hero as a type of character, named after the English Romantic poet Lord Byron. Although there are traits and characteristics that exemplify the type, both Byrons own persona as well as characters from his writings are considered to provide defining features, the Byronic hero first appears in Byrons semi-autobiographical epic narrative poem Childe Harolds Pilgrimage. The actual circumstances of his death from disease in Greece were unglamourous in the extreme, in his period as the talk of London, Byron was characterized by Lady Caroline Lamb, later a lover of his, as being mad, bad, and dangerous to know. Admiration of Byron continued to be fervent in the following his death. Notable fans included Alfred Lord Tennyson and he was fourteen at the time of Byrons death, and so grieved at the poets passing he carved the words Byron is dead on a rock near his home in Somerby, declaring the world had darkened for him. However, the admiration of Byron as a character led some fans to emulate characteristics of the Byronic hero, foremost was Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, who took the Byron cult to remarkable extremes. Byrons influence is manifest in many authors and artists of the Romantic movement, Lord Byron was the model for the title character of Glenarvon by Byrons erstwhile lover Lady Caroline Lamb, and for Lord Ruthven in The Vampyre by Byrons personal physician, Polidori. In later Victorian literature, the Byronic character only seemed to survive as a solitary figure, however, Dickens representation of the character is more complex than that. Steerforth in David Copperfield manifests the concept of the fallen angel aspect of the Byronic hero, his violent temper and seduction of Emily should turn the reader and he still retains a fascination, as David admits in the aftermath of discovering what Steerforth has done to Emily. He may have done wrong, but David cannot bring himself to hate him, steerforths occasional outbreaks of remorse reveal a tortured character, echoing a Byronic remorse. Harvey concludes that Steerforth is a blend of both villain and hero, and exploration of both sides of the Byronic character. Scholars have also drawn parallels between the Byronic hero and the solipsist heroes of Russian literature, the first stages of Pushkins poetic novel Eugene Onegin appeared twelve years after Byrons Childe Harolds Pilgrimage, and Byron was of obvious influence. The Byronic hero is also featured in contemporary novels. Dark and brooding in expression, of a cold and cynical veneer, above all enigmatic, there are also suggestions of the potential of a Byronic heroine in Byron’s works. Charles J. Clancy claims that Aurora Raby in Don Juan possesses many of the typical of a Byronic hero. Described as “silent, lone” in the poem, her life has indeed been an isolated one - she has been orphaned from birth and she validates Thorslev’s assertion that Byronic heroes are “invariably solitaries”. Yet, like her counterpart, she evokes an interest from those around her. Again, this is not dissimilar to the description of the fascination that Byron himself encountered wherever he went and her apparent mournful nature is also reminiscent of the regretful mien of the Byronic hero
18.
Folk hero
–
This presence in the popular consciousness is evidenced by its historical frequency in folk songs, folk tales and other folklore, and its modern trope status in literature, art and films. Although some folk heroes are historical figures, many are not. The lives of heroes are generally fictional, their characteristics. One major category of folk hero is the defender of the people against the oppression or corruption of the established power structure. Members of this category of folk hero often, but not necessarily, robbed dozens of banks, escaped from jail multiple times. Before being boiled in oil, he saved his infant son at the cost of his own life, jack Mary Ann – a folk hero from the Wrexham area of north Wales whose fictionalised exploits continue to circulate in local folklore. James Morrow Walsh - Canada, a mountie who turned Sitting Bull, burned as a heretic she became a martyr, folk hero, and eventually a saint. She is now one of the saints of France. Miyamoto Musashi – Japan, a swordsman, soldier, philosopher and author Miloš Obilić – Serbia. Redmond OHanlon – Irish, rapparee of the 17th century Pemulwuy - Australia, sarutobi Sasuke – Japan, incredibly acrobatic spy said to have been raised by monkeys and trained in the Ninja heartland of Iga and Koga provinces during the golden age of the Ninja. Preventing bloodshed between the First Nation peoples and the peoples of Canada. Cúchulainn - Ireland, folk legend and the pre-eminent hero of Ulaid in the Ulster Cycle Fionn mac Cumhaill - Ireland, warrior, primary figure in the Oisin cycle. Homer - Credited author of The Iliad and The Odyssey, el Santo - Real life Mexican wrestler, with heavy fictionalised adventures in movies and comic books Culture hero Seal, Graham
19.
