1.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
2.
Warsaw Pact
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The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance, the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968, which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland, East Germany and Poland withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence, the USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO, in the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance—abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces, the strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them and this policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism, geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and these states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO, Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets, previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. James Dunn, who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman, affirmed that the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians, according to John Gaddis there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer from USSR. But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal, the Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force, in April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO, memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too
3.
German language
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German is a West Germanic language that is mainly spoken in Central Europe. It is the most widely spoken and official language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, South Tyrol, the German-speaking Community of Belgium and it is also one of the three official languages of Luxembourg. Major languages which are most similar to German include other members of the West Germanic language branch, such as Afrikaans, Dutch, English, Luxembourgish and it is the second most widely spoken Germanic language, after English. One of the languages of the world, German is the first language of about 95 million people worldwide. The German speaking countries are ranked fifth in terms of publication of new books. German derives most of its vocabulary from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, a portion of German words are derived from Latin and Greek, and fewer are borrowed from French and English. With slightly different standardized variants, German is a pluricentric language, like English, German is also notable for its broad spectrum of dialects, with many unique varieties existing in Europe and also other parts of the world. The history of the German language begins with the High German consonant shift during the migration period, when Martin Luther translated the Bible, he based his translation primarily on the standard bureaucratic language used in Saxony, also known as Meißner Deutsch. Copies of Luthers Bible featured a long list of glosses for each region that translated words which were unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics initially rejected Luthers translation, and tried to create their own Catholic standard of the German language – the difference in relation to Protestant German was minimal. It was not until the middle of the 18th century that a widely accepted standard was created, until about 1800, standard German was mainly a written language, in urban northern Germany, the local Low German dialects were spoken. Standard German, which was different, was often learned as a foreign language with uncertain pronunciation. Northern German pronunciation was considered the standard in prescriptive pronunciation guides though, however, German was the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-19th century, it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire and its use indicated that the speaker was a merchant or someone from an urban area, regardless of nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain, others, such as Pozsony, were originally settled during the Habsburg period, and were primarily German at that time. Prague, Budapest and Bratislava as well as cities like Zagreb, the most comprehensive guide to the vocabulary of the German language is found within the Deutsches Wörterbuch. This dictionary was created by the Brothers Grimm and is composed of 16 parts which were issued between 1852 and 1860, in 1872, grammatical and orthographic rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, the 2nd Orthographical Conference ended with a standardization of the German language in its written form
4.
National People's Army
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The National People’s Army was the name used for the armed forces of the German Democratic Republic. The NVA was first established in 1956 and disbanded in 1990 and its participation with the Soviet Armed Forces against the Czechoslovak interim government during the Prague Spring of 1968 was cancelled at the last minute. However, there were frequent reports of East German advisors working with communist African governments during the Cold War, the German Democratic Republic established the National Peoples Army on March 1,1956 from the Kasernierte Volkspolizei. During its first year, about 27 percent of the NVAs officer corps had formerly served in the Wehrmacht, of the 82 highest command positions, ex-Wehrmacht officers held 61, however, very few of them had served in high ranks. The military knowledge and combat experience of veterans were indispensable in the NVAs early years. In its first six years the NVA operated as an all-volunteer force, the GDR introduced conscription in 1962, and the NVAs strength increased to approximately 170,000 troops. The proportion of SED members in the officer corps rose steadily after the early 1960s, the NVA saw itself as the instrument of power of the working class. According to its doctrine, the NVA protected peace and secured the achievements of socialism by maintaining a deterrent to imperialist aggression. The NVAs motto, inscribed on its flag, read, For the Protection of the Workers and Farmers Power. The NVA never took part in combat, although it participated in a support role in the suppression of the Prague Spring of 1968. Instead, the NVA provided logistical help when Soviet troops advanced into Czechoslovakia, during the 1970s, and increasingly in the 1980s, the NVA achieved new standards of mobilization times and combat readiness. The North Atlantic Treaty Organisations submarine-based missiles were seen as its most potent weapon, ultimately,85 per cent of all NVA units were on constant alert, trained to depart within 25 to 30 minutes from their bases to designated areas about five to seven kilometers apart. Mobilization of reserves would have been completed two days. These unprecedented levels of combat readiness were considered the asset of GDR military deterrence but have never been proven to be accurate. These preparedness levels placed a strain on military professionals and conscripts alike. In the early 1970s the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany high command assigned to the NVA the wartime mission of capturing West Berlin. The NVA plan for the operation, designated Operation Centre, called for some 32,000 troops in two divisions, accompanied by the GSFGs Soviet 6th Guards Separate Motor Rifle Brigade. The plan was updated until 1988, when a less ambitious plan that simply aimed at containing Berlin was substituted
5.
West Berlin
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West Berlin was an enclave which comprised the western part of the city of Berlin during the Cold War. It was formally controlled by the Western Allies and formed a de facto part of West Germany, and was entirely surrounded by the Soviet-controlled East Berlin and East Germany. West Berlin had great significance during the Cold War, as it was widely considered by westerners as an island of freedom. A wealthy city, West Berlin was noted for its liberal and cosmopolitan character. With about two million inhabitants, West Berlin had the biggest population of any city in Cold War Germany and it was 100 miles east of the Inner German border and only accessible by land from West Germany by narrow rail and highway corridors. It consisted of the American, British, and French occupation sectors established in 1945 and was de facto part of West Germany and it had a special and unique legal status because its administration was formally conducted by the Western Allies. East Berlin, de jure occupied and administered by the Soviet Union, was the de facto capital of East Germany, the Berlin Wall, built in 1961, physically divided West Berlin from its East German surroundings until it fell in 1989. The Potsdam Agreement established the framework for the occupation of Germany in the wake of World War II. The territory of Germany, as it existed in 1937, would be reduced by most of Eastern Germany thus creating the former territories of Germany. The remaining territory would be divided into four zones, each administered by one of the allied countries, according to the agreement, the occupation of Berlin would end only as a result of a quadripartite agreement. The Western Allies were guaranteed three air corridors to their sectors of Berlin, and the Soviets also informally allowed road, at first, this arrangement was intended to be only a temporary administrative structure, with all parties declaring that Germany and Berlin would soon be reunited. However, as the relations between the allies and the Soviet Union soured and the Cold War began, the joint administration of Germany. Soon, Soviet-occupied Berlin and western-occupied Berlin had separate city administrations, in 1948, the Soviets tried to force the Western Allies out of Berlin by imposing a land blockade on the western sectors—the Berlin Blockade. The West responded by using its air corridors for supplying their part of the city with food, in May 1949, the Soviets lifted the blockade, and West Berlin as a separate city with its own jurisdiction was maintained. Following the Berlin Blockade, normal contacts between East and West Berlin resumed, however, in cases this proved only temporary. In 1952, the East German government began sealing its borders, as a direct result the electrical grids were separated and phone lines were cut. However, the culmination of the schism did not occur until 1961 with the construction of the Berlin Wall. From the legal theory followed by the Western Allies, the occupation of most of Germany ended in 1949 with the declaration of the Federal Republic of Germany and the German Democratic Republic
6.
Uprising of 1953 in East Germany
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The Uprising of 1953 in East Germany started with a strike by East Berlin construction workers on 16 June 1953. It turned into an uprising against the German Democratic Republic government the next day. In Germany, the revolt is often called Peoples Uprising in East Germany, in remembrance of it,17 June became a national holiday of West Germany, prevailing until reunification. The uprising in East Berlin was violently suppressed by tanks of the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany, in spite of the intervention of Soviet troops, the wave of strikes and protests was not easily brought under control. Even after 17 June there were demonstrations in more than 500 towns, in July 1952 the second party conference of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany took place in East Berlin. The party was acting on demands made by Soviet premier Joseph Stalin and this meant for example the division of the five Länder into 14 regions plus East Berlin. This decision was made amid the background of the economic situation in the country. In the course of the militarisation pushed by Soviet authorities, direct and indirect military expenditures rose, together with reparation payments, this totalled over 20% of the budget. Electricity was turned off in factories and public buildings at the onset of every evening. The dramatic increase of emigration in the first half of 1953, already high since the establishment of the GDR, constituted a serious economic, another factor that contributed to an already complicated political situation was the high number of political prisoners in the GDR. Suppression of the illegal organisation Junge Gemeinde, wrongly perceived as the youth organisation of the Evangelical Church. Ecclesiastic recreation centres were closed and taken over by the FDJ, high school students who belonged to a church were often expelled by the school authorities, sometimes even shortly before school graduation. Within this complicated background, the decision to raise the work norms was perceived as a provocation and these changes were coming into force by 30 June 1953, Ulbrichts 60th birthday. The decision was taken on 13–14 May 1953, and the Council of Ministers approved it on 28 May, following Stalins death in March 1953 and the massive increase in emigration the new Soviet government decided to ease the policies Stalin had demanded. On 4 June 1953, the Soviet government, alarmed at reports of unrest, georgy Malenkov warned them that if policy direction were not corrected immediately, there would be a catastrophe. After intense discussion the East German party eased policies and publicly admitted that mistakes had been made, however, according to the historian of East Germany, Manfred Wilke, that admission may have had the unintended effect of inflaming public opinion rather than easing tensions. Their numbers quickly swelled and a strike and protests were called for the next day. Early on 17 June 40,000 protesters had gathered in East Berlin, many protests were held throughout East Germany with at least some work stoppages and protests in virtually all industrial centers and large cities in the country
7.
People's Militias (Czechoslovakia)
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Peoples Militias, also called The armed fist of the working class was a militia organisation of Communist Party of Czechoslovakia between 1948 and 1989. The predecessor of militias were armed groups of workers formed in June 1945 to protect the factories during the post-war chaos. In 1946 they were renamed Závodní stráže and their equipment reduced to pistols, in the middle of February 1948 the central committee of the Communist Party decided to form armed units from Communist Party members and supporters. On February 21,1948 these units were renamed Dělnické milice, the militias were hastily equipped and set on alert during the communist takeover of power at the end of February. The name was changed to Peoples Militias. The task of the militias was to protect against guerrillas expected to appear after the takeover, against undercover agents sent to Czechoslovakia and to cooperate with the police, about 3,000 militiamen joined police forces. Non-communists were slowly removed from the militias, the control over the militias went to the Ministry of the Interior. In 1959 a grey uniform was introduced, toward the end of the 1980s, political tensions in Czechoslovakia increased and the militias, equipped with batons, were frequently deployed to disperse demonstrations against the regime. In 1989,38,985 militiamen participated in this activity, after the communist partys fall from power at the end of 1989, the militias were dissolved on December 21,1989. During February 1948 the militias obtained 10,000 rifles and 2,000 submachine guns from the armament factory Zbrojovka Brno, the equipment was continually modernized with sniper rifles, machine guns, mortars, anti-aircraft machine guns and transport vehicles. The ammunition was kept in army stores, during the 1970s recoilless guns and RPG-7 were added among the armament. After dissolution of the militias their equipment was handed over to the army, jan Štaigl, Ľudové milície na Slovensku - ich vznik a organizačný vývoj do polovice šesťdesiatych rokov in journal Vojenská história,1999, vol 2. Peoples Militias in Czechoslovakia in 1948 -1989 Article in journal História Lidové Milice Communist Party of Czechoslovakia Eastern Bloc politics
8.
Czechoslovakia
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From 1939 to 1945, following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, the state did not de facto exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate. From 1948 to 1990, Czechoslovakia was part of the Soviet bloc with a command economy and its economic status was formalized in membership of Comecon from 1949, and its defense status in the Warsaw Pact of May 1955. A period of liberalization in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, was forcibly ended when the Soviet Union, assisted by several other Warsaw Pact countries. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into the two states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Form of state 1918–1938, A democratic republic, 1938–1939, After annexation of Sudetenland by Nazi Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into a state with loosened connections among the Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A large strip of southern Slovakia and Carpatho-Ukraine was annexed by Hungary, 1939–1945, The region was split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic. A government-in-exile continued to exist in London, supported by the United Kingdom, United States and its Allies, after the German invasion of Russia, Czechoslovakia adhered to the Declaration by United Nations and was a founding member of the United Nations. 1946–1948, The country was governed by a government with communist ministers, including the prime minister. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union, 1948–1989, The country became a socialist state under Soviet domination with a centrally planned economy. In 1960, the country became a socialist republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It was a state of the Soviet Union. 1989–1990, The federal republic consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic, 1990–1992, Following the Velvet Revolution, the state was renamed the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic, consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic. Neighbours Austria 1918–1938, 1945–1992 Germany Hungary Poland Romania 1918–1938 Soviet Union 1945–1991 Ukraine 1991–1992 Topography The country was of irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands, the eastern region was composed of the northern reaches of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube River basin. Climate The weather is mild winters and mild summers, influenced by the Atlantic Ocean from the west, Baltic Sea from the north, and Mediterranean Sea from the south. The area was long a part of the Austro Hungarian Empire until the Empire collapsed at the end of World War I, the new state was founded by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, who served as its first president from 14 November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was succeeded by his ally, Edvard Beneš. The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, nationalism became a mass movement in the last half of the 19th century
9.
Neues Deutschland
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Neues Deutschland is a small German daily newspaper. It was originally the party newspaper of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany, which governed East Germany. It currently has its headquarters in Berlin and retains a socialist outlook, the newspaper is both politically and financially tied to The Left, the successor party of the SED, which owns the publishing house and printing presses. ND was formed in 1946 as a Lizenzzeitung after the Social Democratic Party of Germany, the first edition of ND was published on 23 April 1946 in conjunction with the founding of the SED. ND replaced the SPD organ Das Volk and the KPD organ Deutsche Volkszeitung, karl Maron was the first chief editor of the daily and served in the post until 1950. Before the reunification of Germany in October 1990, ND had a circulation of a million and was only to the youth newspaper junge Welt in readership. During this period the editor-in-chief of ND was Wolfgang Spickermann, however, it has been claimed that Neues Deutschland failed to reach much of the East German population. ND was one of the most important propaganda tools for the SED, ND had a very heavy focus on East German party and government leaders. For example, on 16 March 1987, in the edition produced for the opening of the Leipzig Fair, in contrast to other GDR newspapers, ND used high quality paper and printing materials and was not affected by the traditional materials deficiencies common in the GDR. After reunification, NDs readership diminished greatly, in 2006, ND had a circulation of 45,247. Like most large newspapers in Germany currently, ND has a problem in that the majority of its readers are over 60 years old, ND produces both national edition and a regional edition for Berlin and Brandenburg. Jürgen Reents, who has roots in both the Party of Democratic Socialism and the Green Party, has been the editor in chief of ND since 1999. One of his goals has been to transform NDs image from a propaganda leaflet to a more respected newspaper. In October 2005 the editors moved from Elsenbrücke to Franz-Mehring Platz in Berlin, three months later, Olaf Koppe took over management of the newspaper. Each issue of the daily between 1945 and 1990 was digitalized by the Berlin State Library in June 2013, ND is still oriented towards a socialist viewpoint and is owned partially by The Left party. The twin goals of the newspaper are to give those in eastern Germany a voice, while eastern German themes dominate the features and the community pages, the political section looks at leftist politics throughout Germany. Authors and politicians from diverse backgrounds have also been represented on the pages of the newspaper. For example, Friedrich Schorlemmer, a critic of The Left party
10.
Berlin Wall
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The Berlin Wall was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. Its demolition officially began on 13 June 1990 and was completed in 1992, the barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area that contained anti-vehicle trenches, fakir beds and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the Wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the will of the people in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that had marked East Germany, the West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the Wall of Shame—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Walls restriction on freedom of movement. Between 1961 and 1989, the Wall prevented almost all such emigration, during this period, around 5,000 people attempted to escape over the Wall, with an estimated death toll ranging from 136 to more than 200 in and around Berlin. After several weeks of civil unrest, the East German government announced on 9 November 1989 that all GDR citizens could visit West Germany, crowds of East Germans crossed and climbed onto the Wall, joined by West Germans on the other side in a celebratory atmosphere. Over the next few weeks, euphoric people and souvenir hunters chipped away parts of the Wall, contrary to popular belief the Walls actual demolition did not begin until the summer of 1990 and was not completed until 1992. The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for German reunification, the capital of Berlin, as the seat of the Allied Control Council, was similarly subdivided into four sectors despite the citys location, which was fully within the Soviet zone. Within two years, political divisions increased between the Soviets and the occupying powers. Property and industry was nationalized in the East German zone, if statements or decisions deviated from the described line, reprimands and punishment would ensue, such as imprisonment, torture and even death. Indoctrination of Marxism-Leninism became a part of school curricula, sending professors. The East Germans created a political police apparatus that kept the population under close surveillance. In 1948, following disagreements regarding reconstruction and a new German currency, Stalin instituted the Berlin Blockade, preventing food, materials and supplies from arriving in West Berlin. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and several countries began a massive airlift, supplying West Berlin with food. The Soviets mounted a public campaign against the Western policy change. Communists attempted to disrupt the elections of 1948, preceding large losses therein, in May 1949, Stalin lifted the blockade, permitting the resumption of Western shipments to Berlin. The German Democratic Republic was declared on 7 October 1949, by a secret treaty, the Soviet Ministry of Foreign Affairs accorded the East German state administrative authority, but not autonomy. The Soviets permeated East German administrative, military and secret police structures and had full control, East Germany differed from West Germany, which developed into a Western capitalist country with a social market economy and a democratic parliamentary government
11.
Leipzig
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Leipzig is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony, Germany. With a population of 570,087 inhabitants it is Germanys tenth most populous city, Leipzig is located about 160 kilometres southwest of Berlin at the confluence of the White Elster, Pleisse, and Parthe rivers at the southern end of the North German Plain. Leipzig has been a city since at least the time of the Holy Roman Empire. The city sits at the intersection of the Via Regia and Via Imperii, Leipzig was once one of the major European centers of learning and culture in fields such as music and publishing. Leipzig became an urban center within the German Democratic Republic after the Second World War. Leipzig later played a significant role in instigating the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, through events which took place in, Leipzig today is an economic center and the most livable city in Germany, according to the GfK marketing research institution. Since the opening of the Leipzig City Tunnel in 2013, Leipzig forms the centerpiece of the S-Bahn Mitteldeutschland public transit system, Leipzig is currently listed as Gamma World City and Germanys Boomtown. Outside of Leipzig the Neuseenland district forms a lake area of approximately 300 square kilometres. Leipzig is derived from the Slavic word Lipsk, which means settlement where the linden trees stand, an older spelling of the name in English is Leipsic. The Latin name Lipsia was also used, the name is cognate with Lipetsk in Russia and Liepāja in Latvia. In 1937 the Nazi government officially renamed the city Reichsmessestadt Leipzig, the common usage of this nickname for Leipzig up until the present is reflected, for example, in the name of a popular blog for local arts and culture, Heldenstadt. de. Leipzig was first documented in 1015 in the chronicles of Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg as urbs Libzi and endowed with city, Leipzig Trade Fair, started in the Middle Ages, became an event of international importance and is the oldest remaining trade fair in the world. During the Thirty Years War, two battles took place in Breitenfeld, about 8 kilometres outside Leipzig city walls, the first Battle of Breitenfeld took place in 1631 and the second in 1642. Both battles resulted in victories for the Swedish-led side, on 24 December 1701, an oil-fueled street lighting system was introduced. The city employed light guards who had to follow a schedule to ensure the punctual lighting of the 700 lanterns. The Leipzig region was the arena of the 1813 Battle of Leipzig between Napoleonic France and a coalition of Prussia, Russia, Austria and Sweden. It was the largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, in 1913 the Monument to the Battle of the Nations celebrating the centenary of this event was completed. The railway station has two entrance halls, the eastern one for the Royal Saxon State Railways and the western one for the Prussian state railways
12.
Socialist Unity Party of Germany
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The partys dominant figure from 1950 to 1971, and effective leader of East Germany, was Walter Ulbricht. In 1953, an uprising against the Party was met with violent suppression by the Ministry of State Security and the Soviet Army. In 1971, Ulbricht was succeeded by Erich Honecker who presided over a period in the development of the GDR until he was forced to step down during the 1989 revolution. The partys last leader, Egon Krenz, was unsuccessful in his attempt to retain the SEDs hold on political governance of the GDR and was imprisoned after German reunification, the SEDs long-suppressed reform wing took over the party in the fall of 1989. In hopes of changing its image, on 16 December it renamed itself the Party of Democratic Socialism, abandoning Marxism–Leninism and it received 16. 4% of the vote in the 1990 parliamentary elections. In 2007, the PDS merged with Labour and Social Justice into The Left, official East German and Soviet histories portrayed this merger as a voluntary pooling of efforts by the socialist parties. However, there is evidence that the merger was more troubled than commonly portrayed. By all accounts, the Soviet occupation authorities applied pressure on the SPDs eastern branch to merge with the KPD. The newly merged party, with the help of the Soviet authorities, however, these elections were held under less-than-secret conditions, thus setting the tone for the next four decades. A truer picture of the SEDs support came with the elections in Berlin. In that contest, the SED received less than half the votes of the SPD, the bulk of the Berlin SPD remained aloof from the merger, even though Berlin was deep inside the Soviet zone. The Soviet Military Administration in Germany directly governed the areas of Germany following World War II. Also reported was a deal of difficulty in convincing the masses that the SED was a German political party. Soviet intelligence claimed to have a list of names of an SPD group within the SED that was covertly forging links with the SPD in the West, a problem for the Soviets that they identified with the early SED was its potential to develop into a nationalist party. At large party meetings, members applauded speakers who talked of nationalism much more than when they spoke of solving social problems, although it was nominally a merger of equals, from the beginning the SED was dominated by Communists. By the late 1940s, the SED began to purge most recalcitrant Social Democrats from its ranks, by the time of East Germanys formal establishment in 1949, the SED was a full-fledged Communist party—essentially the KPD under a new name. It began to develop along lines similar to other Communist parties in the Soviet bloc, over the years, the SED gained a reputation as one of the most hardline parties in the Soviet bloc. When Mikhail Gorbachev initiated reforms in the Soviet Union in the 1980s, the party organisation was based on, and co-located with, the institutions of the German Democratic Republic
13.