Mythological king
–
A mythological king is an archetype in mythology. A king is considered a king if he is included and described in the cultures mythology. Unlike a fictional king, aspects of their lives may have real and legendary. For example, in legend the king may have magical weapons and his archetypical role is usually to protect and serve the people. One mythological archetype is the king, also sometimes called the monarchical hero. The good king is often the hero who made his world safe for civilization. Two examples that scholars have identified as filling the roles and earning the reputation of kings were King Arthur and Beowulf, above and beyond their legendary. Beowulf for example is a king in training in the epic tradition. Another is the great king Oxthar, a leopard headed man that journeyed to the underworld of Palulu and stole glowing stones from the bed of the sun to give light. In epics of war, source of power is often having physical skills above ordinary men, owning magical weapons, in spiritual mythologies the kings power may come from a spiritual source and also spiritual weapons. In romantic and contemplative myths his power and success may from internal personality traits, such as courage, wisdom. Another common theme is the kings wounds, sacrifice and death for the betterment of the people, the Fisher King is an example of theme of the wounded king. Also, the installation of kings at the New Year was believed to renew the cosmos, The king becomes in a responsible for the stability, the fecundity. Translated from French by Trask, William, edited by Ruth Nanda Anshen, New York, Harper and Row,1963. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press,1979 ISBN 0-19-503210-1
20.
Paladin
–
The Paladins, sometimes known as the Twelve Peers, were the foremost warriors of Charlemagnes court, according to the literary cycle known as the Matter of France. They first appear in the chansons de geste such as The Song of Roland. The earliest recorded instance of the paladin in the English language dates to 1592. It entered English through the Middle French word paladin, which derived from the Latin palatinus. All these words for Charlemagnes Twelve Peers descend ultimately from the Latin palatinus, the Latin palatinus referred to an official of the Roman Emperor connected to the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill. Over time this came to refer to other high-level officials in the imperial, majestic. The word palatine, used in various European countries in the medieval, by the 13th century words referring specifically to Charlemagnes peers began appearing in European languages, the earliest is the Italian paladino. Modern French has paladin, Spanish has paladín or paladino, while German has Paladin, by extension paladin has come to refer to any chivalrous hero such as King Arthurs Knights of the Round Table. Paladin was also used to refer to the leaders of armies supporting the Protestant Frederick V in the Thirty Years War ending in 1648, in their earliest appearances the paladins were not the companions of Charlemagne, but of his vassal Roland. This Roland is based on the historical figure Hruodland mentioned by Charlemagnes biographer Einhard as a Lord of the Breton March who died in the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in 778, nothing else is known of him. The names of the twelve paladins vary from romance to romance, the number is popular because it resembles the Twelve Apostles giving the king the position of Jesus as a reminder of his holy mission as ruler. Tales of the paladins once rivaled the stories of King Arthur, the paladins figure into many chansons de geste and other tales associated with Charlemagne. In the above-mentioned Fierabras, they retrieve holy relics stolen from Rome by the Saracen giant Fierabras and convert him to Christianity, in Le Pèlerinage de Charlemagne they accompany their king on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Constantinople in order to outdo the Byzantine Emperor Hugo. Other characters elsewhere considered part of the twelve appear in the song, such as Archbishop Turpin and their works, Orlando Innamorato and Orlando Furioso, send the paladins on even more fantastic adventures than their predecessors. They list the paladins quite differently, but keep the number at twelve, the Italian Orlandos inspired a number of composers over the next few centuries, who created operas and other musical works on Orlando and the paladins. Afterwards the Charlemagne material went into decline, modern adaptations and reworkings including the Carolingian paladins are few and far between, but the concept of the chivalrous paladin lives on. The dictionary definition of paladin at Wiktionary
21.