Volkskammer
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The Peoples Chamber was the unicameral legislature of the German Democratic Republic. Despite the appearance of a multi-party system, all these Bloc parties were completely subservient to the SED, in addition, seats were also allocated to various mass organizations affiliated with the SED, such as the Free German Youth. Initially, it was the house of a bicameral legislature. The upper chamber was the Chamber of States, or Länderkammer, but in 1952 the states of East Germany were dissolved, in theory, the Volkskammer was the highest organ of state power in the GDR. Both GDR constitutions vested it with great lawmaking powers and it also formally appointed the Council of State, the Council of Ministers, and the National Defence Council. All other branches of government—including the judiciary—were theoretically responsible to it, in practice, like most other legislatures in Communist countries, the Peoples Chamber did little more than rubber-stamp decisions already made by the SED and its Politburo. All parties were expected to respect the principles of democratic centralism, as a result, all but two measures put before it before the Peaceful Revolution passed unanimously. A1972 vote on liberalising abortion laws saw 14 CDU representatives vote nay and eight abstain, during Peoples Chamber elections, voters were presented with a single list from the National Front, with seats allocated based on a set quota rather than actual vote totals. By ensuring that its candidates dominated the list, the SED effectively predetermined the composition of the legislature, the democratic centralist principle extended to the ballot box as well. A voter simply took the paper, which contained only one name. A voter could vote against the candidate by crossing out his or her name, the consequences for such an act of defiance were severe—loss of ones job or expulsion from school, and close surveillance by the Stasi. The table below shows an overview of the results of all parliamentary elections before 1990. ¹Eastern Bureau of the Social Democratic Party of Germany In 1976, the Volkskammer moved into a building on Marx-Engels-Platz. On paper, the president of the Peoples Chamber was the third-highest post in the GDR and was vice president of the country. The last president of the Peoples Chamber, Sabine Bergmann-Pohl, was interim head of state during the last six months of East Germanys existence due to the State Council having been abolished. Presidium of the Peoples Chamber Show election A Successful Policy Seared to the Needs of the People Deliberations of the Volkskammer on nuclear disarmament,1981
14.
Brazzaville
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Brazzaville is the capital and largest city of the Republic of the Congo and is located on the Congo River. As of the 2007 census, it had a population of 1.37 million. The projection of the CNSEE shows an increase to 1.7 million by 2015, the United Nations Population Division estimate for 2014 is 1.83 million. The populous city of Kinshasa, capital of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, together with Kinshasa, the combined conurbation of Kinshasa-Brazzaville has thus about 12 million inhabitants. Over a third of the population of the Republic of Congo lives in the capital and it is also a financial and administrative capital. In order to distinguish between the two African countries with Congo in their names, the Republic of the Congo is sometimes called Congo-Brazzaville, Kinshasa lies on the southern bank of the Congo, across from Brazzaville. This is the place in the world where two national capital cities are situated on opposite banks of a river, within sight of each other. There have been proposals to connect the two capitals by a Brazzaville–Kinshasa Bridge, while Kinshasa lies to the south, Brazzaville lies to the north of the Congo River. The city is 506 kilometres inland from the Atlantic Ocean and approximately 474 kilometres south of the equator, the city is a commune that is separated from the other regions of the republic, it is surrounded by the Pool Region. Around the city are large plains, the town is relatively flat, and situated at an altitude of 317 metres. The Italo-French explorer, Pietro Paolo Savorgnan di Brazzà, founded the settlement which commemorates his name on 10 September 1880 on the site of a Bateke village named Nkuna. The local leader, Makoko of the Téké, signed a treaty of protection with de Brazza which subjugated his lands to the French Empire. The city of Brazzaville was built four years later in order as a competitor with Léopoldville which Belgian colonists built on the side of the river. From October 1880 until May 1882 a small squad of troops led by Senegalese Sergeant Malamine Camara occupied the site, the Berlin Conference of 1884 placed French control over the area on an official footing. The city became the capital first of the French Congo, and then of French Equatorial Africa, a federation of French colonial states which encompassed Gabon, in 1924 the Congo-Océan railway came into service, linking Brazzaville with the Atlantic port of Pointe-Noire. Construction of the resulted in the death of over 17,000 Africans. During World War II Brazzaville and the rest of French Equatorial Africa, in 1944, Brazzaville hosted a meeting of the Free French forces and representatives of Frances African colonies. The resulting Brazzaville Declaration represented an attempt to redefine the relationship between France and its African colonies, until the 1960s, the city was divided into European and African sections
15.
Republic of the Congo
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The Republic of the Congo, also known as the Congo Republic, West Congo, Congo-Brazzaville or simply Congo, is a country located in Central Africa. The region was dominated by Bantu-speaking tribes, who built trade links leading into the Congo River basin, Congo-Brazzaville was formerly part of the French colony of Equatorial Africa. Upon independence in 1960, the colony of French Congo became the Republic of the Congo. The Peoples Republic of the Congo was a Marxist–Leninist one-party state from 1970 to 1991, Bantu-speaking peoples who founded tribes during the Bantu expansions largely displaced and absorbed the earliest inhabitants of the region, the Pygmy people, about 1500 BC. Several Bantu kingdoms—notably those of the Kongo, the Loango, the Portuguese explorer Diogo Cão reached the mouth of the Congo in 1484. Commercial relationships quickly grew between the inland Bantu kingdoms and European merchants who traded various commodities, manufactured goods, the area north of the Congo River came under French sovereignty in 1880 as a result of Pierre de Brazzas treaty with King Makoko of the Bateke. This Congo Colony became known first as French Congo, then as Middle Congo in 1903, in 1908, France organized French Equatorial Africa, comprising Middle Congo, Gabon, Chad, and Oubangui-Chari. The French designated Brazzaville as the federal capital, economic development during the first 50 years of colonial rule in Congo centered on natural-resource extraction. The methods were brutal, construction of the Congo–Ocean Railroad following World War I has been estimated to have cost at least 14,000 lives. During the Nazi occupation of France during World War II, Brazzaville functioned as the capital of Free France between 1940 and 1943. The Brazzaville Conference of 1944 heralded a period of reform in French colonial policy. Congo benefited from the expansion of colonial administrative and infrastructure spending as a result of its central geographic location within AEF. It also received a local legislature after the adoption of the 1946 constitution that established the Fourth Republic, during these reforms, Middle Congo became known as the Republic of the Congo in 1958 and published its first constitution in 1959. Antagonism between the pro-Opangault Mbochis and the pro-Youlou Balalis resulted in a series of riots in Brazzaville in February 1959, the Republic of the Congo received full independence from France on 15 August 1960. Fulbert Youlou ruled as the countrys first president until labour elements, the Congolese military took charge of the country briefly and installed a civilian provisional government headed by Alphonse Massamba-Débat. Resentment and bitterness between the Baali and the Mbochi peoples brought upheaval in Brazzaville, the French army arrived to quell the turmoil. New elections took place in April 1959, by the time the Congo became independent, Jacques Opangault, the former opponent of Youlou, agreed to serve under him. Youlou became the first President of the Republic of the Congo, since the political tension was so high in Pointe-Noire, Youlou moved the capital to Brazzaville
16.
Politburo
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A politburo /ˈpɒlɪtˌbjʊəroʊ/ or political bureau is the executive committee for a number of Communist Parties. The term politburo in English comes from the Russian Politbyuro, itself a contraction of Politicheskoye Byuro, the Spanish term Politburó is directly loaned from Russian, as is the German Politbüro. Chinese uses a calque, from which the Vietnamese, and Korean terms derive, the first politburo was created in Russia by the Bolshevik Party in 1917 to provide strong and continuous leadership during the Russian Revolution occurring during the same year. The first Politburo had seven members, Lenin, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Trotsky, Stalin, except for Lenin, who died in 1924, Stalin had all the original members of the Politburo executed from 1937–1940. During the 20th century, nations that had a politburo included the USSR, East Germany, Afghanistan, Czechoslovakia and China, today, there are five countries that have a politburo system. In Marxist–Leninist states, the party is seen as the vanguard of the people, in that way, the party officials in the Politburo informally lead the state. Officially, the Party Congress elects a Central Committee which, in turn, elects the Politburo, the Politburo was theoretically answerable to the Central Committee. Under Stalin this model was reversed, and it was the General Secretary who determined the composition of the Politburo and this tendency decreased to some extent after Stalins death, though in practice the Politburo remained a self-perpetuating body whose decisions de facto had the force of law. In Trotskyist parties, the Politburo is a bureau of the Central Committee tasked with making political decisions. It is appointed by the Central Committee from among its members, the post of General Secretary carries far less weight in this model. See, for example, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party
17.
Volkspolizei
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The Volkspolizei – full official name, the Deutsche Volkspolizei, abbreviated to DVP or VP, and colloquially known as the VoPo – was the national police force of the German Democratic Republic. The VP was equipped with armoured personnel carriers and artillery, the Volkspolizei was effectively founded just following World War II, when the Soviet Union established central police forces in the regions of Germany it occupied. The SVAG approved the arming of police forces on 31 October 1945. The Volkspolizei executed traditional police duties such as investigation and traffic control, the Volkspolizei was a national police force and was directly administered by and subordinate only to the Ministry of the Interior. Rather than the service status that West German police enjoyed. The monthly salary was above the average income, the Volkspolizei was administered by the Ministry of the Interior. The overall commander was the First Deputy Minister of the Interior, Berlin Presidium of the Peoples Police Eight police inspectorates River Police Inspectorate Fourteen district commands—one per East German District, excluding Karl Marx Stadt. Area Command of the Volkpolizei in Karl-Marx-Stadt to protect the enterprise of Wismut AG. Upon joining, a recruit would take a course at the Police Academy. The schedule contained political education, police law, criminal law and procedures, afterwards the recruit completed a 6-month practical internship. The reasons Volkspolizei officers gave for joining the force were a desire to work with people, idealism, family tradition, belief in the system, from 1962, the Volkspolizei had its own school in Berlin-Biesdorf which trained around 3,500 officers up to 1989. The Kasernierten Einheiten had their own training facilities, Officers were initially trained in the army ground forces, from 1963 at the Officers school and from 1971 to the officers school in Dresden-Wilder Mann. With the accession of East Germany to the Federal Republic on 3 October 1990, about forty percent of the Volkspolizei employees had to leave the service. The National Peoples Army and the Volkspolizei erected the Berlin Wall in 1961, there were various kinds of uniforms, worn according to the work or social situation and differing in material for summer or winter wear. Most uniforms — service, semi-dress, and parade — are gray-green, the better quality and texture of the cloth in officers uniforms distinguished them from the uniforms of enlisted personnel. The field and service uniforms became normal attire in garrison and for most other duty activities, the basic categories of uniforms were field, service, semi-dress, and parade. Field uniforms were for only the Kasernierte Volkspolizei, the field uniform consisted of the NVAs service uniform. The uniform was worn with a cap, service cap, or steel helmet, high black boots
18.
Free German Trade Union Federation
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The Free German Trade Union Federation, in German Freier Deutsche Gewerkschaftsbund, was an East German organisation that existed between 1946 and 1990. It was part of the National Front and had representatives in the Volkskammer, on paper the FDGB was the umbrella organization for about fifteen individual trade unions, but, in reality, most members did not even realise that was the case. Only a handwritten note on the last page of the standard red membership booklet mentioned the individual trade union they belonged to, FDGB was a member of the World Federation of Trade Unions. The bureaucratic union apparatus was a component and tool of the SED’s power structure. The smallest unit was a Kollektiv, which all workers in any organisation belonged to, including state leaders. They recommended trustworthy people as the lowest FDGB functionaries and voted for them in open-list ballots and their jobs, like those of the FDGB district leaders, were assured until they retired as long as they did not stray from party policy. Officially, membership in the FDGB was voluntary, but unofficially it was possible to develop a career without joining. In 1986, 98% of all workers and employees were organized in the FDGB and this meant that it was nominally one of the world’s largest trade unions. As well as improving members’ career chances, the FDGB also offered various concessions, the FDGB’s own holiday service was responsible for the latter. There was a criticism that the union held too much power, e. g. it was a very lengthy, the single trade union was also very important as a source of new blood for the military. Using small benefits as an incentive, and if necessary gentle pressure, large numbers of workers, after some restoration work, the school opened in 1947 under the name FDGB-Bundesschule Theodor Leipart. In January 1952 it was given degree awarding status and renamed Gewerkschaftshochschule Fritz Heckert, after 1952 two year courses, and later, from 1956, three year bachelor degree-equivalent courses were also taught. From 1958 correspondence courses were offered, and from 1959 courses were run for foreign trade unionists. Over 15,000 East German and 5,000 foreign trade unionists were trained by the FDGB school between 1947 and 1990, the college closed in September 1990 just before German reunification. The building, originally completed in 1930, was a project of the Bauhaus design school and is now restored and preserved as an historic monument, since 2007 the building has been used by the Internat des Bildungszentrums der Handwerkskammer Berlin. In May 1990, shortly before German reunification, the FDGB was dissolved, many former members did not join the West German unions, some, due to the lightning privatization of the GDR, simply because they had lost their jobs. Media related to Freier Deutscher Gewerkschaftsbund at Wikimedia Commons
19.