Youngest son
–
The youngest son is a stock character in fairy tales, where he features as the hero. He is usually the son, but sometimes there are more brothers. In a family of daughters, the youngest daughter may be an equivalent figure. Sometimes, as in Esben and the Witch, they scorn him as small, even when not scorned as small and weak, the youngest son is seldom distinguished by great strength, agility, speed, or other physical powers. He generally succeeds in tasks after his brothers have failed, as in The Red Ettin. This magical helper is often long faithful to him, he may fail many times after the initial test, indeed, in The Golden Bird, the fox declares that the hero does not deserve his help after his disobedience, but still aids him. This success may make his brothers an additional obstacle, as in The Golden Bird and this rivalry is not a necessary component of the character. He may also be the one of the brothers to set about the work. In some tales, such as the Norwegian version of The Master Thief, heroines in fairy tales are more often marked out as stepdaughters, but sometimes they appear as the youngest daughter. In Molly Whuppie, it is the youngest who outwits the ogre, the White Bear in East of the Sun and West of the Moon marries the youngest daughter, in the Black Bull of Norroway, the heroines older sisters set out to seek their fortunes before her. She may be the only one willing to fulfill a promise that their father made, as in Beauty, in The Little Mermaid, it is the youngest daughter of King Triton who falls in love with the prince after she saves him from drowning. In Diamonds and Toads, the younger-&-least favoured daughter of a widow marries a king, sibling rivalry may also spring up in these stories, but usually over the youngest daughters marriage. A ballad may feature three sisters solely so that the youngest of them can be preferred, the choice of a younger and prettier sister may also cause intrafamily friction in a ballad. This is, in fact, the common pattern when the children are of the opposite sex. The story of the kind and unkind girls often features a pair as rivals and they are more often stepsiblings than siblings, but as siblings, the younger is generally the favored, as in Diamonds and Toads or some variants of The Red Ettin. Sibling rivalry in fairy tales is, in general, a trait of same-sex siblings, the ubiquity of this theme has made it an obvious target for revisionist fairytale fantasy. Andrew Lang has his Prince Prigio jeer at the notion that he should go first on the quest, when he is the oldest son, only after his two younger brothers have not returned can he be compelled to go. Likewise, in Diana Wynne Joness Howls Moving Castle, Sophie, being the oldest daughter, is resigned to having the worst chances to make her fortune, but is precipitated into the plot by evil magic
22.
Rogue (vagrant)
–
A rogue is a vagrant person who wanders from place to place. Like a drifter, a rogue is an independent person who rejects conventional rules of society in favor of following their own personal goals and values. In modern English language, the rogue is used pejoratively to describe a dishonest or unprincipled person whose behavior one disapproves of. The word rogue was first recorded in print in John Awdelys Fraternity of Vagabonds, and then in Thomas Harmans Caveat for Common Cursitors. In England, the 1572 Vagabonds Act defined a rogue as a person who has no land, no master, a rogue who was charged with a second offense, unless taken in by someone who would give him work for one year, could face execution as a felony. A rogue charged with a third-offense would only escape death if someone hired him for two years, the 1598 Vagabonds Act banished and transplanted incorrigible and dangerous rogues overseas, and the 1604 Act commanded that rogues be branded with the letter R on their bodies. In many role-playing games, such as Dungeons & Dragons and other fantasy franchises, the characters vary widely but are commonplace in the genre, and are considered a vital part of a balanced party. Rogues are typically dexterous and possess many skills, allowing them to excel in areas of expertise. Anticonformism Knight-errant, a wandering knight Musha shugyō, a personal quest Outlaw Rogues gallery Ronin
23.