National Guard of the United States
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All members of the National Guard of the United States are also members of the militia of the United States as defined by 10 U. S. C. National Guard units are under the control of the state. The majority of National Guard soldiers and airmen hold a civilian job full-time while serving part-time as a National Guard member, local militias were formed from the earliest English colonization of the Americas in 1607. The first colony-wide militia was formed by Massachusetts in 1636 by merging small older local units, the various colonial militias became state militias when the United States became independent. The title National Guard was used from 1824 by some New York State militia units, National Guard became a standard nationwide militia title in 1903, and specifically indicated reserve forces under mixed state and federal control from 1933. The first muster of militia forces in what is today the United States took place on September 16,1565, appropriately enough, this muster occurred in the shadow of an oncoming hurricane. This Spanish militia tradition and the English tradition that would be established to the north would provide the nucleus for Colonial defense in the New World. The militia tradition continued with the first permanent English settlements in the New World, Jamestown Colony and Plymouth Colony both had militia forces, which initially consisted of every able bodied adult male. By the mid-1600s every town had at least one militia company, as a result of the Spanish–American War, Congress was called upon to reform and regulate the training and qualification of state militias. The first national laws regulating the militia were the Militia acts of 1792, in 1903, with passage of the Dick Act, the predecessor to the modern-day National Guard was formed. It required the states to divide their militias into two sections, the law recommended the title National Guard for the first section, known as the organized militia, and Reserve Militia for all others. During World War I, Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916, Congress also authorized the states to maintain Home Guards, which were reserve forces outside the National Guards being deployed by the Federal Government. The National Guard of the states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first-line of defense for the United States. C. Where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee, the governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods. The National Guard is administered by the National Guard Bureau, which is a joint activity of the Army, the National Guard Bureau provides a communication channel for state National Guards to the DoD. S. C. The National Guard Bureau is headed by the Chief of the National Guard Bureau, prior to 2008, the functions of Agricultural Development Teams were within Provincial Reconstruction Teams of the US Government. Today, ADTs consist of soldiers and airmen from the Army National Guard, today, ADTs bring an effective platform for enhanced dialogue, building confidence, sharing interests, and increasing cooperation amongst the disparate peoples and tribes of Afghanistan
20.
Army Reserve (United Kingdom)
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The Army Reserve is the active-duty volunteer reserve force and integrated element of the British Army. Most Volunteer infantry units had unique identities, but lost these in the reorganisation, only one infantry unit, the London Regiment, has maintained a separate identity. Reservists in the past also served as constables or bailiffs, even holding positions of civic duty as overseer of their parish, the more modern Yeomen of the 18th century were cavalry-based units, which were often used to suppress riots. Several units that are now part of the Army Reserve bear the title militia, after the Second World War, for example, the Army Reserve - or Territorial Army as it was known then - was not demobilised until 1947. All Army Reserve personnel have their jobs protected to a limited extent by law should they be compulsorily mobilised. There is, however, no protection against discrimination in employment for membership of the Army Reserve in the normal course of events. As part of the process, remaining units of militia were converted to the Special Reserve. The TF was formed on 1 April 1908 and contained fourteen infantry divisions and it had an overall strength of approximately 269,000. The individual units that made up each division or brigade were administered by County Associations, the other members of the association consisted of military members, representative members and co-opted members. Associations took over any property vested in the volunteers or yeomanry under their administration, each regiment or battalion had a Regular Army officer attached as full-time adjutant. In August 1914, after the outbreak of the First World War, territorial units were given the option of serving in France and, by 25 August, in excess of seventy battalions had volunteered. This question over the availability of territorial divisions for service was one of Lord Kitcheners motivations for raising the New Army separately. The first fully Territorial division to join the fighting on the Western Front was the 46th Division in March 1915, with divisions later serving in Gallipoli and elsewhere. As the war progressed, and casualties mounted, the character of territorial units was diluted by the inclusion of conscript. Following the Armistice all units of the Territorial Force were gradually disbanded, New recruiting started in early 1920, and the Territorial Force was reconstituted on 7 February 1920. On 1 October 1920, the Territorial Force was renamed the Territorial Army, the 1st Line divisions were reconstituted in that year. However, the composition of the divisions was altered, with a reduction in the number of infantry battalions required, there was also a reduced need for cavalry, and of the 55 yeomanry regiments, only the 14 most senior retained their horses. The remaining yeomanry were converted to artillery or armoured car units or disbanded, the amalgamation of 40 pairs of infantry battalions was announced in October 1921
21.
Factory
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Factories arose with the introduction of machinery during the Industrial Revolution when the capital and space requirements became too great for cottage industry or workshops. Early factories that contained small amounts of machinery, such as one or two spinning mules, and fewer than a dozen workers have been called glorified workshops, most modern factories have large warehouses or warehouse-like facilities that contain heavy equipment used for assembly line production. Large factories tend to be located with access to multiple modes of transportation, with some having rail, highway, factories may either make discrete products or some type of material continuously produced such as chemicals, pulp and paper, or refined oil products. Oil refineries have most of their equipment outdoors, discrete products may be final consumer goods, or parts and sub-assemblies which are made into final products elsewhere. Factories may be supplied parts from elsewhere or make them from raw materials, continuous production industries typically use heat or electricity to transform streams of raw materials into finished products. The term mill originally referred to the milling of grain, which usually used natural resources such as water or wind power until those were displaced by steam power in the 19th century. Because many processes like spinning and weaving, iron rolling, and paper manufacturing were originally powered by water, according to translations of Demosthenes and Herodotus, Naucratis was a, or the only, factory in the entirety of ancient Egypt. A source of 1983, states the largest factory production in ancient times was of 120 slaves within 4th century BC Athens, although The Cambridge Online Dictionary definition of factory states, a building or set of buildings where large amounts of goods are made using machines elsewhere. The wheel was invented circa 3000 BC, the spoked wheel c.2000 BC, the Iron Age began approximately 1200-1000 BC. However, other sources define machinery as a means of production, according to one text the water-mill was first made in 555 A. D. by Belisarius, although according to another they were known to Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius in the first century B. C. By the time of the 4th century A. D. mills with a capacity to grind 3 tonnes of cereal an hour, the Venice Arsenal provides one of the first examples of a factory in the modern sense of the word. Founded in 1104 in Venice, Republic of Venice, several hundred years before the Industrial Revolution, the Venice Arsenal apparently produced nearly one ship every day and, at its height, employed 16,000 people. One of the earliest factories was John Lombes water-powered silk mill at Derby, by 1746, an integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans, pins, wire, housing was provided for workers on site. Josiah Wedgwood in Staffordshire and Matthew Boulton at his Soho Manufactory were other prominent early industrialists, the factory system began widespread use somewhat later when cotton spinning was mechanized. Richard Arkwright is the credited with inventing the prototype of the modern factory. After he patented his water frame in 1769, he established Cromford Mill, in Derbyshire, England, the factory system was a new way of organizing labour made necessary by the development of machines which were too large to house in a workers cottage. Working hours were as long as they had been for the farmer, overall, this practice essentially reduced skilled and unskilled workers to replaceable commodities
22.
Worker
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The workforce or labour force is the labour pool in employment. It is generally used to describe those working for a company or industry. Within a company, its value can be labelled as its Workforce in Place, the workforce of a country includes both the employed and the unemployed. The labour force participation rate, LFPR, is the ratio between the force and the overall size of their cohort. The term generally excludes the employers or management, and can imply those involved in manual labour and it may also mean all those who are available for work. Formal labour is any sort of employment that is structured and paid in a formal way, unlike the informal sector of the economy, formal labour within a country contributes to that countrys gross national product. Informal labour is labour that falls short of being a formal arrangement in law or in practice and it can be paid or unpaid and it is always unstructured and unregulated. Formal employment is more reliable than informal employment, generally, the former yields higher income and greater benefits and securities for both men and women. The contribution of informal labourers is immense, informal labour is expanding globally, most significantly in developing countries. According to a study done by Jacques Charmes, in the year 2000 informal labour made up 57% of non-agricultural employment, 40% of urban employment, and 83% of the new jobs in Latin America. That same year, informal labour made up 78% of non-agricultural employment, 61% of urban employment, particularly after an economic crisis, labourers tend to shift from the formal sector to the informal sector. This trend was seen after the Asian economic crisis began in 1997. Gender is frequently associated with informal labour, Women are employed more often informally than they are formally, and informal labour is an overall larger source of employment for females than it is for males. Women frequent the sector of the economy through occupations like home-based workers. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World shows that in the 1990s, 81% of women in Benin were street vendors, 55% in Guatemala, 44% in Mexico, 33% in Kenya, overall, 60% of women workers in the developing world are employed in the informal sector. The specific percentages are 84% and 58% for women in Sub-Saharan Africa, the percentages for men in both of these areas of the world are lower, amounting to 63% and 48% respectively. In Asia, 65% of women workers and 65% of men workers are employed in the informal sector, globally, a large percentage of women that are formally employed also work in the informal sector behind the scenes. These women make up the work force
23.
Property
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In the abstract, property is that which belongs to or with something, whether as an attribute or as a component of said thing. In economics and political economy, there are three forms of property, private property, public property, and collective property. Property that jointly belongs to more than one party may be possessed or controlled thereby in very similar or very distinct ways, whether simply or complexly, whether equally or unequally. However, there is an expectation that each partys will with regard to the property be clearly defined and unconditional, so as to distinguish ownership and this mediating relationship between individual, property and state is called a property regime. The distinction between property and private property is regarded as a confusion since different individuals often hold differing rights over a single object. An article of property may have physical and incorporeal parts, a title, or a right of ownership, establishes the relation between the property and other persons, assuring the owner the right to dispose of the property as the owner sees fit. Often property is defined by the code of the sovereignty, and protected wholly or more usually partially by such entity. The standards of proof concerning proofs of ownerships are also addressed by the code of the local sovereignty, some philosophers assert that property rights arise from social convention, while others find justifications for them in morality or in natural law. Property, in the first instance, is a thing-in-itself, when a person finds a thing and takes that thing into that persons possession and control, then that thing becomes a thing-for-you for that person. Generally, the ground and any buildings which are attached are considered real property, while movable goods. Also, property cannot be considered a concept, because in the first instance. Various scholarly disciplines may treat the concept more systematically, but definitions vary, positive law defines such rights, and the judiciary can adjudicate and enforce property rights. According to Adam Smith, the expectation of profit from improving ones stock of capital rests on private property rights, Capitalism has as a central assumption that property rights encourage their holders to develop the property, generate wealth, and efficiently allocate resources based on the operation of markets. From this has evolved the modern conception of property as a right enforced by law, in the expectation that this will produce more wealth. In his text The Common Law, Oliver Wendell Holmes describes property as having two fundamental aspects, the first, possession, can be defined as control over a resource based on the practical inability of another to contradict the ends of the possessor. The second, title, is the expectation that others will recognize rights to control resource and he elaborates the differences between these two concepts, and proposes a history of how they came to be attached to persons, as opposed to families or to entities such as the church. Classical liberalism subscribes to the theory of property. They hold that each own their own life, it follows that one must own the products of that life
24.
Infantry
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Infantry is the general branch of an army that engages in military combat on foot. As the troops who engage with the enemy in close-ranged combat, infantry units bear the largest brunt of warfare, Infantry can enter and maneuver in terrain that is inaccessible to military vehicles and employ crew-served infantry weapons that provide greater and more sustained firepower. In English, the 16th-century term Infantry describes soldiers who walk to the battlefield, and there engage, fight, the term arose in Sixteenth-Century Spain, which boasted one of the first professional standing armies seen in Europe since the days of Rome. It was common to appoint royal princes to military commands, and the men under them became known as Infanteria. in the Canadian Army, the role of the infantry is to close with, and destroy the enemy. In the U. S. Army, the closes with the enemy, by means of fire and maneuver, in order to destroy or capture him, or to repel his assault by fire, close combat. In the U. S. Marine Corps, the role of the infantry is to locate, close with, and destroy the enemy fire and maneuver. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century, artillery has become a dominant force on the battlefield. Since World War I, combat aircraft and armoured vehicles have become dominant. In 20th and 21st century warfare, infantry functions most effectively as part of a combined arms team including artillery, armour, Infantry relies on organized formations to be employed in battle. These have evolved over time, but remain a key element to effective infantry development and deployment, until the end of the 19th century, infantry units were for the most part employed in close formations up until contact with the enemy. This allowed commanders to control of the unit, especially while maneuvering. The development of guns and other weapons with increased firepower forced infantry units to disperse in order to make them less vulnerable to such weapons. This decentralization of command was made possible by improved communications equipment, among the various subtypes of infantry is Medium infantry. This refers to infantry which are heavily armed and armored than heavy infantry. In the early period, medium infantry were largely eliminated due to discontinued use of body armour up until the 20th century. In the United States Army, Stryker Infantry is considered Medium Infantry, since they are heavier than light infantry, Infantry doctrine is the concise expression of how infantry forces contribute to campaigns, major operations, battles, and engagements. It is a guide to action, not a set of hard, doctrine provides a very common frame of reference across the military forces, allowing the infantry to function cooperatively in what are now called combined arms operations. Doctrine helps standardise operations, facilitating readiness by establishing common ways of accomplishing infantry tasks, doctrine links theory, history, experimentation, and practice
25.
Military
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The armed forces of a country are its government-sponsored defense, fighting forces, and organizations. They exist to further the foreign and domestic policies of their body and to defend that body. Armed force is the use of armed forces to achieve political objectives, the study of the use of armed forces is called military science. Broadly speaking, this involves considering offense and defense at three levels, strategy, operational art, and tactics, all three levels study the application of the use of force in order to achieve a desired objective. In most countries the basis of the forces is the military. However, armed forces can include other paramilitary structures, the obvious benefit to a country in maintaining armed forces is in providing protection from foreign threats and from internal conflict. In recent decades armed forces personnel have also used as emergency civil support roles in post-disaster situations. On the other hand, they may harm a society by engaging in counter-productive warfare. Expenditure on science and technology to develop weapons and systems sometimes produces side benefits, although some claim that greater benefits could come from targeting the money directly
26.
Police
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A police force is a constituted body of persons empowered by the state to enforce the law, protect property, and limit civil disorder. Their powers include the use of force. Law enforcement, however, constitutes part of policing activity. Policing has included an array of activities in different situations, in some societies, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, these developed within the context of maintaining the class system and the protection of private property. Many police forces suffer from police corruption to a greater or lesser degree, the police force is usually a public sector service, meaning they are paid through taxes. Alternative names for police force include constabulary, gendarmerie, police department, police service, crime prevention, protective services, law enforcement agency, members may be referred to as police officers, troopers, sheriffs, constables, rangers, peace officers or civic/civil guards. As police are often interacting with individuals, slang terms are numerous, many slang terms for police officers are decades or centuries old with lost etymology. One of the oldest, cop, has largely lost its slang connotations and this is derived from πόλις, city. Law enforcement in ancient China was carried out by prefects for thousands of years since it developed in both the Chu and Jin kingdoms of the Spring and Autumn period, in Jin, dozens of prefects were spread across the state, each having limited authority and employment period. Under each prefect were subprefects who helped collectively with law enforcement in the area, some prefects were responsible for handling investigations, much like modern police detectives. The concept of the system spread to other cultures such as Korea. In ancient Greece, publicly owned slaves were used by magistrates as police, in Athens, a group of 300 Scythian slaves was used to guard public meetings to keep order and for crowd control, and also assisted with dealing with criminals, handling prisoners, and making arrests. Other duties associated with modern policing, such as investigating crimes, were left to the citizens themselves, in the Roman empire, the army, rather than a dedicated police organization, provided security. Local watchmen were hired by cities to some extra security. Magistrates such as fiscal and quaestors investigated crimes. There was no concept of public prosecution, so victims of crime or their families had to organize and their duties included apprehending thieves and robbers and capturing runaway slaves. The vigiles were supported by the Urban Cohorts who acted as a heavy-duty anti-riot force, in medieval Spain, Santa Hermandades, or holy brotherhoods, peacekeeping associations of armed individuals, were a characteristic of municipal life, especially in Castile. These organizations were intended to be temporary, but became a fixture of Spain
27.
State of emergency
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A government or division of government may declare that their area is in a state of emergency. This means that the government can suspend and/or change some functions of the executive and it alerts citizens to change their normal behavior and orders government agencies to implement emergency plans. Justitium is its equivalent in Roman law, where Senate could put forward senatus consultum ultimum and it can also be used as a rationale for suspending rights and freedoms guaranteed under a countrys constitution or basic law. The procedure for and legality of doing so varies by country, under international law, rights and freedoms may be suspended during a state of emergency, for example, a government can detain persons and hold them without trial. All rights that can be derogated from are listed in the International Covenant for Civil, non-derogable rights are listed in Article 4 of the ICCPR, they include the rights to freedom from arbitrary deprivation of liberty and to freedom from torture and/or ill-treatment. Constitutions are contracts between the government and the individuals of that country. The International Covenant for Civil and Political Rights is an international law document signed by states, therefore, the Covenant only applies to persons acting in an official capacity, not private individuals. However, signatories to the Covenant are expected to integrate it into national legislation, although this is common protocol stipulated by the ICCPR often this is not strictly followed, enforcement is better regulated by European Convention of human rights. In some situations, martial law is declared, allowing the military greater authority to act. In other situations, emergency is not declared and de facto measures taken or decree-law adopted by the government. Ms. Nicole Questiaux and Mr. Article 4 to the International Covenant on Civil, the European Convention on Human Rights and American Convention on Human Rights have similar derogatory provisions. No derogation is permitted to the International Labour Conventions, some political theorists, such as Carl Schmitt, have argued that the power to decide the initiation of the state of emergency defines sovereignty itself. The state of emergency can, and often has been, abused by being invoked, an example would be to allow a state to suppress internal opposition without having to respect human rights. An example was the August 1991 attempted coup in the Soviet Union where the coup leaders invoked a state of emergency and this provision was much abused during dictatorships, with long-lasting states of siege giving the government a free hand to suppress opposition. State-of-emergency legislation differs in each state of Australia, in Victoria, the premier can declare a state of emergency if there is a threat to employment, safety or public order. The declaration expires after 30 days, and a resolution of either the upper or lower House of Parliament may revoke it earlier, under the Public Safety Preservation Act, a declared state of emergency allows the premier to immediately make any desired regulations to secure public order and safety. However, these regulations expire if Parliament does not agree to them within 7 days. Also, under the Essential Services Act, the premier may operate or prohibit operation of, as desired, a State of Emergency does not apply to the whole state, but rather districts or shires, where essential services may have been disrupted
28.
Protest
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A protest is an expression of bearing witness on behalf of an express cause by words or actions with regard to particular events, policies or situations. Protests can take different forms, from individual statements to mass demonstrations. Various forms of self-expression and protest are sometimes restricted by policy, economic circumstances, religious orthodoxy, social structures. One state reaction to protests is the use of riot police, observers have noted an increased militarization of protest policing, with police deploying armored vehicles and snipers against the protesters. A protest can itself sometimes be the subject of a counter-protest, in such a case, counter-protesters demonstrate their support for the person, policy, action, etc. that is the subject of the original protest. In some cases, these protesters can violently clash, unaddressed protests may grow and widen into civil resistance, dissent, activism, riots, insurgency, revolts, and political and/or social revolution. 2013 through Feb.2014 Black Lives Matter 2016 South Korean protests 2017 Jallikattu protests Dakota Access Pipeline protests A protest can take many forms, the Dynamics of Collective Action project and the Global Nonviolent Action Database are two of the leading data collection efforts attempting to capture protest events. Reference to speeches, speakers, singing, preaching, often verified by indication of sound equipment of PA, ordinarily will include worship services, speeches, briefings. March, Reference to moving from one location to another, to be distinguished from rotating or walking in a circle with picket signs which by definition, but also no reference to sound systems or to marches, it may well be a vigil. Most vigils have banners, placards, or leaflets so that people passing by, despite silence from participants, picket, The modal activity is picketing, there may be references to picket line, to informational picketing, holding signs, carrying signs and walking around in a circle). Symbolic display, e. g. Menorah, Creche Scene, graffiti, cross burnings, signs, standing displays Attack by instigators Ethnic group victim of physical attack, boundary motivating attack is other groups identity, as in gay-bashing, lynching. Can also include verbal attack and/or threats, too, Riot, melee, mob violence, Large-scale, use of violence by instigators against persons, property, police, or buildings separately or in combination, lasting several hours. Strike, slow down and sick-ins employee work protest of any kind, Regular air strike through failure of negotiations, boycott, Organized refusal to buy or use a product or service, rent strikes. Press conference, If specifically named as such in report, could involve disclosure of information to educate the public or influence various decision-makers. Organization formation announcement or meeting announcement, meeting or press conference to announce the formation of a new organization, conflict, attack or clash, no instigator, This includes any boundary conflict in which no instigator can be identified, i. e. black/white conflicts, abortion/anti-abortion conflicts. Lawsuit, legal maneuver by social movement organization or group The Global Nonviolent Action database uses Gene Sharps classification of 198 methods of nonviolent action, there is considerable overlap with the Dynamics of Collective Action repertoire, although the GNA repertoire includes more specific tactics. Together, the two projects help define tactics available to protesters and document instances of their use, thomas Ratliff and Lori Hall have devised a typology of six broad activity categories of the protest activities described in the Dynamics of Collective Action project. Literal, symbolic, aesthetic and sensory - Artistic, dramaturgical, use of images, objects, graphic arts, musical performances, or vocal/auditory exhibitions
29.