Trickster
–
Hansen that the term trickster was probably first used in this context by Daniel G. Brinton in 1885. Tricksters are archetypal characters who appear in the myths of different cultures. Lewis Hyde describes the trickster as a boundary-crosser, the trickster crosses both physical and often breaks societal rules. Tricksters. violate principles of social and natural order, playfully disrupting normal life, often, the bending/breaking of rules takes the form of tricks or thievery. Tricksters can be cunning or foolish or both, the trickster openly questions and mocks authority. They are usually male characters, and are fond of breaking rules, boasting, all cultures have tales of the trickster, a crafty creature who uses cunning to get food, steal precious possessions, or simply cause mischief. In some Greek myths Hermes plays the trickster and he is the patron of thieves and the inventor of lying, a gift he passed on to Autolycus, who in turn passed it on to Odysseus. In Slavic folktales, the trickster and the hero are often combined. Frequently the trickster figure exhibits gender and form variability, in Norse mythology the mischief-maker is Loki, who is also a shape shifter. Loki also exhibits gender variability, in one case even becoming pregnant and he becomes a mare who later gives birth to Odins eight-legged horse Sleipnir. Nevertheless, the Biblical narrative clearly takes Jacobs side and the reader is invited to laugh, in The Trickster and the Paranormal, G. P. Hansen lists Mercury in Roman mythology, and Eshu in Yoruba mythology as examples of the trickster archetype, in a wide variety of African language communities, the rabbit is the trickster. In West Africa, the spider is often the trickster, the trickster or clown is an example of a Jungian archetype. In modern literature the trickster survives as an archetype, not necessarily supernatural or divine. Often too, the trickster is distinct in a story by his acting as a sort of catalyst, in that his antics are the cause of other characters discomfiture, a once-famous example of this was the character Froggy the Gremlin on the early childrens television show Andys Gang. A cigar-puffing puppet, Froggy induced the adult humans around him to engage in ridiculous, in later folklore, the trickster/clown is incarnated as a clever, mischievous man or creature, who tries to survive the dangers and challenges of the world using trickery and deceit as a defense. He also is known for entertaining people as a clown does, for example, many typical fairy tales have the king who wants to find the best groom for his daughter by ordering several trials. No brave and valiant prince or knight manages to win them, until a poor, with the help of his wits and cleverness, instead of fighting, he evades or fools monsters and villains and dangers with unorthodox manners
24.
Zanni
–
Zanni, Zani or Zane is a character type of Commedia dellarte best known as an astute servant and trickster. The Zanni comes from the countryside, the Zanni is known to be a dispossessed immigrant worker. Throughout time, the Zanni grew to be a figure who was first seen in commedia as early as the fourteenth century. The English word zany derives from this persona, the name Zanni is a Venetian variant of the name Gianni and was common in the Lombard-Venetian countryside which provided most of the servants to the wealthy nobles and merchants of Venice. In Italian it is specifically a name of someone whose identity is not of any importance and it is one of the oldest characters in Commedia dellarte but over the course of time became subdivided into a number of similar characters with more specific traits. These included Arlecchino, Pulcinella, Mezzettino and Truffaldino, as well as Beltrame, Arlecchino, for example, was more representative of a jester than an ordinary servant and was frequently depicted as very acrobatic. Zanni was shortened to Zan when used to provide further identification of an individual, for example, Zan Ganassa was the stage name of Alberto Naseli, who was one of the first actors specializing in Zanni roles to perform outside of Italy. The performance of a commedia actor relies on the acting itself, a scenario should be playable in different ways and seem different each time the audience sees it. The actors who play Zanni must be clever and equally talented, if the partner does not reply to him at the right moment or interrupts him in the wrong place, the actor’s “discourse falters and the liveliness of his wit is extinguished”. He must be acrobatic, able to walk on his hands and on stilts, dance, skip, in this respect, the Zanni is one of the most physically demanding of all the Masks. The Zanni’s costume usually consists of white baggy clothing and this was similar to the dress of peasants and farmworkers of the time. A specific type of Zanni, Brighella, wore accents of green to indicate his tricky, Arlecchino, however, was known for his irregular colored patches that eventually became the essence of the entire outfit. The Zanni are also known to sport a peaked hat and a wooden sword, the Zanni at first wore a full faced carnival mask, but because of the need for dialogue between Pantalone and the Zanni, the bottom of the mask was hinged and eventually cut away altogether. The longer the nose of the Zanni, the stupider he is said to be, a Zanni is known to take and briefly keep items that belong to someone else. Some items that the Zanni would keep would be bags, letters, valuables, the stance of Zanni has a “lowered centre of gravity” either from the earth or from carrying heavy bags and chairs. Zanni’s back is arched when he stands up and his knees are bent, the support knee is bent and the other leg is extended with his toe pointed. He switches his feet a lot while speaking or listening within the same position, Zanni’s elbows are usually bent and arms half lifted. In commedia, Zanni has a variety of at least six different types of walks and these walks include The Little Zanni, The Big Zanni, Zanni Running, Zanni Jubilant, Vain Zanni, and Soldier Zanni
25.