BTR-152
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The BTR-152 was a six-wheeled Soviet armored personnel carrier †, built on the chassis and drive train of a ZiS-151 utility truck. BTR-152s were available in several marks and manufactured in large numbers for the Soviet military, late production models utilized automotive components from the more reliable ZIL-157 truck. BTR-152s could carry an infantry squad each, or specialist weapons teams along with their mortars. In Soviet service, a number were deployed as artillery tractors. During World War II, Red Army tacticians favored combined arms offensives, however, the Soviet infantrymen lacked the armored protection and rapid mobility of the tanks, and remained comparatively vulnerable to enemy fire. These were widely used for transport, giving rise to a new doctrine in which armored vehicles capable of keeping pace with tanks brought infantry to an engagement. The infantrymen would then debark and enter combat dismounted, the APC had to be capable of transporting at least eight troops. Meanwhile, specifications for another APC had been issued, capable of seating 15 to 20 additional passengers, existing M3 half-tracks and captured German SdKfz 251s were studied as potential references for the upcoming pre-production design. Design work was carried out by a team of five ZiS employees, Fitterman, K. M. Androsov, A. P. Petrenko, V. F. Rodionov and P. P. Chernyaev. The final prototype was trialed by the Soviet Armed Forces in December 1949, serial production of the BTR-152 under the manufacturers code ZiS-152 commenced around mid 1950, making it the first mass-produced Soviet APC. Despite being designed around the time, the BTR-40 did not enter serial production until the end of the year. The BTR-152 was used by the Soviet military as a command and communications vehicle, fire support vehicle, artillery tractor, being open-topped, the BTR-152s crew was vulnerable to indirect fire. In later years, the vehicle was not ideal for the prospect of a conventional war in Europe either. However, these early BTRs remained effective as a low-cost option that allowed the Soviets to rapidly motorize their existing infantry divisions, a program in the late 1950s looked at ways to replace the BTR-152 with a more sophisticated APC utilizing a purpose-designed, amphibious chassis. Approximately 8,600 BTR-152s of all variants were manufactured in the Soviet Union, Soviet BTR-152s were produced between 1950 and 1959, being supplemented by the BTR-60 from 1960 onwards. Small quantities were also converted to armored ambulances and combat engineering vehicles for the Soviet Army, BTR-152s first saw combat during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956, when they were deployed by the 12th Motorized Brigade of the Soviet Internal Troops to crush the Hungarys fledgling uprising. The BTRs were deployed in Budapest and other settlements, as well as on the Hungarian border with Austria, a number were damaged or destroyed by insurgents armed with molotov cocktails, which were pitched into the open troop compartments without apparent difficulty. Since they were wheeled, some BTR-152s were also immobilized when their rubber tires caught fire, syria likewise received at least 200 BTR-152s in 1966, and another 300 three years later
30.
Garant 30k SK-1
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The Garant 30k SK-1 better known as the Sonder Kfz-1 and SK-1 was an East German armored patrol vehicle was used only by the Riot Police of the Volkspolizei and not used by the East German Army. The SK-1 is the chassis of a Robur Garant 30K truck fitted with an armored body, there is a door in the rear of the hull for the crew to enter, and a hatch on top of the turret. The turret has several vision slits and a hole for a machinegun, with the reunification of Germany, most of the SK-1s were scrapped, except for some sent to museums or private collectors. Fuel Type Diesel, A Load 300 kg Vehicle Weight 5.4 tons Crew 2+3 Fuel Cap 120/48 Armor 16mm Armament MG-34 with 900 rounds of 7. 92mm Ammunition Picture at Polizeiautos. de
31.
Karl-Marx-Allee
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The Karl-Marx-Allee is a monumental socialist boulevard built by the GDR between 1952 and 1960 in Berlin Friedrichshain and Mitte. Today the boulevard is named after Karl Marx, the boulevard was named Stalinallee between 1949 and 1961, and was a flagship building project of East Germanys reconstruction programme after World War II. The avenue, which is 89 m wide and nearly 2 km long, is lined with monumental eight-storey buildings designed in the wedding-cake style, at each end are dual towers at Frankfurter Tor and Strausberger Platz designed by Hermann Henselmann. The buildings differ in the revetments of the facades which contain often equally, most of the buildings are covered by architectural ceramics. It remained there until 1961 when it was removed in an operation in the course of de-Stalinization. On June 17,1953 the Stalinallee became the focus of an uprising which endangered the young states existence. Builders and construction workers demonstrated against the communist government, leading to a national uprising, the rebellion was quashed with Soviet tanks and troops, resulting in the loss of at least 125 lives. De-Stalinization led to the renaming of the street, after the founder of Marxism, since the collapse of Eastern European communism in 1989/1990, renaming the street back to its prewar name Große Frankfurter Straße has periodically been discussed, so far without conclusive results. The boulevard later found favour with postmodernists, with Philip Johnson describing it as city planning on the grand scale, while Aldo Rossi called it Europes last great street. Since German reunification most of the buildings, including the two towers, have been restored, after its completion in the 1950s, the boulevard was very popular with Berliners and visitors alike. Taking the E line to the shops on Stalin Boulevard was not only a catchy slogan, people could find things they would not see elsewhere, and the shopping facilities set an example for the whole of the GDR. The shops offered great variety and were attractively decorated, the boulevard soon developed into a shoppers paradise in the GDR. It also served the function of introducing visitors to the culture of its socialist sister states. Shopping was an experience for visitors from the West. In the West, the rate was 1,8 but most restaurants. Subsequently, several media outlets reiterated this claim, no alternative verification for the term was given, making it a self-referential claim. In 1963 the tiled facades of buildings were falling off. Stalinist architecture Seven Sisters The Straße der Pariser Kommune connects with Karl-Marx-Allee Media related to Karl-Marx-Allee at Wikimedia Commons Homepage A photo tour of Karl-Marx-Allee
32.
Olive (color)
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Olive is a dark yellowish-green color, like that of unripe or green olives. As a color word in the English language, it appears in late Middle English, shaded toward gray, it becomes olive drab. Olivine is the color of the mineral olivine. The first recorded use of Olivine as a name in English was in 1912. It was widely used as a color for uniforms and equipment in the armed forces. The first recorded use of olive drab as a name in English was in 1892. Drab is a color name, from the middle of the 16th century. It refers to a light brown color, the color of cloth made from undyed homespun wool. It took its name from the old French word for cloth, olive drab was the color of the standard fighting uniform for U. S. GIs and military vehicles during World War II. U. S. soldiers often referred to their uniforms as ODs due to the color, the color used at the beginning of the war by the U. S. S. Uniform pattern in the 1981, which retained olive drab as one of the swatches in the pattern. As a solid color, it is not as effective for camouflage as multiple-color camo schemes, though it is used by the U. S. military to color webbing. The armies of Israel, India, Cuba, Venezuela, in the American novel A Separate Peace, Finny says to Gene. and in these times of war, we all see olive drab, and we all know it is the patriotic color. All others arent about the war, they arent patriotic, there are many shades and variations of olive drab, one common version is defined by Federal Standard 595 in the United States. Olive green is greener than olive or olive drab but less green than dark olive green, an example is U. S. Army olive green 107, Displayed at right is the web color dark olive green. Black olive is a color in the RAL color matching system and it is designated as RAL6015. The color black olive is a representation of the color of black olives and this is one of the colors in the RAL color matching system, a color system widely used in Europe. The RAL color list originated in 1927, and it reached its present form in 1961
33.
Battle Dress Uniform
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This article is about the U. S. uniform. For the similarly named British combat uniform worn from 1939 to 1961, see Battle Dress, or for army action clothing in general, see Battledress. The Battle Dress Uniform are camouflaged fatigues that were used by the United States Armed Forces as their uniform for combat situations from the early 1980s to the mid-2000s. Since then, it has replaced or supplanted in every branch of the U. S. Armed Forces, except for elements of the U. S. Coast Guard as of 2013. The U. S. Navy currently authorizes wear of the BDU uniform at locations such as at the U. S, Special Operations Command and other ground-based naval units, such as Seabees. U. S. Coast Guard personnel overseas and working with military services may wear Woodland BDUs. As late as 2014, BDUs were still worn by officers of the U. S, public Health Service as the prescribed uniform for deployment, but have since been replaced by a variant of the U. S. Coast Guards ODU. The BDU uniform is referred to as battle dress uniforms because they are intended for use during battles, as opposed to garrison or service dress worn at parades. After much trial, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht authorized Heeres-Splittermuster 31, more known as splinter pattern. In 1940, SS-Verfügungstruppe designed, tested and issued its own distinctive patterns, first issued in limited number to garrison leaders, officers and generals to all branches of the U. S. Since 1981, changes included the addition and subsequent elimination of buttoned waist adjustment tabs, the reduction of the collar. BDUs were initially issued in a 50/50 nylon and cotton twill blend. Complaints regarding the retention of these uniforms, especially following the invasion of Grenada in 1983. The Hot Weather BDU coat and trousers were constructed of 100 percent ripstop cotton, the EHWBDU are made with 50/50 ripstop nylon and cotton poplin blend. BDUs were printed with infrared-brightened dyes, near infrared Signature Management Technology is used in the uniforms to help prevent detection by NIR Image Converters. These photocathode devices do not detect temperatures, but rather infrared radiation variances, nIR-compliant uniforms use a special fabric that allows soldiers to appear at the same radiation level as the surrounding terrain, thus making them more difficult to detect. It is advised not to use starch when cleaning or ironing BDUs, since starch weakens the fabric, a pair of BDUs that has been starched even once should not be worn in combat
34.
Afghanka
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The Afghanka is a Russian military slang term for a field uniform system developed and issued by the Soviet Army in the early 1980s. The uniform is still in use today in many different variants, the popular name of the uniform was derived from its prolific use during the Soviet–Afghan War. After 1984 were manufactured according to ТУ-17-08-194-84, fabric type 3303, a field cap made from sturdier cotton and featuring ear flaps which could be unbuttoned and lowered to protect the ears was supplied with the uniform. The winter model is composed of, jacket, jacket liner, trousers, their insulated lining, the liners are buttoned into their respective garments, and the outer garment can be worn without the liners. The jacket liner bears the fur collar of the jacket, usually in fish fur, the jacket and trousers are lined with a pile-type material that helps insulate by trapping warm air, whereas the liners are made of a quilted material similar to the Telogreika uniform. Since the fall of the Soviet Union, the Afghanka has been copied and issued widely by CIS members in various localized camouflage patterns, the trousers have two cargo pockets on the legs and two hip pockets. The officers Afghanka jacket has only two pockets on the waist of the jacket and an inner pistol pocket. Officers jackets usually have a fur collar. Officers Afghanka trousers have no pockets, the pockets are the same on the winter and summer Afghankas. This jacket is designed to be tucked into the trousers. The trousers are the same as the first pattern, the Afghanka began appearing in military units in the early 1980s during the Soviet war in Afghanistan, hence the name. The design of the jacket and trousers may have based on similar patterns used by other Warsaw Pact armies such as the Nationale Volksarmee of the GDR. Initially, the Afghanka uniform was in short supply and was often issued to units rather than individuals. As more were produced, more were issued, by the end of the 1980s it had become possible for everybody to be issued his own. Individual soldiers began marking the collars of their uniforms with bleach, the soldiers found the new uniform to be very effective, especially in Afghanistan. Even without the liners in, a winter Afghanka is comfortably warm in temperatures of down to -20 °C, another advantage of the winter Afghanka over the preceding Bushlat and Shinel greatcoat was the greatly enhanced mobility and increased number of pockets. Afghanka was issued alongside the Mabuta uniform, which is similar in shape, mobuta was used exclusively by the Spetsnaz and VDV, and was used alongside the much more famous Afghanka uniform. Today the Afghanka design uniform is still in use by Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Belarus, the Afghanka was initially issued to regular units of the armed forces in a khaki colour
35.
Kepi
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The kepi is a cap with a flat circular top and a peak, or visor. Etymologically, the term is a loanword of the French képi, itself a version of the Alemannic Käppi. In Europe, this headgear is most commonly associated with French military, in North America, it is usually associated with the American Civil War, as it was worn by soldiers on both sides of the conflict. The kepi was formerly the most common headgear in the French Army and these were intended as alternatives to the heavier, cloth-covered leather French Army shako. As a light and comfortable headdress, it was adopted by the infantry regiments for service and daily wear. In 1852, a new soft cloth cap was introduced for campaign, called bonnet de police à visière, this was the first proper model of the kepi. The visor was generally squarish in shape and oversized and was referred to as bec de canard, subsequent designs reduced the size of the cap and introduced chinstraps and buttons. The kepi became well known outside France during the Crimean War and was adopted in various forms by a number of other armies during the 1860s and 1870s. In 1870 when troops were mobilized for the Franco-Prussian War large numbers of French soldiers either refused to wear the issued shakos or threw them away, emperor Napoléon III abolished the infantry shako for active service and replaced it with the kepi on 30 July 1870. In 1876, a new model appeared with a visor, as the squared visor drooped when wet. The model used in World War I was the 1886 pattern, by 1900, the kepi had become the standard headdress of most French army units and a symbol of the French soldier. It appeared in dress and service versions. Officers ranks were shown by gold or silver braiding on the kepi, the different branches were distinguished by the colours of the cap - see the table. Cavalry normally wore shakos or plumed helmets, reserving red kepis with light or dark blue bands for wear in barracks, general officers wore kepis with gold oak leaves embroidered around the band. In 1914 most French soldiers wore their kepis to war, Officers, however, still wore kepis behind the lines. Following the war the kepi was gradually reintroduced in the peacetime French Army, the Foreign Legion resumed wearing it in 1926, initially in red and blue and then in 1939 with white covers on all occasions. The bulk of the French army readopted the kepi in the traditional branch colours for off-duty wear during the 1930s. It had now become a straight sided and higher headdress than the soft cap
36.
Stahlhelm
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Stahlhelm is German for steel helmet. The Imperial German Army began to replace the traditional boiled leather Pickelhaube with the Stahlhelm during World War I in 1916, the term Stahlhelm refers both to a generic steel helmet, and more specifically to the distinctive German design. The Stahlhelm, with its distinctive coal scuttle shape, was instantly recognizable and its name was also used by the Stahlhelm, a paramilitary nationalist organization established at the end of 1918. At the beginning of World War I, none of the combatants were issued with any form of protection for the other than cloth and leather caps. The French were the first to see a need for more protection—in late 1915 they began to issue Adrian helmets to their troops, the British and Commonwealth troops followed with the Brodie helmet and the Germans with the Stahlhelm. As the German army behaved hesitantly in the development of an effective head protection, stationed in the rocky area of the Vosges the Army Detachment Gaede recorded significantly more head injuries caused by stone and shell splinters than did troops in other sectors of the front. The artillery workshop of the Army Detachment developed a helmet that consisted of a cap with a steel plate. The plate protected not only the forehead but also the eyes, the design of the Stahlhelm was carried out by Dr. Friedrich Schwerd of the Technical Institute of Hanover. In early 1915, Schwerd had carried out a study of wounds suffered during trench warfare and submitted a recommendation for steel helmets. Schwerd then undertook the task of designing and producing a suitable helmet broadly based on the 15th century sallet, thirty thousand examples were ordered, but it was not approved for general issue until New Years 1916, hence it is most usually referred to as the Model 1916. In February 1916 it was distributed to troops at Verdun, following which the incidence of head injuries fell dramatically. The first German troops who had to use this helmet had been the stormtroopers of the Sturm-Bataillon Nr.5 which had been commanded by captain Willy Rohr, in contrast to the Hadfield steel used in the British Brodie helmet, the Germans used a harder martensitic silicon/nickel steel. As a result, and also due to the form, the Stahlhelm had to be formed in heated dies at a greater unit cost than the British helmet. The different Stahlhelm designs are named for their year of introduction, for example, the Modell 1942 which was introduced in 1942 is commonly known as M1942 or simply M42. Here, they are referred to by their M19XX names, the Stahlhelm was introduced into regular service during the Verdun campaign in early 1916. The shell came in different sizes, from 60 to 68, Helmet weight varied from 0.98 kg to 1.4 kg, depending on shell size. The suspension, or liner, consisted of a headband with three segmented leather pouches, each holding padding materials, and leather or fabric cords could be adjusted to provide a comfortable fit. The one-piece leather chin strap was attached to the shell by M1891 chinstrap lugs, suddenly, with a great clanging thud, I was hit on the forehead and knocked flying onto the floor of the trench
37.
IFA G5
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The IFA G5 is a three-axle conventional truck developed and produced by IFA in East Germany from 1952 until 1964. It was produced from as a prototype in 1952 until 1964 in VEB Kraftfahrzeugwerk Ernst Grube Werdau, the work was part of the IFA and walked out of the 1945 resolution Schumann works in Werdau out. The development of the truck began during World War II in the Vogtland Maschinenfabrik AG, since the Soviet occupation forces completely dissolved Vomag shortly after the end of the war however, they did allow further development at Auto Union or at Horch. The vehicle was also in East Germany for military use are provided, there was also a variety of additional devices can be attached. The vehicle could be compared with the triple-axle Soviet ZIS151, the G5 has the three axles and can be all-wheel driven, however, the front axle can be switched off. The bodies were fitted out in cases with other companies in East Germany. The cab was manufactured in different versions, such as a closed cab, cab with long cab, cab with soft top. The truck G5 and H6, which were built about the time in Werdau. In order to improve the properties, especially for use, equipped with a more powerful engine of advanced G5/3. The main customers for these trucks were the Alert police or National Peoples Army, vehicles of Combat Groups of the Working Class were used as water cannons, on 13 August 1961 during the construction of the Berlin Wall. The G5 was used by the fire service primarily as an engine with crew cabin. Goods for army use five tons payload usually sufficient and the important off-road, the ratio of costs and benefits did not match the given economic conditions. This meant that the G5 was rarely used with the advent of alternative trucks, there were two G5 generations, G5/1 and G5/2. The newly developed from the ground up to be the successor to the G5 G5/3 System, provided was an air-cooled V8 diesel engine with 150 hp from a displacement of 12.5 litres. The three-axle vehicle in turn should receive single tires with tire pressure control system, in the years 1958/59 and 1961 four functional models and two production prototypes were built. In May 1962 the development of the G5 /3 has been cancelled, occasion was the decision for the series production of the W50. However, the reasons for the termination are the economic situation in East Germany owed. In particular, the development and the tires were preparing this problems
38.
Water cannon
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A water cannon is a device that shoots a high-velocity stream of water. Typically, a cannon can deliver a large volume of water. They are used in firefighting, large vehicle washing, riot control, most water cannons fall under the category of a fire monitor. Water cannons were first devised for use on fireboats, extinguishing fires on boats and buildings near the water was much more difficult and dangerous before fireboats were invented. The first fireboat deployed in Los Angeles was commissioned on 1 August 1919, the first fireboat in New York City was Marine 1, deployed 1 February 1891. There may have been other fireboats elsewhere even earlier, the first truck-mounted water cannon was used for riot control in Germany in the beginning of the 1930s. The most modern versions do not expose the operator to the riot, and are controlled remotely from within the vehicle by a joystick. The German-built WaWe 10.000 can carry 10,000 litres of water, use of water cannon in riot control contexts can lead to injury or death, with fatalities recorded in Indonesia, Zimbabwe, Turkey, and Ukraine. South Korea used water cannons containing capsaicin and fluorescent dyes for later screening, Water cannons in use during the 1960s, which were generally adapted fire trucks, would knock protesters down and on occasion, tear their clothes. On 30 September 2010, during a protest demonstration against the Stuttgart 21 project in Germany, dietrich Wagner, a retired engineer, suffered from the damage to his eyelids, a fracturing of a portion of the retinal bone, and damage to the retinas. The eye injuries thus inflicted on the man resulted in loss of eyesight. Graphic imagery was recorded of the event, sparking a debate about police brutality and proportionality in the use of state force. The presence of the media at riots has had a significant impact on water cannon use, there is much pressure on police departments to avoid bad publicity, and water cannon often play badly in the press. It is considered that this is a reason that they are not used more often in certain countries. In 1997, pink dye was added to the water used by South Korean and Indonesian police to disperse a riot. The implication is that they use this mark to make it easier to arrest rioters later. The United Kingdom, which had sold the water cannon to Indonesia, condemned this practice, most modern water cannons are also capable of adding tear gas to the stream. In 2004, Jaycor Tactical Systems was experimenting with additives that would allow electricity to be conducted through water and they have demonstrated delivery from a distance of up to twenty feet, but have not yet tested the device on people
39.
Brandenburg Gate
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The Brandenburg Gate is an 18th-century neoclassical monument in Berlin, and one of the best-known landmarks of Germany. It is built on the site of a city gate that marked the start of the road from Berlin to the town of Brandenburg an der Havel. It is located in the part of the city centre of Berlin within Mitte, at the junction of Unter den Linden and Ebertstraße. One block to the stands the Reichstag building, which houses the German parliament. The gate is the entry to Unter den Linden, the renowned boulevard of linden trees. It was commissioned by King Frederick William II of Prussia as a sign of peace, having suffered considerable damage in World War II, the Brandenburg Gate was restored from 2000 to 2002 by the Stiftung Denkmalschutz Berlin. During the post-war Partition of Germany, the gate was isolated, the area around the gate was featured most prominently in the media coverage of the tearing down of the wall in 1989, and the subsequent German reunification in 1990. Georgen Tor, Stralower Tor, Cöpenicker Tor, Neues Tor, relative peace, a policy of religious tolerance, and status as capital of the Kingdom of Prussia facilitated the growth of the city. The Brandenburg Gate was not part of the old fortifications, but one of 18 gates within the Berlin Customs Wall, erected in the 1730s, including the old fortified city, the new gate was commissioned by Frederick William II of Prussia to represent peace. The gate consists of twelve Doric columns, six to each side, citizens originally were allowed to use only the outermost two on each side. Atop the gate is a Quadriga, a chariot drawn by four horses, the new gate was originally named the Peace Gate and the goddess is Eirene, the goddess of peace. The gates design is based upon the Propylaea, the gateway to the Acropolis in Athens, Greece, the gate was the first element of Athens on the River Spree by architect Langhans. The Brandenburg Gate has played different political roles in German history, after the 1806 Prussian defeat at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, Napoleon was the first to use the Brandenburg Gate for a triumphal procession, and took its Quadriga to Paris. After Napoleons defeat in 1814 and the Prussian occupation of Paris by General Ernst von Pfuel, the Quadriga faces east, as it did when it was originally installed in 1793. Only the royal family was allowed to pass through the archway, as well as members of the Pfuel family. The Kaiser granted this honour to the family in gratitude to Ernst von Pfuel, in addition, the central archway was also used by the coaches of ambassadors on the single occasion of their presenting their letters of credence to council. When the Nazis ascended to power, they used the gate as a party symbol, the gate survived World War II and was one of the damaged structures still standing in the Pariser Platz ruins in 1945. The gate was damaged with holes in the columns from bullets
40.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
41.
Mortar (weapon)
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A mortar is a device that fires projectiles at low velocities and short ranges. The mortar has traditionally used as a weapon to propel explosive mortar bombs in high-arcing ballistic trajectories. The weapon is typically muzzle-loading with a short, often smooth-bore barrel, Modern mortars are light and easily portable. They can be used for fire support with a variety of ammunition. Mortars have been used for hundreds of years, originally in siege warfare, many historians consider the first mortars to have been used at the 1453 siege of Constantinople by Mehmed the Conqueror. A European account of the 1456 siege of Belgrade by Giovanni da Tagliacozzo said that the Ottoman Turks used seven mortars that fired stone shots one Italian mile high. The time of flight of these was long enough that casualties could be avoided by posting observers to give warning of their trajectories. However, earlier mortars were used in Korea in a 1413 naval battle when Korean gunsmiths developed the Wangu, the earliest version of the Wangu dates back to 1407. Choe Hae-san, the son of Choe Mu-seon, is credited with inventing the first Wangu. Early mortars, such as the Pumhart von Steyr, were large and heavy. Simply made, these weapons were no more than iron bowls reminiscent of the kitchen, an early transportable mortar was invented by Baron Menno van Coehoorn. This mortar fired a shell, which had a fuse lit by the hot gases when fired. This innovation was taken up, necessitating a new form of naval ship. Mortars played a significant role in the Venetian conquest of Morea, an early use of these more mobile mortars as field weapons was by British forces in the suppression of the 1719 Jacobite rising at the Battle of Glen Shiel. High angle trajectory mortars held an advantage over standard field guns in the rough terrain of the West Highlands of Scotland. Coehorn-type mortars of approximately 180 pounds weight were used by both sides during the American Civil War and these answered as coehorns, and shells were successfully thrown from them into the trenches of the enemy. The mortar had fallen out of use by the Napoleonic era. The German Army studied the Siege of Port Arthur, where heavy artillery had been unable to destroy defensive structures like barbed wire, the solution they developed was a short-barrelled rifled muzzle-loading mortar called the Minenwerfer, and was built in three sizes
42.
82-BM-37
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The M-37 or 82-BM-37 is a Soviet 82 millimeter calibre mortar designed by B. I. Szayrin and accepted into service in 1937, the design of the M-37 is based on the earlier French Brandt mle 27/31 mortar with Russian modifications. The M-37M is a version with lighter base plate and a device to prevent double loading. Egypt - Helwan M-69 82mm mortar Peoples Republic of China - Type 53 82mm mortar, Peoples Republic of Kampuchea Syria –200 mortars Grenada
43.
45 mm anti-tank gun M1942 (M-42)
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M-42 was a 45-mm Soviet light semi-automatic anti-tank gun. Its full official name is 45-mm anti-tank gun model 1942 and these guns were used from 1942 until the end of World War II. The M-42 was developed by the No.172 Plant in Motovilikha as an upgrade of the 45 mm anti-tank gun M1937, some minor changes were also introduced in order to speed up production. These guns were used from 1942 until the end of World War II, the M-42 remained in production however, as it was quite effective against lighter vehicles and could pierce the side armour of Panther and Panzer IV Ausf H. Fragmentation shell and canister shot gave the gun some anti-personnel capability, mass production of M-42 ceased in mid-1945. The total number of guns produced is 10,843, - The Weapons of the Red Army, Mn. Harvest,1999 ISBN 985-433-469-4 Koll, Christian, Soviet Cannon - A Comprehensive Study of Soviet Arms and Ammunition in Calibres 12. 7mm to 57mm. 45 mm anti-tank gun model 1942 ar rustrana. ru
44.
SPG-9
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The SPG-9 Kopye is a Russian tripod-mounted man-portable,73 millimetre calibre recoilless gun developed by the Soviet Union. It fires fin-stabilised, rocket-assisted HE and HEAT projectiles similar to those fired by the 73 mm 2A28 Grom low pressure gun of the BMP-1 armored vehicle and it was accepted into service in 1962, replacing the B-10 recoilless rifle. The projectile is launched from the gun by a small charge, the launch charge also imparts spin to the projectile by a series of offset holes. Once the projectile has travelled approximately 20 meters from the launcher, for the PG-9 projectile, this takes it to a velocity of 700 metres per second before the motor burns out. The SPG-9 is light, and is transported by vehicle. It can be deployed in around a minute, the weapon is in service with a large number of armed forces, and a variety of ammunition is produced, however, they are mostly copies of the original Soviet PG-9 HEAT and OG-9 FRAG-HE rounds. The SPG-9 is widely available to terrorists and maritime pirates in the Horn of Africa region and it is not as popular as the RPG-7 because it has to be mounted on a vehicle or boat and cannot be easily carried and shoulder fired. The SPG-9 requires much skill to fire accurately in comparison to the RPG-7. There have been reports of these mounted in skiffs and larger mother ships, the SPG-9 can typically be found mounted on a wide variety of vehicles known as technicals in Somalia. A variant for use with troops including detachable wheels was built as the SPG-9D
45.
37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 (61-K)
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37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 was a Soviet 37 mm caliber anti-aircraft gun developed during the late 1930s and used during World War II. The land based version was replaced in Soviet service by the ZSU-57-2 during the 1950s, guns of this type were successfully used throughout the Eastern Front against dive bombers and other low- and medium-altitude targets. It also had some usefulness against lightly armored ground targets, crews of the 37 mm AD guns shot down 14,657 Axis planes. The mean quantity of 37 mm ammunition to shoot down one plane was 905 rounds. The Soviet Navy purchased a number of Bofors 25 mm Model 1933 guns in 1935, trials of the weapon were successful, in January 1938 the Artillery Factory Number 8 in Sverdlovsk was ordered to develop a 37 mm weapon based on the same design. The task was fulfilled by the designer of the Factory Mikhail Loginov. Firing trials of the new 61-K were conducted in October 1938, competitive firing trials were conducted in 1940 between the 61-K and the Bofors 40 mm/56. They found that there were no differences between them. The weapon was installed as a single barrel weapon on a four-wheeled ZU-7 carriage. An initial order for 900 units was placed, the gun was operated by a crew of eight men. A total of 200 rounds of ammunition were carried which were fed into the gun in five round clips, total Soviet production was around 20,000 units, ending in 1945. However, it has also produced in Poland, China. Armour penetration of the rounds is reported as 37 millimetres of Rolled homogeneous armour at 60°at 500 metres range and 28 millimetres of RHA at 90° at 1500 meters range. The naval mounting was produced as the 70K, and had entered service before the German invasion of the Soviet Union replacing the semi-automatic 45 mm/46 21-K on many ships and it was fitted in large numbers to Soviet ships during the Second World War, notably the T301 class minesweeper. The V70K was produced until 1955, with a total of 3,113 built, one drawback was that the 70K required a barrel change after every 100 rounds fired. To improve on this, a twin barrelled water cooled mount, the V-11, entered service in 1946, a total of 1,872 V-11 mounts were built. However it was replaced with the ZIF-31 twin 57 mm mounting. The 37 mm twin mounting was exported to China where it was manufactured and used extensively, a turret based version was produced from the late 1980s called the Type 76 or H/PJA76
46.
ZU-23-2
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The ZU-23-2, also known as ZU-23, is a Soviet towed 23 mm anti-aircraft twin-barreled autocannon. ZU stands for Zenitnaya Ustanovka - anti-aircraft mount, the ZU-23-2 was developed in the late 1950s. In 1955, KBP presented the single-barrel ZU-1 and the twin-barrel ZU-14, while the former was eventually dropped, the ZU-14 was selected and, after some modifications, entered series production. In the Soviet Union, some 140,000 units were produced, the ZU-23 has also been produced under license by Bulgaria, Poland, Egypt and the Peoples Republic of China. Development of this weapon into a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun led to the ZSU-23-4 Shilka, the ZU-23-2 mounts two 23mm autocannons on a small trailer which can be converted into a stationary mount for firing the guns. While in this position the wheels are moved aside, the autocannon can be prepared for firing from the march position in 30 seconds and in emergency can be fired from the traveling position. The weapon is aimed and fired manually, with the help of the ZAP-23 optical-mechanical sight which uses manually entered target data to provide limited automatic aiming and it also has a straight-tube telescope T-3 for use against ground targets such as infantry as well as unarmored or lightly armoured vehicles. The ammo is fed by a belt from two ammunition boxes. Each of the boxes is located on the side of the twin autocannon. The fumes created by firing the weapon are partially removed through the openings in the barrels. Normally, once each barrel has fired 100 rounds it becomes too hot and is replaced with a spare barrel. Each weapon is provided with two replacement barrels as part of its standard equipment. Tulamashzavod Joint Stock Company is offering to upgrade the 2A14 guns to the 2A14M standard with a life of 10,000 rounds instead of 8,000 rounds. The cannon carriage is based on the earlier ZPU-2 anti-aircraft twin heavy machine gun, ZU-23-2 can be identified by different placement of the ammunition boxes and by muzzle flash suppressors. In another similarity to the ZPU series, single-barrel and four-barrel versions of the ZU-23 were also developed, however, these versions never entered service. ZU-23-2 can be towed by a number of different vehicles, in USSR and later Russia the most frequently used towing vehicles for it were GAZ-66 4x4 trucks and GAZ-69 4x4 light trucks. The weapon is known in the Finnish forces colloquially as Sergei, the 23mm AA gun utilizes the same 23x152B case as the wartime VYa aircraft autocannon. The following table lists the main characteristics of some of the available 23x152B ammunition used in 23mm AA guns, Not only the gun itself, in Bulgaria, the company ARCUS Co. produces rounds and fuses for the 2A7 and 2A14 guns
47.
Karabiner 98k
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The Karabiner 98 kurz is a bolt-action rifle chambered for the 7. 92×57mm Mauser cartridge that was adopted on 21 June 1935 as the standard service rifle by the German Wehrmacht. It was one of the developments in the long line of Mauser military rifles. Although supplemented by semi- and fully automatic rifles during World War II, millions were captured by the Soviets at the conclusion of World War II and were widely distributed as military aid. The Karabiner 98k therefore continues to appear in conflicts across the world as they are out of storage during times of strife. In February 1934 the Heereswaffenamt ordered the adoption of a new military rifle, the Karabiner 98k was derived from earlier rifles, namely the Mauser Standardmodell of 1924 and the Karabiner 98b, which in turn had both been developed from the Gewehr 98. Since the Karabiner 98k rifle was shorter than the earlier Karabiner 98b, it was given the designation Karabiner 98 kurz, meaning Carbine 98 Short. Just like its predecessor, the rifle was noted for its reliability, great accuracy, the desire for adapting new shorter barreled rifles and introduction of the Karabiner 98k, featuring a 600 mm long barrel, were reasons for changing the standard German service ball rifle cartridge. The 1903 pattern 7. 92×57mm Mauser S Patrone produced excessive muzzle flash when fired from arms that did not have a long barrel like the Gewehr 98 and it was found that the s. S. Patrone, originally designed for long range machine gun use, produced less muzzle flash out of rifles that had a long barrel. Because of this the S Patrone was phased out in 1933, Patrone became the standard German service ball cartridge in the 1930s. The Karabiner 98k is a controlled-feed bolt-action rifle based on the Mauser M98 system and its internal magazine can be loaded with five 7. 92×57mm Mauser cartridges from a stripper clip or one-by-one. The straight bolt handle found on the Gewehr 98 bolt was replaced by a bolt handle on the Karabiner 98k. This change made it easier to operate the bolt, reduced the amount the handle projected beyond the receiver. Each rifle was furnished with a length of cleaning rod. The joined rods from 3 rifles provided one full-length cleaning rod, the metal parts of the rifle were blued, a process in which steel is partially protected against rust by a layer of magnetite. Such a thin oxide layer provides only minimal protection against rust or corrosion, unless also treated with a water-displacing oil to reduce wetting. From 1944 onwards phosphating/Parkerizing was introduced as a more effective metal surface treatment, the impractical Langevisier or rollercoaster rear sight of the Mauser Gewehr 1898 was replaced with a conventional tangent leaf sight. The Karabiner 98k rear tangent sight was flatter compared to and does not obstruct the view to the sides during aiming as the Langevisier, originally, the Karabiner 98k iron sight line had an open-post-type front sight, and a tangent-type rear sight with a V-shaped rear notch
German Democratic Republic
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