Outlaw (stock character)
–
Though the judgment of outlawry is obsolete, romanticised outlaws became stock characters in several fictional settings. This was particularly so in the United States, where outlaws were popular subjects of coverage and stories in the 19th century. The colloquial sense of an outlaw as bandit or brigand is the subject of a monograph by British author Eric Hobsbawm. Hobsbawms book discusses the bandit as a symbol, and mediated idea, and many of the outlaws he refers to, such as Ned Kelly, Mr. Dick Turpin, and Billy the Kid, are also listed below. The stereotype owes a great deal to English folklore precedents, in the tales of Robin Hood, but outlawry was once a term of art in the law, and one of the harshest judgments that could be pronounced on anyones head. The outlaw is familiar to readers as an archetype in Western movies. The Western outlaw is typically a criminal who operates from a base in the wilderness, by the time of the Western frontier, many jurisdictions had abolished the process of outlawry, and the term was used in its more popular meaning. Simon Gunanoot Slumach Bill Miner Ken Leishman – In 1966 he managed to hijack $383,497 worth of gold from the Winnipeg International Airport, joaquín Murrieta, symbolized resistance against Anglo-American economic and cultural domination in the 19th century. k. a. Hiasl of Bavaria, a. k. a. der Bayerische Hiasl, Ben Hall – the New South Wales colonial government passed a law in 1865 which outlawed the gang and made it possible for anyone to shoot them. There was no need for the outlaws to be arrested and for there to be a trial — the law was essentially a bill of attainder. Ned Kelly – The Victorian colonial government passed a law on 30 October 1878 to make the Kelly gang outlaws, they no longer had any legal rights, the law was modelled on the 1865 legislation passed against the gang of Ben Hall. As well as Ned Kelly, his brother Dan Kelly was subject to the warrant as well as Joe Byrne, lao Pie-fang – known as Hun-hutze, was a bandit chieftain in western Liaoning. Wang Delin – bandit, soldier and leader of the National Salvation Army resisting the Japanese pacification of Manchukuo and his act of helping a poor peasants daughter to get married led to a famous folk take which is still recited every year on the festival of Lohri by Punjabis. Veerappan, South Indias most famous bandit, Elephant poacher, sandalwood smuggler Phoolan Devi – one of Indias most famous dacoits, shiv Kumar Patel – led one of the few remaining bands of outlaws that have roamed central India for centuries. Thuggee – Indian network of secret fraternities engaged in murdering and robbing travellers, hashshashin – militant Ismaili Muslim sect, active from the 8th to the 14th centuries
26.
Gentleman thief
–
A gentleman thief, lady thief, or phantom thief is a recurring stock character. A gentleman or lady thief usually has inherited wealth and is characterised by impeccable manners, charm, courteousness, sly Cooper and his gang steals from other thieves and criminals. Notable gentlemen thieves and lady thieves in Western popular culture include the following, Phantom thief is the term for the thief in Eastern media such as anime. It draws inspiration from Arsène Lupin and elements in other crime fictions, christophe Rocancourt is a modern-day, real-life example of the gentleman thief. Cooper, the only unidentified hijacker in American aviation history, who, in 1971, a flight attdeant described him as calm, polite, and well -spoken, not at all consistent with the stereotypes popularly associated with air piracy at the time. He wasnt nervous, she told investigators and he was never cruel or nasty. He was thoughtful and calm all the time and he ordered a bourbon and water, paid his drink tab, and offered to request meals for the flight crew during the stop in Seattle. William Francis Willie Sutton, Jr. was a bank robber of the 1920s who never harmed a person during his robberies. Gentleman detective The Saint and Leslie Charteris
27.
Pirates in popular culture
–
In these and countless other books, movies, and legends, pirates are portrayed as swashbucklers and plunderers. They are shown on ships, often wearing eyepatches or peg legs, having a parrot perched on their shoulder, Vikings, who were also pirates, took on a distinct and separate archetype in popular culture, dating from the Viking revival. While Johnsons text recounted the lives of many famous pirates from the era, Stevenson identified Johnsons General History of the Pyrates as one of his major influences, and even borrowed one characters name from a list of Blackbeards crew which appeared in Johnsons book. In films, books, cartoons, and toys, pirates often have an appearance that evokes their criminal lifestyle, rogue personalities and adventurous. They are frequently depicted as greedy, mean-spirited, and focused exclusively on fighting enemy pirates and they are often shown wearing shabby 17th or 18th century clothing, with a bandana or a feathered tricorne. They sometimes have an eye patch and almost always have a cutlass and they sometimes have scars and battle wounds, rotten or missing teeth, as well as a hook or wooden stump where a hand or leg has been amputated. Some depictions of pirates also include monkeys or parrots as pets, a native of the West Country in south west England from where many famous English pirates hailed, Newton also used the same strong West Country accent in Blackbeard the Pirate. Historical pirates were often sailors or soldiers whod fallen into misfortune, forced to serve at sea or to plunder goods, Pirates generally quest for buried treasure, which is often stored, after being plundered, in treasure chests. Pirates treasure is gold or silver, often in the form of doubloons or pieces of eight. In the 1990s, International Talk Like a Pirate Day was invented as a holiday celebrated on September 19. This holiday allows people to let out their inner pirate and to dress and speak as pirates are portrayed to have dressed. International Talk Like a Pirate Day has been gaining popularity through the Internet since its founders set up a website, venganza. org is also a major supporter of this day. In the online community, many games, movies, and other media are built upon the premise, thought to have been generated by Real Ultimate Power, the Pirates versus Ninjas meme is expressed offline too, through house parties and merchandise found at popular-culture clothing and gift stores. Pirates also play a role in the parody religion of Pastafarianism. In addition to the archetype of seafaring pirates, other pirate archetypes exist in popular culture. Air pirates are science fiction and fantasy character archetypes who operate in the air, as traditional seafaring pirates target sailing ships, air pirates capture and plunder aircraft and other targets for cargo, money, and occasionally they steal entire aircraft. Space pirates are science fiction character archetypes who operate in outer space, as traditional seafaring pirates target sailing ships, space pirates capture and plunder spaceships for cargo, money, and occasionally they steal entire spacecraft. The dress and speech of these alternate archetypes may vary and it may correspond to a particular authors vision of a storys setting, rather than their traditional seafaring counterparts
28.
Space pirate
–
Space pirates are a type of stock character from science fiction. Space pirates operate as pirates in outer space and travel by spacecraft, as opposed to the more traditional pirates on the seas of Earth. However, their dress and speech may vary, it may correspond to the authors vision of the future. On the other hand, space pirates may be modeled after stereotypical sea pirates and they may be humans who originate from Earth, or a specific race of aliens. Space pirates are common in opera and soft science fiction. Air pirate Space marine Space Pirates at TVTropes. org
29.
Rake (character)
–
A rake, short for rakehell, is a historic term applied to a man who is habituated to immoral conduct, particularly womanising. Often, a rake was also prodigal, wasting his fortune on gambling, wine, women and song, comparable terms are libertine and debauchee. The Restoration rake was a carefree, witty, sexually irresistible aristocrat whose heyday was during the English Restoration period at the court of Charles II, at this time the rake featured as a stock character in Restoration comedy. After the reign of Charles II, and especially after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the rake became the butt of moralistic tales in which his typical fate was debtors prison, venereal disease, or, in the case of William Hogarths A Rakes Progress, insanity in Bedlam. The defining period of the rake was at the court of Charles II in the seventeenth century. Following the tone set by the monarch himself, these men distinguished themselves in drinking, womanising and witty conversation, many of them were inveterate gamblers, brawlers and some were also duelists but not to the approval of King Charles. In 1682 Thomas Wharton, 5th Baron Wharton, broke into a church at night and relieved himself against the communion table, a later group of aristocratic rakes were associated with the Hell Fire Club in the eighteenth century. These included Francis Dashwood and John Wilkes, other rakes include Colonel Charteris, Cagliostro, Lord Byron, John Mytton, Giacomo Casanova, Charles Mohun, 4th Baron Mohun, the Marquis de Sade and Beauchamp Bagenal. On the whole, rakes may be subdivided into the penitent and persistent ones, the first being reformed by the heroine, the latter pursuing their immoral conduct. Libertinistic attitudes, such as licentiousness, alcoholism, scouring and gaming, however, only the degree of wit brings the rakish gentleman, the Truewit, closer to the satiric norm, whereas Falsewits are always exploded in the satiric scene. The motivation of a rake to change his libertinistic ways is either hypocritical or honest, another typology distinguishes between the polite rake and the debauch, using criteria of social class and style. In this case, the young, witty, and well-bred male character, who dominates the drawing rooms, is in sharp contrast to a contemptible debauch, who indulges in fornication, alcoholism, still other assessments of the libertine concentrate on the kind and intensity of libertinistic demeanour. Here, the falls into any one of three categories, extravagant libertine, vicious libertine, and philosophical libertine. The extravagant rake is characterised by anti-normative conduct throughout, even though he finally settles down in matrimony, between 1663 and 1668, examples are Wellbred in James Howards The English Mounsieur, Philidor in James Howards All Mistaken, and Celadon in Drydens Secret Love. In the 1690s, Sir Hary Wildair in George Farquhars The Constant Couple represents this kind of gentlemanly rake, the extravagant rake is as promiscuous and impulsive as he is wild and frivolous, and he finally finds his match in an equally extravagant and witty heroine. He is, above all, a character who is what he wants to be, who delights in those qualities with which he is endowed. Thus, the extravagant rake is a comic figure because his actions are exaggerated, but he is never a comic fool. The vicious rake is invariably presented as a despicable, if wealthy person and he is frequently married and abuses his wife
30.
Villain
–
A villain is an evil character in a story, whether a historical narrative or, especially, a work of fiction. The villain usually is the antagonist, the character who tends to have an effect on other characters. A female villain is called a villainess. It referred to a person of less than knightly status and so came to mean a person who was not chivalrous, the villain therefore could appear twice, once in the opening of the story, and a second time as the person sought out by the hero. When a character performed only these acts, the character was a pure villain, the functions could also be spread out among several characters. If a dragon acted as the villain, but was killed by the hero, another character might take on the role of the villain, two other characters could appear in roles that are villainous in the more general sense. One is the hero, this character is always villainous. Among these characters are Cinderellas stepsisters, chopping off parts of their feet to fit on the shoe, another character, the dispatcher, sends a hero on his quest. This might be an innocent request, to fulfil a legitimate need, in fiction, villains commonly function in the dual role of adversary and foil to the storys heroes. In their role as adversary, the villain serves as an obstacle the hero must struggle to overcome, in their role as foil, the villain exemplifies characteristics that are diametrically opposed to those of the hero, creating a contrast distinguishing heroic traits from villainous ones. Others point out many acts of villains have a hint of wish-fulfillment. Because of this, a convincing villain must be given a characterization that provides a motive for doing wrong, as put by film critic Roger Ebert, Each film is only as good as its villain. Since the heroes and the gimmicks tend to repeat from film to film, tod Slaughter always portrayed villainous characters on both stage and screen in a melodramatic manner, with mustache-twirling, eye-rolling, leering, cackling, and hand-rubbing. Brad Warner states that only cartoon villains cackle with glee while rubbing their hands together and dream of ruling the world in the name of all that is wicked, ben Bova recommends to authors that their works not contain villains. He states, in his Tips for writers, In the real world there are no villains, no one actually sets out to do evil. Or, more accurately, fiction serves as a lens to focus of what they know in life, there are no villains cackling and rubbing their hands in glee as they contemplate their evil deeds. There are only people with problems, struggling to solve them, david Lubar adds, This is a brilliant observation that has served me well in all my writing. He may be driven by greed, neuroses, or the conviction that his cause is just, in an attempt to add realism to their stories, many writers will try to create sympathetic villains, the antithesis to an antihero called a antivillain
Media related to Colombina at Wikimedia Commons
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Columbine (pantomime)". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "