1.
Bulgarian language
–
Bulgarian /bʌlˈɡɛəriən/, /bʊlˈ-/ is an Indo-European language, a member of the Southern branch of the Slavic language family. Various evidential verb forms exist to express unwitnessed, retold, with the accession of Bulgaria to the European Union on 1 January 2007, Bulgarian became one of the official languages of the European Union. Development of the Bulgarian language may be divided into several periods, prehistoric period – occurred between the Slavonic migration to eastern Balkans and the mission of Saints Cyril and Methodius to Great Moravia in the 860s. Old Bulgarian – a literary norm of the southern dialect of the Common Slavic language from which Bulgarian evolved. It was used by Saints Cyril and Methodius and their disciples to translate the Bible, Middle Bulgarian – a literary norm that evolved from the earlier Old Bulgarian, after major innovations were accepted. It was a language of literary activity and the official administration language of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Modern Bulgarian – dates from the 16th century onwards, undergoing general grammar, present-day written Bulgarian language was standardized on the basis of the 19th-century Bulgarian vernacular. Bulgarian was the first Slavic language attested in writing, as Slavic linguistic unity lasted into late antiquity, in the oldest manuscripts this language was initially referred to as языкъ словяньскъ, the Slavic language. In the Middle Bulgarian period this name was replaced by the name языкъ блъгарьскъ. In some cases, the name языкъ блъгарьскъ was used not only with regard to the contemporary Middle Bulgarian language of the copyist but also to the period of Old Bulgarian. During the Middle Bulgarian period, the language underwent dramatic changes, losing the Slavonic case system, today one difference between Bulgarian dialects in the country and literary spoken Bulgarian is the significant presence of Old Bulgarian words and even word forms in the latter. Russian loans are distinguished from Old Bulgarian ones on the basis of the presence of specifically Russian phonetic changes, as in оборот, непонятен, ядро and others. As usual in cases, many other loans from French, English. Modern Bulgarian was based essentially on the Eastern dialects of the language, between 1835–1878 more than 25 proposals were put forward and linguistic chaos ensued. Eventually the eastern dialects prevailed, and in 1899 the Ministry of Education officially codified a standard Bulgarian language based on the Drinov-Ivanchev orthography, the language is mainly split into two broad dialect areas, based on the different reflexes of the Common Slavic yat vowel. This split, which occurred at some point during the Middle Ages, led to the development of Bulgarias, E. g. млеко – milk, хлеб – bread. This rule obtains in most Eastern dialects, although some have ya, or an open e sound. The literary language norm, which is based on the Eastern dialects
Bulgarian language
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The
Codex Zographensis is one of the oldest
manuscripts in the Old Bulgarian language dated from the late 10th or early 11th century
Bulgarian language
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regions where Bulgarian is the language of the majority
2.
Byzantine Greek
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From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the Byzantine Empire. This stage of language is described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of Byzantine Studies, or Byzantinology, however, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political as opposed to cultural and linguistic developments. Indeed, by time the spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms. Medieval Greek is the link between this vernacular, known as Koine Greek, and the Modern Greek language. With the transfer of the Roman imperial court to Byzantium between 324 and 330, the centre of the Roman Empire was moved into an area where Greek was the dominant language. At first, Latin remained the language of both the court and the army and it was used for documents, but its influence soon waned. From the beginning of the 6th century, amendments to the law were written in Greek. Furthermore, parts of the Roman Corpus Iuris Civilis were gradually translated into Greek, under the rule of Emperor Heraclius, who also assumed the Greek title Basileus in 629, Greek became the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire. This was in spite of the fact that the inhabitants of the empire still considered themselves Romaioi until its end in 1453, the number of those who were able to communicate in Greek may have been far higher. In any case, all cities of the Eastern Roman Empire were strongly influenced by the Greek language, alexandria, a center of Greek culture and language, fell to the Arabs in 642. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Greek was replaced by Arabic as a language in conquered territories such as Egypt. Thus, the use of Greek declined early on in Syria, Egypt, from the late 11th century onwards, the interior of Anatolia was invaded by Seljuq Turks, who advanced westwards. Language varieties after 1453 are referred to as Modern Greek, as early as in the Hellenistic period, there was a tendency towards a state of diglossia between the Attic literary language and the constantly developing vernacular Koiné. By late antiquity, the gap had become impossible to ignore, written literature reflecting this demotic Greek begins to appear around 1100. Among the preserved literature in the Attic literary language, various forms of historiography take a prominent place and they comprise chronicles as well as classicist, contemporary works of historiography, theological documents, and saints lives. Poetry can be found in the form of hymns and ecclesiastical poetry, many of the Byzantine emperors were active writers themselves and wrote chronicles or works on the running of the Byzantine state and strategic or philological works. Furthermore, letters, legal texts, and numerous registers and lists in Medieval Greek exist and these are influenced by the vernacular language of their time in choice of words and idiom, but largely follow the models of written Koine in their morphology and syntax
Byzantine Greek
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Manuscript of the
Anthology of Planudes (c.1300)
Byzantine Greek
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Evolution of Greek dialects from the late Byzantine Empire through to the early 20th century.
Demotic in yellow.
Pontic in orange.
Cappadocian in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek speaking villages in 1910.)
3.
First Bulgarian Empire
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The First Bulgarian Empire was a medieval Bulgarian state that existed in southeastern Europe between the 7th and 11th centuries AD. It was founded circa 681 when Bulgar tribes led by Asparukh moved to the north-eastern Balkans, there they secured Byzantine recognition of their right to settle south of the Danube by defeating – possibly with the help of local South Slavic tribes – the Byzantine army led by Constantine IV. At the height of its power, Bulgaria spread from the Danube Bend to the Black Sea, as the state solidified its position in the Balkans, it entered into a centuries-long interaction, sometimes friendly and sometimes hostile, with the Byzantine Empire. Bulgaria emerged as Byzantiums chief antagonist to its north, resulting in several wars, Byzantium had a strong cultural influence on Bulgaria, which also led to the eventual adoption of Christianity in 864. After the disintegration of the Avar Khaganate, the country expanded its territory northwest to the Pannonian Plain, later the Bulgarians confronted the advance of the Pechenegs and Cumans, and achieved a decisive victory over the Magyars, forcing them to establish themselves permanently in Pannonia. During the late 9th and early 10th centuries, Simeon I achieved a string of victories over the Byzantines, thereafter, he was recognized with the title of Emperor, and proceeded to expand the state to its greatest extent. After the annihilation of the Byzantine army in the battle of Anchialus in 917, the Byzantines, however, eventually recovered, and in 1014, under Basil II, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Bulgarians at the Battle of Kleidion. By 1018, the last Bulgarian strongholds had surrendered to the Byzantine Empire, and it was succeeded by the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1185. After the adoption of Christianity, Bulgaria became the center of Slavic Europe. Old Bulgarian became the lingua franca of much of Eastern Europe, in 927, the fully independent Bulgarian Patriarchate was officially recognized. The Bulgars and other tribes in the empire gradually adopted an essentially foreign Slavic language. Since the late 9th century, the names Bulgarians and Bulgarian gained prevalence and became permanent designations for the local population, the First Bulgarian Empire became known simply as Bulgaria since its recognition by the Byzantine Empire in 681. Some historians use the terms Danube Bulgaria, First Bulgarian State, during its early existence, the country was also called the Bulgar state or Bulgar qaghanate. Between 864 and 917/927, the country was known as the Principality of Bulgaria or Knyazhestvo Bulgaria, in English language sources, the country is often known as the Bulgarian Empire. The eastern Balkan Peninsula was originally inhabited by the Thracians who were a group of Proto-Indo-European tribes, the whole region as far north as the Danube River was gradually incorporated into the Roman Empire by the 1st century AD. The decline of the Roman Empire after the 3rd century AD, nonetheless, it never relinquished the claim to the whole region up to the Danube. A series of administrative, legislative, military and economic reforms somewhat improved the situation, the group of Slavs that came to be known as the South Slavs was divided into Antes and Sclaveni who spoke the same language. The Slavic incursions in the Balkans increased during the half of Justinian Is reign and while these were initially pillaging raids
First Bulgarian Empire
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Bulgaria during the reign of
Simeon the Great, 10th century
First Bulgarian Empire
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Khan
Krum feasts after the
victory at Varbitsa Pass
First Bulgarian Empire
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Simeon sends envoys to the
Fatimid Caliph to form an alliance against the Byzantines.
4.
Byzantine Empire
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It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
Byzantine Empire
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Tremissis with the image of
Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) (see
Byzantine insignia)
Byzantine Empire
–
Byzantine
lamellar armour klivanium (Κλιβάνιον) - a predecessor of Ottoman krug
mirror armour
Byzantine Empire
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The Baptism of Constantine painted by
Raphael 's pupils (1520–1524,
fresco, Vatican City,
Apostolic Palace);
Eusebius of Caesarea records that (as
was common among converts of early Christianity) Constantine delayed receiving
baptism until shortly before his death
Byzantine Empire
–
Restored section of the Theodosian Walls.
5.
Samuel of Bulgaria
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Samuel was the Tsar of the First Bulgarian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. As Samuel struggled to preserve his countrys independence from the Byzantine Empire, his rule was characterized by constant warfare against the Byzantines, in his early years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns into their territory. In the late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the principality of Duklja and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of Croatia, but from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire against the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of an attack on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophic battle of Kleidion. His successors failed to organize a resistance, and in 1018, four years after Samuels death, Samuel was considered invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength. Similar comments were even in Constantinople, where John Kyriotes penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the Bulgarian Emperor and Halleys comet, which appeared in 989. During Samuels reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the Balkans as far as southern Greece. He moved the capital from Skopje to Ohrid, which had been the cultural and military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since Boris Is rule, because of this, his realm is sometimes called the Western Bulgarian Empire. Samuels energetic reign restored Bulgarian might on the Balkans, and although the Empire was disestablished after his death and his mother was Ripsimia of Armenia, the daughter of King Ashot II of Armenia. The actual name of the dynasty is not known, Cometopuli is the nickname used by Byzantine historians which is translated as sons of the count. The Cometopuli rose to power out of the disorder that occurred in the Bulgarian Empire from 966 to 971, during the reign of Emperor Peter I, Bulgaria prospered in a long-lasting peace with Byzantium. This was secured by the marriage of Peter with the Byzantine princess Maria Lakapina, during these years the Byzantines and Bulgarians had entangled themselves in a war with Kievan Rus Prince Sviatoslav, who invaded Bulgaria several times. After a defeat from Sviatoslav, Peter I suffered a stroke, Boris was allowed back to Bulgaria to take his fathers throne, restore order and oppose Sviatoslav, but had little success. This was allegedly used by Nicholas and his sons, who were contemplating a revolt in 969, the Rus invaded Byzantine Thrace in 970, but suffered a defeat in the Battle of Arcadiopolis. The new Byzantine Emperor John Tzimiskes used this to his advantage and he quickly invaded Bulgaria the following year, defeated the Rus, and conquered the Bulgarian capital Preslav. Boris II of Bulgaria was ritually divested of his insignia in a public ceremony in Constantinople and he. Although the ceremony in 971 had been intended as a termination of the Bulgarian Empire. Count Nicholas, Samuels father, who had ties to the royal court in Preslav
Samuel of Bulgaria
–
reconstruction
Samuel of Bulgaria
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The Byzantines seize the capital
Preslav.
Samuel of Bulgaria
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The Byzantine emperor
John Tzimiskes returns in triumph in Constantinople with the captured
Boris II and the Preslav icons.
Samuel of Bulgaria
–
During the civil wars in the Byzantine Empire, the
Bulgarians not only regained their positions in the Balkans, but advanced deep into enemy territory.
6.
Western Bulgarian Kingdom
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The struggle began with the incorporation of eastern Bulgaria after the Russo–Byzantine War. Bulgarian resistance was led by the Cometopuli brothers, who based in the western regions of the Bulgarian Empire led it until its fall under Byzantine rule in 1018. As the Byzantine-Bulgarian relations deteriorated by the end of the 960s, the four brothers David, Moses, Aron and Samuel of the Cometopuli dynasty ruled in the free territories and in 976 launched a major offensive against the Byzantines to regain the lost lands. Soon the youngest brother Samuel took the whole authority following the deaths of his three eldest brothers, Samuel proved to be a successful general inflicting a major defeat on the Byzantine army commanded by Basil II at the Gates of Trajan and retaking north-eastern Bulgaria. His successful campaigns expanded the Bulgarian borders into Thessaly and Epirus, in 997 Samuel was proclaimed Emperor of Bulgaria after the death of the legitimate ruler, Roman. By the end of the millennium the fortunes of war turned into Byzantine favour, the Byzantines under Basil II, a successful general and experienced soldier, slowly got the upper hand and from 1001 started to seize a number of important areas and towns. The Bulgarians were unable to stop the annual Byzantine campaigns which devastated the country, in 1014 the Byzantines won the decisive battle of Kleidion and Samuel died a few weeks later. Tsar Samuels reign was followed by the reigns of his son Gavril Radomir. All local lords, who surrendered, were transferred either to Constantinople or to Anatolia, Bulgaria lost its independence and remained subject to Byzantium for more than a century and a half, until 1185. Its western part was transformed into one of the many Byzantines provinces, the Byzantines responded in the spring of the following year and refused to pay the annual tribute to Bulgaria. In that situation Nikephoros II Phokas turned to the means of Byzantine diplomacy. The noble Kalokyros to whom the mission was entrusted was successful, in 969 he returned to Bulgaria and soon after that Peter I suffered an epileptic stroke, abdicated and died on 30 January 970 as a monk. He was succeeded by his eldest son Boris II who had little choice but to cooperate with Sviatoslav and he was treated well and John Tzimiskes pretended to have come to liberate the Bulgarians from the Rus. However, when Sviatoslav was finally defeated, Boris II was taken to Constantinople where he had to abdicate and he had to surrender the imperial insignia - the golden crown and the red boots - which the placed in the cathedral Hagia Sophia. In return he received the title magister and his brother Roman was castrated because the Byzantines needed to assure that the Krum dynasty would die away. For John Tzimiskes that was a great triumph, the three-century old Byzantine dream to eliminate the Bulgarian state and restore the imperial borders along the Danube seemed to have come true. These territories were ruled by the four brothers David, Moses, Aron and Samuel, information for the period between 971 and 976 in primary sources is very scarce. In 986, after securing his own position in Byzantium, emperor Basil II gathered a 30, 000-man army, marched on the Bulgarian city of Sofia and laid siege to it
Western Bulgarian Kingdom
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Territory of Byzantium and Bulgaria around 1000
Western Bulgarian Kingdom
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Above: The Byzantine-Bulgarian border before the eruption of the conflict, defined by the Treaty of 927. Below: The Byzantine-Bulgarian border during the conflict, c. 990.
7.
Nicholas (komes)
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The komes Nicholas Bulgarian, Никола was a local ruler in Bulgaria, of Armenian origin, and progenitor of the Cometopuli dynasty. According to the Armenian chronicler Stephen of Taron, the family originated in the Armenian region of Derdjan and he was married to Ripsime or Hripsime, a daughter of King Ashot II of Armenia. The couple had four sons, David, Moses and Aron, and Samuel, other than that, nothing is known of Nicholas. He may have ruled Serdica or, according to sources, was a local count in the region of the modern Republic of Macedonia. In 992/3, Samuel erected at German, near Lake Prespa, lilie, Ralph-Johannes, Ludwig, Claudia, Zielke, Beate, Pratsch, Thomas, eds
Nicholas (komes)
–
Inscription in the National Historical Museum of Bulgaria citing Nicholas and Ripsime as grandparents of
Ivan Vladislav, the son of
Aron.
8.
Armenians
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Armenians are an ethnic group native to the Armenian Highlands. Armenians constitute the population of Armenia and the de facto independent Nagorno-Karabakh Republic. There is a diaspora of around 5 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry living outside of modern Armenia. The largest Armenian populations today exist in Russia, the United States, France, Georgia, Iran, Germany, Ukraine, Lebanon, Brazil and Syria. With the exceptions of Iran and the former Soviet states, the present-day Armenian diaspora was formed mainly as a result of the Armenian Genocide, most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the worlds oldest national church. Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew, in the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first state to adopt Christianity as a state religion. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented in 405 AD by Mesrop Mashtots, historically, the name Armenian has come to internationally designate this group of people. It was first used by neighbouring countries of ancient Armenia, the earliest attestations of the exonym Armenia date around the 6th century BC. In his trilingual Behistun Inscription dated to 517 BC, Darius I the Great of Persia refers to Urashtu as Armina (in Old Persian, Armina and Harminuya. In Greek, Αρμένιοι Armenians is attested from about the same time, xenophon, a Greek general serving in some of the Persian expeditions, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality in around 401 BC. He relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians and it is also further postulated that the name Hay comes from one of the two confederated, Hittite vassal states—the Ḫayaša-Azzi. Movses Khorenatsi, the important early medieval Armenian historian, wrote that the word Armenian originated from the name Armenak or Aram, the Armenian Highland lies in the highlands surrounding Mount Ararat, the highest peak of the region. In the Bronze Age, several states flourished in the area of Greater Armenia, including the Hittite Empire, Mitanni, soon after Hayasa-Azzi were Arme-Shupria, the Nairi and the Kingdom of Urartu, who successively established their sovereignty over the Armenian Highland. Each of the nations and tribes participated in the ethnogenesis of the Armenian people. Under Ashurbanipal, the Assyrian empire reached the Caucasus Mountains, yerevan, the modern capital of Armenia, was founded in 782 BC by king Argishti I. T. Gamkrelidze and V. Ivanov proposed the Indo-European homeland around the Armenian Highland, eric P. Hamp in his 2012 Indo-European family tree, groups the Armenian language along with Greek and Ancient Macedonian in the Pontic Indo-European subgroup. In Hamps view the homeland of this subgroup is the northeast coast of the Black Sea and he assumes that they migrated from there southeast through the Caucasus with the Armenians remaining after Batumi while the pre-Greeks proceeded westwards along the southern coast of the Black Sea. However, fresh genetics studies explain Armenian diversity by several mixtures of Eurasian populations that occurred between ~3,000 and ~2,000 b. c
Armenians
Armenians
–
Hayk, the legendary founder of the Armenian nation. Painting by
Mkrtum Hovnatanian (1779–1846)
Armenians
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The
Cathedral of Ani, completed in 1001
Armenians
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About 1.5 million Armenians were killed during the
Armenian Genocide in 1915–1918.
9.
Iskar (river)
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The Iskar is, with a length of 368 km, the longest river that runs solely in Bulgaria, and a tributary of the Danube. The Iskar is formed by three rivers, the Chèrni Iskar, Bèli Iskar and Lèvi Iskar, with the source being accepted to be the Prav Iskar, after descending from the north slopes of Rila, it fills the Iskar Reservoir—the largest in Bulgaria and the Lake Pancharevo. The river runs through the outskirts of Sofia and passes through a gorge in the Balkan Mountains. It flows into the Danube near the village of Gigen in Pleven Province, the Iskar is the only river to take its source from southern Bulgaria and cross the Balkan Mountains to flow into the Danube. The Iskar flows through seven provinces of Bulgaria, the city of Sofia, Sofia Province, Pernik Province, Vratsa Province, Pleven Province. This is the source of water for Sofiyskavoda, the water. In terms of geology, the Iskar is the oldest river in the Balkans, Iskar Glacier on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Iskar River
Iskar (river)
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Map of the Iskar
Iskar (river)
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Cherni Iskar Subsidiary at
Govedartsi
Iskar (river)
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The Iskar Gorge in Stara Planina
Iskar (river)
–
Iskar Reservoir
10.
Struma (river)
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The Struma or Strymónas is a river in Bulgaria and Greece. Its catchment area is 10,800 square kilometres and it takes its source from the Vitosha Mountain in Bulgaria, runs first westward, then southward, enters Greek territory at the Kula village. In Greece it is the main waterway feeding and exiting from Lake Kerkini, the river flows into the Strymonian Gulf in Aegean Sea, near Amphipolis in the Serres regional unit. The rivers length is 415 kilometres, parts of the river valley belong to a Bulgarian coal-producing area, more significant in the past than nowadays. The Greek portion is a valley which is dominant in agriculture, the tributaries include the Rila River, the Dragovishtitsa, the Blagoevgradska Bistritsa, the Konska River, the Sandanska Bistritsa and the Angitis. The Ancient Greek city of Amphipolis was founded near the entrance to the Aegean. When Xerxes I of Persia crossed the river during his invasion in 480 BC he buried alive nine young boys, the forces of Alexander I of Macedon defeated the remnants of Xerxes army near Ennea Odoi in 479 BC. In 424 BC the Spartan general Brasidas after crossing the entire Greek peninsula sieged and conquered Amphipolis, the Battle of Kleidion was fought by the river in 1014. In 1913, the Greek Army was nearly surrounded in the Kresna Gorge of the Struma during the Second Balkan War, the Bulgarians were defeated in the war, however, and the Treaty of Bucharest resulted in significant territorial losses for Bulgaria. The river valley was part of the Macedonian front in World War I, the ship Struma, which took Jewish refugees out of Romania in World War II and was torpedoed and sunk in the Black Sea, causing nearly 800 deaths, was named after the river. The name Strymón, was a hydronym in ancient Greek mythology, Strymón was also used as a personal name in various regions of Ancient Greece during the 3rd century BC. Struma Glacier on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Struma River, media related to Struma River at Wikimedia Commons Livius. org, Strymon
Struma (river)
–
The course of the Struma in Bulgaria and Greece
Struma (river)
–
Struma at
Kresna Gorge.
Struma (river)
–
Struma near the city of
Blagoevgrad in winter.
Struma (river)
–
Lion of
Amphipolis -
Via Egnatia, west side of the Strymonas river.
11.
Preslav
–
The modern Veliki Preslav or Great Preslav, former Preslav, is a city and the seat of government of the Veliki Preslav Municipality, which in turn is part of Shumen Province. Veliki Preslav is situated at an altitude of 132 m, a former village, it assumed the name of the medieval capital in 1878 and became a town in 1883. As of December 2009, it has a population of 8,951 inhabitants, the town lies at 43°10′N 26°49′E,92 m above sea level. Preslav was the capital of the First Bulgarian Empire from 893 to 972, the ruins of the city are situated in modern northeastern Bulgaria, some 20 kilometres southwest of the regional capital of Shumen, and are currently a national archaeological reserve. The name of Preslav is of Slavic origin, apparently it was founded and functioned as a Slavic settlement until its fortification at the beginning of the 9th century. The proximity to the then Bulgarian capital of Pliska led to the fast development and expansion of Preslav during the reign of the Khans Krum and Omurtag. By the time of the coronation of Khan Boris I in 852, a number of churches were built in the city after the conversion of the Bulgarians to Christianity in 864. The pagan revolt of the Pliska nobility led by Prince Vladimir in 892 was decisive for the destiny of the city. In the following 80 years the city developed rapidly, turning into a not only of Bulgarian politics and diplomacy, but also of culture, literature. A chronicler mentioned that it took Simeon 28 years to establish, culturally, it was the centre of the Preslav Literary School which was founded in Pliska in 886 and was moved to Preslav along with the rest of the court in 893. The greatest Bulgarian writers from the Old Bulgarian period worked in Preslav, among them John Exarch, Constantine of Preslav and it was probably around the Preslav Literary School that the Cyrillic script developed in middle of the 10th century. The city had also large ceramic workshops which produced art ceramics, glazed tiles, as well as ceramic icons, the citys fortune underwent a dramatic downturn at the end of the 960s, when it was occupied by Kievan Prince Sviatoslav. The ensuing war between Rus and Byzantines left the city burnt and ravaged by the army of Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimisces, the conquerors took away the treasury, the Bulgarian Tsars regalia and a large part of the library of Simeon. Although the city did not lose its importance in the three hundred years, the neighbouring outskirts and the big monasteries became desolate, the economy lost its vitality. Preslav regained some of its importance in Bulgarian politics during the first years of the joint rule of the founders of the Second Bulgarian Empire, Peter IV of Bulgaria and Ivan Asen I. Apparently, Ivan Asen ruled from the centre of the uprising, Tarnovgrad, the strategic advantages of Tarnovgrad were, however, decisive in the long run and the significance of Preslav waned in the course of the 13th century. The Tatar raids during the 1270s drove away the last citizens of Preslav, some of the surviving refugees built up a village of the same name only two kilometres north from the fortress where the contemporary town of Veliki Preslav is now situated. Preslav Crag on Livingston Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Preslav, Preslav treasure Municipality of Veliki Preslav Website of the National Historical and Archaeological Museum Veliki Preslav Primary School Nikolov, A
Preslav
–
Veliki Preslav Велики Преслав
Preslav
–
Ceramic icon of
St Theodore Stratelates, Preslav, circa 900 AD,
National Archaeological Museum, Sofia
Preslav
–
Entrance to the
Round (Golden) Church of Veliki Preslav
Preslav
–
Interior of southern wall of the inner-town of Preslav and ruins of officer's quarters lining the wall
12.
Boris II of Bulgaria
–
Boris II was emperor of Bulgaria from 969 to 977. Boris II was the eldest surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria and Maria Lekapena, Boris had been born by 931, when he had visited Constantinople together with his mother. In 969 a new Kievan invasion defeated the Bulgarians again and Peter I abdicated to become a monk, in circumstances that are not entirely clear, Boris II was allowed to return to Bulgaria and sit on his fathers throne. Boris II was unable to stem the Kievan advance, and found himself forced to accept Sviatoslav of Kiev as his ally and puppet-master, a Kievan campaign into Byzantine Thrace was defeated at Arkadioupolis in 970, and the new Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes advanced northwards. Failing to secure the defense of the Balkan passes, Sviatoslav allowed the Byzantines to penetrate into Moesia, although Bulgarians and Ruses joined in defending the city, the Byzantines managed to set afire the wooden structures and roofs by missiles, and took the fortress. After Sviatoslav had come to terms and set out for Kiev, far from liberating Bulgaria as he had claimed, John brought along Boris II and his family, together with the contents of the Bulgarian imperial treasury in 971. In a public ceremony in Constantinople, Boris II was ritually divested of his insignia and was given the Byzantine court title of magistros as compensation. The Bulgarian lands in Thrace and lower Moesia now became part of the Byzantine Empire and were placed under Byzantine governors. Although the ceremony in 971 had been intended as a termination of the Bulgarian empire. These remained under the rule of their own governors, and especially of a noble family led by four brothers called the Kometopouloi, named David, Moses, Aron, and Samuel. The movement was regarded as a revolt by the Byzantine emperor, as they began to raid neighboring territories under Byzantine rule, the Byzantine government resorted to a stratagem intended to compromise the leadership of this revolt. As Boris II and Roman entered the region under Bulgarian control in 977, Boris II dismounted, mistaken for a Byzantine notable due to his attire, Boris was shot in the chest by a deaf and mute border patrol. Roman managed to identify himself to the guards and was duly accepted as emperor. An unnamed daughter, engaged to the Byzantine Emperor Basil II in 968 An unnamed daughter, the Early Medieval Balkans, Ann Arbor,1983. Jordan Andreev, Ivan Lazarov, Plamen Pavlov, Koj koj e v srednovekovna Bălgarija, settipani, Christian, Continuité des élites à Byzance durant les siècles obscurs. Les princes caucasiens et lEmpire du VIe au IXe siècle, Paris, De Boccard,2006
Boris II of Bulgaria
–
Boris II
Boris II of Bulgaria
–
The Byzantine emperor John Tzimisces returns in triumph in Constantinople with the captured Boris II and Preslav Icon
13.
Samuil of Bulgaria
–
Samuel was the Tsar of the First Bulgarian Empire from 997 to 6 October 1014. As Samuel struggled to preserve his countrys independence from the Byzantine Empire, his rule was characterized by constant warfare against the Byzantines, in his early years Samuel managed to inflict several major defeats on the Byzantines and to launch offensive campaigns into their territory. In the late 10th century, the Bulgarian armies conquered the principality of Duklja and led campaigns against the Kingdoms of Croatia, but from 1001, he was forced mainly to defend the Empire against the superior Byzantine armies. Samuel died of an attack on 6 October 1014, two months after the catastrophic battle of Kleidion. His successors failed to organize a resistance, and in 1018, four years after Samuels death, Samuel was considered invincible in power and unsurpassable in strength. Similar comments were even in Constantinople, where John Kyriotes penned a poem offering a punning comparison between the Bulgarian Emperor and Halleys comet, which appeared in 989. During Samuels reign, Bulgaria gained control of most of the Balkans as far as southern Greece. He moved the capital from Skopje to Ohrid, which had been the cultural and military centre of southwestern Bulgaria since Boris Is rule, because of this, his realm is sometimes called the Western Bulgarian Empire. Samuels energetic reign restored Bulgarian might on the Balkans, and although the Empire was disestablished after his death and his mother was Ripsimia of Armenia, the daughter of King Ashot II of Armenia. The actual name of the dynasty is not known, Cometopuli is the nickname used by Byzantine historians which is translated as sons of the count. The Cometopuli rose to power out of the disorder that occurred in the Bulgarian Empire from 966 to 971, during the reign of Emperor Peter I, Bulgaria prospered in a long-lasting peace with Byzantium. This was secured by the marriage of Peter with the Byzantine princess Maria Lakapina, during these years the Byzantines and Bulgarians had entangled themselves in a war with Kievan Rus Prince Sviatoslav, who invaded Bulgaria several times. After a defeat from Sviatoslav, Peter I suffered a stroke, Boris was allowed back to Bulgaria to take his fathers throne, restore order and oppose Sviatoslav, but had little success. This was allegedly used by Nicholas and his sons, who were contemplating a revolt in 969, the Rus invaded Byzantine Thrace in 970, but suffered a defeat in the Battle of Arcadiopolis. The new Byzantine Emperor John Tzimiskes used this to his advantage and he quickly invaded Bulgaria the following year, defeated the Rus, and conquered the Bulgarian capital Preslav. Boris II of Bulgaria was ritually divested of his insignia in a public ceremony in Constantinople and he. Although the ceremony in 971 had been intended as a termination of the Bulgarian Empire. Count Nicholas, Samuels father, who had ties to the royal court in Preslav
Samuil of Bulgaria
–
reconstruction
Samuil of Bulgaria
–
The Byzantines seize the capital
Preslav.
Samuil of Bulgaria
–
The Byzantine emperor
John Tzimiskes returns in triumph in Constantinople with the captured
Boris II and the Preslav icons.
Samuil of Bulgaria
–
During the civil wars in the Byzantine Empire, the
Bulgarians not only regained their positions in the Balkans, but advanced deep into enemy territory.
14.
Strumica
–
Strumica is the largest city in eastern Republic of Macedonia, near the Novo Selo-Petrich border crossing with Bulgaria. About 100,000 people live in the surrounding the city. It is named after the Strumica River which runs through it, the city of Strumica is the seat of Strumica Municipality. The town is first mentioned in the 2nd century BC with the Hellenic name Αστραίον by Ptolemy and it was later known as Tiveriopolis, it received its present name from the Slavic settlers of the Middle Ages. In modern Greek the town is known as Στρώμνιτσα, and its name in Turkish is Ustrumca, Strumica is located in the southeastern part of the country, close to the borders with Greece and Bulgaria. It is situated in the region of the Strumica Field. The Struma river flows north of the city, while several tributaries flow through the city area, the area was populated later by the Paionians. The name Astraion came from the Paionian tribe called Astrai, in 168 BC Macedonia became a Roman protectorate and was subsequently divided into four regions. Astraion fell into the second merida, in 148 BC Macedonia became a Roman province. During the reign of the Roman emperor Julian the Apostate, the fifteen holy hieromartyrs of Tiveriopolis were killed, in 395, the Roman Empire split, and Macedonia fell under the Eastern Empire. After that, Tiveriopolis became part of the province Macedonia Salutaris in the late 4th century, the urban mansion Machuk dating from the late ancient period today stands witness for the existence of a city settlement from that time. The Roman town suffered major destruction after the Slavic migration in the 6th and 7th centuries, the Strymonites, a Sclaveni tribe, adopted their name after the Strymon river. The Strymonites were independent until the 9th century, following a Byzantine reconquest, from 845 to 855, the Byzantine military administrator of the Bregalnica-Strumica region was Methodius. Later on, the Strumica region was conquered by Bulgarian Khan Boris I, in the 11th century, written sources begin to refer to the town as Slavic Strumica. In the second half of the 13th century the city had been conquered by the Byzantian empire again until the Serbian Kingdom eventually conquered the region. Serbian magnate Hrelja ruled Strumica and the region until 1334. During the Fall of the Serbian Empire, the Strumica region was first ruled by Uglješa, Strumica itself was then governed by Dabiživ Spandulj, who served the Dejanović brothers. The Ottomans finally conquered Strumica in 1383, under Ottoman administration, the town was named Üstrümce
Strumica
–
Goce Delčev Square
Strumica
–
Strumica at the end of the 19th century.
Strumica
–
Monument "Lady with a mask" dedicated to the carnival
Strumica
–
Strumica Town Hall
15.
Vidin
–
Vidin is a port town on the southern bank of the Danube in north-western Bulgaria. It is close to the borders with Romania and Serbia, and is also the centre of Vidin Province. An agricultural and trade centre, Vidin has a fertile hinterland renowned for its wines, the name is archaically spelled as Widdin in English. Old name Dunonia itself meant fortified hill in Celtic with the typically dun found frequently in Celtic place names, Vidin is the westernmost important Bulgarian Danube port and is situated on one of the southernmost sections of the river. The New Europe Bridge, completed in 2013, connects Vidin to the Romanian town of Calafat on the bank of the Danube. Previously, a ferry located 2 km from the town was in use for that purpose, Vidin emerged at the place of an old Celtic settlement known as Dunonia. The settlement evolved into a Roman fortified town called Bononia, the town grew into one of the important centres of the province of Upper Moesia, encompassing the territory of modern north-western Bulgaria and eastern Serbia. When Slavs settled in the area, they called the town Badin or Bdin, similarly, Anna Komnene refers to it as Vidynē in the Alexiad. Vidins main landmark, the Baba Vida fortress, was built in the period from the 10th to the 14th century, in the Middle Ages Vidin used to be an important Bulgarian city, a bishop seat and capital of a large province. Between 971 and 976 the town was the center of Samuils possessions while his brothers ruled to the south, in 1003 Vidin was seized by Basil II after an eight-month siege because of the betrayal of the local bishop. Its importance once again rose during the Second Bulgarian Empire and its despots were influential figures in the Empire and were on several occasions chosen for Emperors, from the mid 13th century it was ruled by the Shishman family. In 1356, Bulgarian Tsar Ivan Alexander isolated Vidin from the Bulgarian monarchy, in 1365, the Tsardom of Vidin was occupied by Magyar crusaders. Under Hungarian rule, the city known as Bodony. In 1369, the Second Bulgarian empire drove out the Hungarian military, the Ottomans went on to conquer the despotates of Dobrudzha, Prilep and Velbazhd as well. Vidins independence did not last long, in 1396 the Ottomans invaded and turned Vidin into a sanjdak. In the late years of Ottoman rule, Vidin was the centre of Turkish rebel Osman Pazvantoğlus breakaway state. In 1853, The Times of London reported that Widdin, as it was called, was a town, with a population of about 26,000. Widdin is one of the important fortified places of the line of the Danube
Vidin
–
Location of
Vidin Province in
Bulgaria
Vidin
–
The central streets of Vidin
Vidin
–
Orthodox Cathedral of St Dimitar (St Dimitrius)
Vidin
–
The Vidin
Synagogue, deserted after
Jewish emigration to
Israel.
16.
Dupnitza
–
Dupnitsa is a town in western Bulgaria. It is at the foot of the highest mountain in the Balkan Peninsula – the Rila Mountain, Dupnitsa is the second largest city in Kyustendil Province. A nickname of the town is the town of pharmacy, Dupnitsa is referred to as The Green and Shady Town, because of its location which makes it quite shady in summer and due to the abundance of trees in the town. Dupnitsa is that is often called The Little Italy of Bulgaria and this nickname comes from the fact that many inhabitants have gone over the years to work and live in Italy and every summer they return to their hometown. The town has existed since Antiquity, the German traveler Arnold von Harff visited Dupnitsa in 1499 and described it as a beautiful town. The names Tobinitsa, Doupla and Dubnitsa are mentioned throughout history, the last one used until the Liberation of Bulgaria, in 1948 the town was renamed Stanke Dimitrov, for a short period in 1949 it was called Marek, the name was changed to Stanke Dimitrov in 1950. After the democratic changes, the old name Dupnitsa was restored, on 15 October 1902, around 600 women and children fled to the vicinity of Dupnitsa from Macedonia from the attacking Turkish troops. On a hill overlooking the town there is a giant cross, commemorating the Bulgarians who perished in the Balkan wars, on the same hill there lay the ruins of a medieval fortress. After ten days in the Dupnitza camp, on 18–19 March they were transferred by train to Lom on the Danube, nowadays Dupnitsa is a fast-developing town combining new buildings with modern architecture with all itse historical monuments. Because of its location at the foot of the Rila mountain. One of the branches of industry is the pharmaceutical company Actavis. Small business is developing rapidly due to the economic growth. Dupnitsa is famous for its cultural festivals, from 1 May to 2 June many festivals are held in the town due to the richness of the Bulgarian holiday calendar. The nightlife is very well developed, there are a lot of local pubs and clubs where young people meet and have fun. A few other places for socializing are the recently refurbished City Park. Using intimidation and extortion, and with the help of corrupt policemen, hristov and Galev are fugitives after having been sentenced to five and four years respectively but are still believed to control the town. Marek was a dominant force in Bulgarian football in the mid-late 1970s, alex Ferguson made his debut as a coach with Aberdeen F. C. here in 1980, where Aberdeen lost to Marek by the score of 3,2. Mareks most memorable victory by the score of 2,0 was against FC Bayern Munich at Mareks home stadium, Bonchuk Stadium, Marek has also won the National Cup in 1978 by defeating CSKA in the final by the score of 1,0
Dupnitza
–
View to the clock tower in Dupnitsa, built in the 17th century
Dupnitza
–
Coat of arms
Dupnitza
–
St. George Orthodox Church in Dupnitsa
Dupnitza
–
The gallery in Dupnitsa seen in the night, former mosque, built on the foundations of an Orthodox church
17.
Roman I of Bulgaria
–
Roman was emperor of Bulgaria from 977 to 991, being in Byzantine captivity thereafter still claiming the title. Roman was the surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria by his marriage with Maria Lekapene. It is possible that he had the double name Roman-Simeon, and he was born around 930, and had probably visited Constantinople with his mother and older brothers soon after 931. On their fathers abdication in 969, Boris and Roman returned to Bulgaria, Roman may have been proclaimed co-emperor in accordance with Byzantine usage, but the evidence for that is vague. In Bulgaria Roman probably shared his brothers destiny, becoming first a pawn in the hands of Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev, after the latters victory in 971, Roman was taken to Constantinople together with his brothers family. To ensure that the Bulgarian dynasty would die out, the Byzantine emperor had Roman castrated, Boris and Roman remained in honorary captivity at the imperial palace until after the death of the emperor in 976. At this point the raids of the Cometopuli into Byzantine possessions in Macedonia led to a Byzantine stratagem intended to divide the leadership of the still-unconquered Bulgarian lands in the west, temporarily jailed, Boris and Roman were allowed to escape in 977. During their attempt to cross the Bulgarian border, Boris II was taken for an enemy, Roman managed to identify himself to the Bulgarian patrols, and was duly recognized by the Bulgarians as emperor. During one of his invasions of Bulgaria, the Byzantine Emperor Basil II succeeded in capturing Roman in 991, Roman remained in Byzantine captivity until his death in 997, and it was only then that Samuel took the Bulgarian imperial title. Such, at least, is the sequence of events reported by the trustworthy historian Yahya of Antioch, Roman-Simeon received the title of patrikios and was named military governor or strategos of the theme of Abydos. The Early Medieval Balkans, Ann Arbor,1983, jordan Andreev, Ivan Lazarov, Plamen Pavlov, Кой кой е в средновековна България, Sofia 1999. John Skylitzes II,455,13 Pavlov, P. Boris i Roman
Roman I of Bulgaria
–
Roman
18.
Constantinople
–
Constantinople was the capital city of the Roman/Byzantine Empire, and also of the brief Latin, and the later Ottoman empires. It was reinaugurated in 324 AD from ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Emperor Constantine the Great, after whom it was named, Constantinople was famed for its massive and complex defences. The first wall of the city was erected by Constantine I, Constantinople never truly recovered from the devastation of the Fourth Crusade and the decades of misrule by the Latins. The origins of the name of Byzantion, more known by the later Latin Byzantium, are not entirely clear. The founding myth of the city has it told that the settlement was named after the leader of the Megarian colonists, Byzas. The later Byzantines of Constantinople themselves would maintain that the city was named in honour of two men, Byzas and Antes, though this was likely just a play on the word Byzantion. During this time, the city was also called Second Rome, Eastern Rome, and Roma Constantinopolitana. As the city became the remaining capital of the Roman Empire after the fall of the West, and its wealth, population, and influence grew. In the language of other peoples, Constantinople was referred to just as reverently, the medieval Vikings, who had contacts with the empire through their expansion in eastern Europe used the Old Norse name Miklagarðr, and later Miklagard and Miklagarth. In Arabic, the city was sometimes called Rūmiyyat al-kubra and in Persian as Takht-e Rum, in East and South Slavic languages, including in medieval Russia, Constantinople was referred to as Tsargrad or Carigrad, City of the Caesar, from the Slavonic words tsar and grad. This was presumably a calque on a Greek phrase such as Βασιλέως Πόλις, the modern Turkish name for the city, İstanbul, derives from the Greek phrase eis tin polin, meaning into the city or to the city. In 1928, the Turkish alphabet was changed from Arabic script to Latin script, in time the city came to be known as Istanbul and its variations in most world languages. In Greece today, the city is still called Konstantinoúpolis/Konstantinoúpoli or simply just the City, apart from this, little is known about this initial settlement, except that it was abandoned by the time the Megarian colonists settled the site anew. A farsighted treaty with the emergent power of Rome in c.150 BC which stipulated tribute in exchange for independent status allowed it to enter Roman rule unscathed. The site lay astride the land route from Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. He would later rebuild Byzantium towards the end of his reign, in which it would be briefly renamed Augusta Antonina, fortifying it with a new city wall in his name, Constantine had altogether more colourful plans. Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the imperial courts, yet it had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location. Constantinople was built over 6 years, and consecrated on 11 May 330, Constantine divided the expanded city, like Rome, into 14 regions, and ornamented it with public works worthy of an imperial metropolis
Constantinople
–
Constantinople in the Byzantine era
Constantinople
–
Map of Byzantine Constantinople
Constantinople
–
Emperor
Constantine I presents a representation of the city of Constantinople as tribute to an enthroned Mary and Christ Child in this church mosaic.
Hagia Sophia, c. 1000
Constantinople
–
Coin struck by Constantine I to commemorate the founding of Constantinople
19.
Tsar
–
Tsar /zɑːr/ or /tsɑːr/, also spelled tzar, csar, or czar, is a title used to designate certain Slavic monarchs or supreme rulers. As a system of government in the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, it is known as Tsarist autocracy, occasionally, the word could be used to designate other secular supreme rulers. Simeon II, the last Tsar of Bulgaria, is the last person to have borne the title Tsar, the title Tsar is derived from the Latin title for the Roman emperors, Caesar. In the history of the Greek language, basileus had originally meant something like potentate and it gradually approached the meaning of king in the Hellenistic Period, and it came to designate emperor after the inception in the Roman Empire. Thus, tsar was not only used as an equivalent of Latin imperator but was used to refer to Biblical rulers. From this ambiguity, the development has moved in different directions in the different Slavic languages, thus, the Bulgarian language and Russian language no longer use tsar as an equivalent of the term emperor/imperator as it exists in the West European tradition. Currently, the term refers to native sovereigns, ancient and Biblical rulers, as well as monarchs in fairy tales. The title of king is sometimes perceived as alien and is by some Russian-speakers reserved for European royalty, foreign monarchs of imperial status, both inside and outside of Europe, ancient as well as modern, are generally called imperator, rather than tsar. Biblical rulers in Serbian are called цар and in Croatian kralj, in the Polish language however tsar is always used as imperator, never as king. The term tsar is very used to refer to the Russian rulers after Peter the Great. In 705 Emperor Justinian II named Tervel of Bulgaria Caesar, the first foreigner to receive this title, the sainted Boris I is sometimes retrospectively referred to as tsar, because at his time Bulgaria was converted to Christianity. However, the tsar was actually adopted and used for the first time by his son Simeon I. Since in Byzantine political theory there was place for two emperors, Eastern and Western, the Bulgarian ruler was crowned basileus as a spiritual son of the Byzantian basileus. In Latin sources the Emperor of Bulgaria is sometimes designated Emperor of Zagora, various additional epithets and descriptions apart, the official style read Emperor and autocrat of all Bulgarians and Greeks. During the five-century period of Ottoman rule in Bulgaria, the sultan was referred to as tsar. This may be related to the fact that he had claimed the legacy of the Byzantine Empire or to the fact that the sultan was called Basileus in medieval Greek, after Bulgarias liberation from the Ottomans in 1878, its new monarchs were at first autonomous prince. With the declaration of independence, Ferdinand I of Bulgaria adopted the traditional title tsar in 1908. However, these titles were not generally perceived as equivalents of emperor any longer, in the Bulgarian as in the Greek vernacular, the meaning of the title had shifted
Tsar
–
Reception of the Tsar of Russia in the
Moscow Kremlin.
Tsar
–
Redrawing of the
epitaph of ichirgu boila Mostich. Translation (the title Tsar is enclosed): “Here lies
Mostich who was
ichirgu-boil during the reigns of Tsar Simeon and Tsar Peter. At the age of eighty he forsook the rank of ichirgu boila and all of his possessions and became a monk. And so ended his life.” Now in the Museum of Preslav.
Tsar
–
Tsar
Dušan of Serbia
Tsar
–
Władysław IV of Poland was the Tsar of Russia during the
Time of Troubles, when the
Polish forces occupied
Moscow.
20.
Basil II
–
Basil II was a Byzantine Emperor from the Macedonian dynasty who reigned from 10 January 976 to 15 December 1025. He was known in his time as Basil the Porphyrogenitus and Basil the Young to distinguish him from his supposed ancestor, the early years of his long reign were dominated by civil war against powerful generals from the Anatolian aristocracy. For this he was nicknamed the Bulgar Slayer, by which he is popularly known and his reign is therefore often seen as the medieval apogee of the Empire. She originated from the Peloponnese, possibly from the city of Sparta, Basils paternal ancestry is of uncertain origins, his putative ancestor Basil I, the founder of the dynasty, being variously ascribed Armenian, Slavic, or Greek origins. Indeed the biological father of Leo VI the Wise was possibly not Basil I, the family of Michael III were Anatolian Greeks from Phrygia, though originally of the Melchisedechian heretical faith. In 960, Basil was associated on the throne by his father, who died in 963. Nikephoros was murdered in 969 by his nephew John I Tzimisces, when Tzimisces died on 10 January 976, Basil II finally took the throne as senior emperor. Basil was a soldier and a superb horseman, and he would prove himself as an able general. Basil waited and watched without interfering, devoting himself to learning the details of administrative business, even though Nikephoros II Phokas and John I Tzimiskes were brilliant military commanders, both had proven to be lax administrators. Skleros was allowed to live, but he ended his days blind, perhaps through disease and these rebellions had a profound effect on Basils outlook and methods of governance. The historian Psellus describes the defeated Bardas Skleros giving Basil the following advice, let no generals on campaign have too many resources. Exhaust them with unjust exactions, to keep them busied with their own affairs, admit no woman to the imperial councils. Share with few your most intimate plans, Basil, it would appear, took this advice to heart. In order to defeat these dangerous revolts, Basil formed an alliance with Prince Vladimir I of Kiev, who in 988 had captured Chersonesos, Vladimir offered to evacuate Chersonesos and to supply 6,000 of his soldiers as reinforcements to Basil. In exchange he demanded to be married to Basils younger sister Anna, the Byzantines viewed all the nations of Northern Europe, be they Franks or Slavs, as barbarians. Anna herself objected to marrying a barbarian ruler, as such a marriage would have no precedence in imperial annals, Vladimir had conducted long-running research into different religions, including sending delegates to various countries. Marriage was not his primary reason for choosing the Orthodox religion, when Vladimir promised to baptize himself and to convert his people to Christianity, Basil finally agreed. Vladimir and Anna were married in the Crimea in 989, the Rus recruitments were instrumental in ending the rebellion, and they were later organized into the Varangian Guard
Basil II
–
Basil II (Βασίλειος Β' ο Βουλγαροκτόνος)
Basil II
–
Basil II and
Constantine VIII, holding cross.
Nomisma histamenon.
Basil II
–
Basil II and his step-father, Emperor Nikephoros II
Basil II
–
Triumph of Basil II through the
Forum of Constantine, from the
Madrid Skylitzes
21.
Battle of the Gates of Trajan
–
The Battle of the Gates of Trajan was a battle between Byzantine and Bulgarian forces in the year 986. It took place in the pass of the name, modern Trayanovi Vrata, in Sofia Province. It was the largest defeat of the Byzantines under Emperor Basil II, after the unsuccessful siege of Sofia he retreated to Thrace, but was surrounded by the Bulgarian army under the command of Samuil in the Sredna Gora mountains. The Byzantine army was annihilated and Basil himself barely escaped, fifteen years after the fall of the Bulgarian capital Preslav, the victory at the Gates of Trajan extended the Bulgarian successes achieved since 976. Later on Tsar Samuil moved the capital from Preslav in the northeast to Ohrid in the southwest, the memory of the great victory over Basil II was preserved thirty years later in the Bitola inscription of Ivan Vladislav, the son of Aron. In addition to the Bitola inscription where the victory of Samuil, commander of the Bulgarian army, is mentioned in summary form, several medieval historians have written accounts for the battle. Not only Byzantine historians wrote accounts for the battle, it was recorded by the Arab chronicler Yahaya of Antioch. More details can be found in the sermon of Saint Photius of Thessaly. In 971, the Byzantine emperor John Tzimiskes forced the captured Bulgarian emperor Boris II to abdicate, the Byzantines had occupied only the eastern parts of Bulgaria, to the west, the four sons of the count of Sredets Nikola continued to rule western Bulgaria. They ruled the territories in a tetrarchy residing in four separate cities in order to fight the Byzantines with higher efficiency. The war against Bulgaria was the first major undertaking carried out by Basil II after his ascension to the throne in 976, although the Bulgarian attacks had begun in that year. One of the reasons for the ten years of inaction was the policy of one of the strongest nobles in Byzantium, Basil, who de facto ruled the Byzantine Empire in the first years of his namesake. During that time, the objective of the government in Constantinople was to crush the rebellion of the military commander Bardas Skleros in Asia Minor between 976 and 979. The local Byzantine governors were left alone to cope with the Bulgarian threat, for one decade in offensive after 976 the Bulgarians achieved major successes. Samuil managed to liberate north-eastern Bulgaria, between 982 and 986 the Bulgarians occupied the main city of Thessaly, Larissa. The constant Bulgarian attacks forced Basil II to take serious actions, in 986, Basil II led a campaign with 30,000 soldiers. The commanders of the armies did not take part in the campaign because they were fighting with the Arabs. The Byzantines marched from Odrin via Plovdiv to reach Sredets, according to Leo Diaconus the objective of their Emperor was to subdue the Bulgarians with one strike
Battle of the Gates of Trajan
–
Ruins of the fortress Gates of Trajan
Battle of the Gates of Trajan
–
Basil II and his stepfather, Emperor
Nikephoros II (right).
22.
Thessaly
–
Thessaly is a traditional geographic and modern administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, Thessaly became part of the modern Greek state in 1881, after four and a half centuries of Ottoman rule. Since 1987 it has formed one of the countrys 13 regions and is further sub-divided into 5 regional units and 25 municipalities, the capital of the region is Larissa. Thessaly lies in central Greece and borders the regions of Macedonia on the north, Epirus on the west, Central Greece on the south, the Thessaly region also includes the Sporades islands. In Homers epic, the Odyssey, the hero Odysseus visited the kingdom of Aeolus, the Plain of Thessaly, which lies between Mount Oeta/Othrys and Mount Olympus, was the site of the battle between the Titans and the Olympians. According to legend, Jason and the Argonauts launched their search for the Golden Fleece from the Magnesia Peninsula, Thessaly was home to extensive Neolithic and Chalcolithic cultures around 6000–2500 BC. Mycenaean settlements have also discovered, for example at the sites of Iolcos, Dimini. In Archaic and Classical times, the lowlands of Thessaly became the home of baronial families, in the summer of 480 BC, the Persians invaded Thessaly. The Greek army that guarded the Vale of Tempe evacuated the road before the enemy arrived, not much later, Thessaly surrendered to the Persians. The Thessalian family of Aleuadae joined the Persians subsequently, in the 4th century BC, after the Greco-Persian Wars had long ended, Jason of Pherae transformed the region into a significant military power, recalling the glory of Early Archaic times. Shortly after, Philip II of Macedon was appointed Archon of Thessaly, the Avars had arrived in Europe in the late 550s. They asserted their authority over many Slavs, who were divided into numerous petty tribes, many Slavs were galvanized into an effective infantry force, by the Avars. In the 7th century the Avar-Slav alliance began to raid the Byzantine Empire, laying siege to Thessalonica, relations between the Slavs and Greeks were probably peaceful apart from the initial settlement and intermittent uprisings. Being agriculturalists, the Slavs probably traded with the Greeks inside towns and it is likely that the re-Hellenization had already begun by way of this contact. This process would be completed by a newly reinvigorated Byzantine Empire, with the abatement of Arab-Byzantine Wars, the Byzantine Empire began to consolidate its power in those areas of mainland Greece occupied by Proto-Slavic tribes. Following the campaigns of the Byzantine general Staurakios in 782–783, the Byzantine Empire recovered Thessaly, apart from military expeditions against Slavs, the re-Hellenization process begun under Nicephorus I involved transfer of peoples. Many Slavs were moved to other parts of the such as Anatolia. In return, many Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought to the interior of Greece, to increase the number of defenders at the Emperors disposal, even non-Greeks such as Armenians were transferred to the Balkans
Thessaly
–
First Ancient Theatre, Larissa.
Thessaly
–
Pineios river with the church of
St. Achilles, patron saint of
Larissa, in the background.
Thessaly
–
"The Hyperian Fountain at
Pherae ",
Edward Dodwell.
23.
Epirus
–
Epirus is a geographical and historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It is currently divided between the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece and the counties of Gjirokastër, Vlorë, the largest city in Epirus is Ioannina, seat of the region of Epirus, with Gjirokastër the largest city in the Albanian part of Epirus. A rugged and mountainous region, Epirus was the north-west area of ancient Greece. It was inhabited by the Greek tribes of the Chaonians, Molossians, and Thesprotians, and home to the sanctuary of Dodona, the oldest ancient Greek oracle, and the most prestigious one after Delphi. Unified into a state in 370 BC by the Aeacidae dynasty, Epirus achieved fame during the reign of Pyrrhus of Epirus. Epirus subsequently became part of the Roman Empire along with the rest of Greece in 146 BC, following the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade, Epirus became the center of the Despotate of Epirus, one of the successor states to the Byzantine Empire. Conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, Epirus became semi-independent during the rule of Ali Pasha in the early 19th century, but the Ottomans re-asserted their control in 1821. Following the Balkan Wars and World War I, southern Epirus became part of Greece, the name Epirus is derived from the Greek, Ἤπειρος, Ḗpeiros, meaning mainland or terra firma. It is thought to come from an Indo-European root *apero- coast, and was applied to the mainland opposite Corfu. The local name was stamped on the coinage of the unified Epirote commonwealth, the Albanian name for the region, which derives from the Greek, is Epiri. The historical region of Epirus is generally regarded as extending from the end of the Ceraunian mountains, located just south of the Bay of Aulon. The northern boundary of ancient Epirus is alternatively given as the mouth of the Aoös river, epiruss eastern boundary is defined by the Pindus Mountains, that form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia and Thessaly. To the west, Epirus faces the Ionian Sea, the island of Corfu is situated off the Epirote coast but is not regarded as part of Epirus. The definition of Epirus has changed over time, such that modern administrative boundaries do not correspond to the boundaries of ancient Epirus, the region of Epirus in Greece only comprises a fraction of classical Epirus and does not include its easternmost portions, which lie in Thessaly. Epirus is a rugged and mountainous region. It is largely made up of the Pindus Mountains, a series of limestone ridges that are a continuation of the Dinaric Alps. The Pindus mountains form the spine of mainland Greece and separate Epirus from Macedonia, the ridges of the Pindus are parallel to the sea and generally so steep that the valleys between them are mostly suitable for pasture rather than large-scale agriculture. Altitude increases as one moves east, away from the coast, reaching a maximum of 2, 637m at Mount Smolikas, most of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus, and the prevailing winds from the Ionian Sea make the region the rainiest in mainland Greece
Epirus
–
Map of ancient Epirus by
Heinrich Kiepert, 1902
Epirus
–
Coin of the Epirote League, depicting Zeus (left) and a lightning bolt with the word "ΑΠΕΙΡΩΤΑΝ" - Epirotes (right).
Epirus
–
NASA satellite image of Epirus.
Epirus
–
Mount Smolikas (2637m), the highest point in Epirus.
24.
Duklja
–
Between 1043 and 1080, under Mihailo Vojislavljević, and his son, Constantine Bodin, Duklja saw its apogee. Mihailo was given the nominal title King of Slavs by the Pope after having left the Byzantine camp and supported a Slavic uprising in the Balkans, in which his son Bodin played a central part. Having incorporated the Serbian hinterland and installed vassal rulers there, this maritime principality emerged as the most powerful Serb polity, between 1113 and 1149 Duklja was the centre of Serbian–Byzantine conflict, with members of the Vojislavljević as protégés of either fighting each other for power. In historiography, K. Jirechek was the first to use Duklja, Doclea was originally the name of the Roman city on the site of modern Podgorica, built by Roman Emperor Diocletian, who hailed from this region of Roman Dalmatia. The Romanized Illyrian tribe known as Docleatae that inhabited the area derived their name from the city, in later centuries, the Romans hypercorrected the name to Dioclea, wrongly guessing that an i had been lost due to vulgar speech patterns. Duklja is the later Slavic version of the name of this region, the demonym, or tribal name, appearing in De Administrando Imperio was Dioklitianoi. According to De Administrando Imperio, in chapter 35, Diokleia included the large, inhabited cities of Gradetai, Nougrade, Gradetai may have been Starigrad, Nougrad may have been Prevlaka, while the location of Lontodokla is uncertain. Since the 12th century, the term Zeta began to replace the name Duklja, DAI mentions Croats and Serbs having settled the Western Balkans, the Serbs having founded baptized Serbia which included the land of Bosna. The other Serb-inhabited lands that were mentioned in the DAI included the maritime Paganija, Zahumlje and Travunija, all of the maritime lands bordered Serbia to the north. The DAI has been a widely used source in reconstructing the earliest histories of the South Slavic states, the DAI claims that Duklja had been made desolate by the Avars and repopulated in the time of the Emperor Heraclius, just as were Croatia and Serbia, by Slavs. Fine argues given that Serbs settled in regions along its borders, ivo Banac proposed that the DAI mention that a part of the Croats split off and took control of Illyricum and Pannonia after settling northern Dalmatia could be connected to Duklja. The dubious Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja, compiled in 1298–1301 by a Cistercian monk in the service of Paul I Šubić of Bribir, refers to Croats in southern Dalmatia. If this is not mere Byzantine confusion over Serbs and Croats, scholars have debated at length as to the reliability of such sources. Ultimately, the origins of Duklja are not known with certainty, moreover, what actually constituted a people in the Middle Ages has been rigorously debated. There is no evidence that peoples known as Serbs or Croats migrated en masse as coherent nations. Rather, some sort of group identity began to form within the Balkans from the late 7th century as Slavic notables formed a system of alliances and this coincides with the final demise of Avar hegemony over the western Balkans. At the same time, the Byzantines had begun to re-establish some control in parts of the Balkans after the 7th century collapse of imperial control, the establishment of the Byzantine theme of Dyrrhachium facilitated diplomatic contacts between the East Romans and the Adriatic Sclaviniae. There is little evidence that a notion of nation-type ethnicity
Duklja
–
Lead stamp of archont Petar (or Predimir) (9th century), a Byzantine viceroy; The Holy Virgin Mary with the Christ Child (left) and inscription in
Greek "+ Petar archont of Dioklia AMIN" (right).
Duklja
–
Duklja within confederacy of Slav principalities during the reign of Časlav Klonimirović, c. 950 AD
Duklja
–
Mihailo I of Duklja, the first recognized ruler of Duklja on a fresco in the Church of St. Michael in
Ston: He was crowned King of Slavs and known as Ruler of Serbs and Tribals. [
by whom?]
Duklja
–
The Church of St. Mihailo in
Ston from 1080, a foundation of King
Mihailo Voislav.
25.
Roman of Bulgaria
–
Roman was emperor of Bulgaria from 977 to 991, being in Byzantine captivity thereafter still claiming the title. Roman was the surviving son of Emperor Peter I of Bulgaria by his marriage with Maria Lekapene. It is possible that he had the double name Roman-Simeon, and he was born around 930, and had probably visited Constantinople with his mother and older brothers soon after 931. On their fathers abdication in 969, Boris and Roman returned to Bulgaria, Roman may have been proclaimed co-emperor in accordance with Byzantine usage, but the evidence for that is vague. In Bulgaria Roman probably shared his brothers destiny, becoming first a pawn in the hands of Prince Sviatoslav I of Kiev, after the latters victory in 971, Roman was taken to Constantinople together with his brothers family. To ensure that the Bulgarian dynasty would die out, the Byzantine emperor had Roman castrated, Boris and Roman remained in honorary captivity at the imperial palace until after the death of the emperor in 976. At this point the raids of the Cometopuli into Byzantine possessions in Macedonia led to a Byzantine stratagem intended to divide the leadership of the still-unconquered Bulgarian lands in the west, temporarily jailed, Boris and Roman were allowed to escape in 977. During their attempt to cross the Bulgarian border, Boris II was taken for an enemy, Roman managed to identify himself to the Bulgarian patrols, and was duly recognized by the Bulgarians as emperor. During one of his invasions of Bulgaria, the Byzantine Emperor Basil II succeeded in capturing Roman in 991, Roman remained in Byzantine captivity until his death in 997, and it was only then that Samuel took the Bulgarian imperial title. Such, at least, is the sequence of events reported by the trustworthy historian Yahya of Antioch, Roman-Simeon received the title of patrikios and was named military governor or strategos of the theme of Abydos. The Early Medieval Balkans, Ann Arbor,1983, jordan Andreev, Ivan Lazarov, Plamen Pavlov, Кой кой е в средновековна България, Sofia 1999. John Skylitzes II,455,13 Pavlov, P. Boris i Roman
Roman of Bulgaria
–
Roman
26.
Gavril Radomir
–
Gavril Radomir was the emperor of Bulgaria from October 1014 to August or September 1015. He was the son of tsar Samuel, during his fathers reign, his cousin Ivan Vladislav and Ivans entire family were all sentenced by Samuel to death for treason. He is said to have saved his fathers life in the defeat of the Battle of Spercheios. Around the same time that Emperor Basil II captured the bulk of Samuels army, Gavril, having inherited Samuels war with the Byzantine Empire, Gavril Radomir raided Byzantine territory, reaching as far as Constantinople. However, the Byzantines secured the assistance of Ivan Vladislav, who owed his life to Radomir, Vladislav murdered Radomir while hunting near Ostrovo, and then took the throne for himself. Some sources connect Gavril Radomir with the medieval dualist sect, Bogomilism and his son Peter Delyan played a role in attempting to secure independence for Bulgaria several decades later. История на българската държава през средните векове, Том I, От славянизацията на държавата до падането на Първото царство. Златарски4. Приемниците на цар Самуил и покорението на България от Василий II Българоубиец, history of Bulgaria Comitopuli dynasty Bitola inscription
Gavril Radomir
–
The sarkophaguses of Bulgarian Tsars Samuil, Gavril Radomir and
Ivan Vladislav in Agios Achilios, Greece.
27.
Ivan Vladislav
–
Ivan Vladislav ruled as emperor of Bulgaria from August or September 1015 to February 1018. The year of his birth is unknown, he was born at least a decade before 987, saved from death by his cousin Gavril Radomir, the Bulgarian Emperor, in 976, Ivan Vladislav murdered him in October 1015 and seized the Bulgarian throne. After the failure of the negotiations he continued the resistance, attempting unsuccessfully to push the Byzantines back, Ivan Vladislav left a mixed heritage, varying from a reputation of being ruthless murderer to a hero defending his country as best as he could. The descendants of Ivan Vladislav entered the Byzantine nobility and rose to the highest ranks of the hierarchy, two women of his family became empresses of the Byzantine Empire and others became military commanders or high-ranking officials. He was an ancestor of the Byzantine emperor John II Komnenos, Ivan Vladislav was the son of Aron, the brother of Emperor Samuel of the Cometopuli dynasty. In 976 or 987 Samuel ordered his brother Aron executed for treason together with his family near Razmetanitsa. Ivan Vladislav was the survivor, being spared through the intercession of his cousin. His life during the subsequent decades and until his accession is unknown, however, from the outset Radomirs position was insecure, Ivan Vladislav, as a son of the elder of the Cometopouli brothers, could lay claim on the throne based on seniority. During that time the Byzantine king Basil II campaigned deep into Bulgarian territory and he retook the previously lost town of Voden and laid siege to the massive fortress of Maglen, situated to the north-west. Gavril Radomir did not have enough forces and was unable to interfere and his inability to cope with the Byzantine threat aroused discontent among the nobility and Ivan Vladislav became their chosen leader. The fall of Maglen sealed Gavril Radomirs fate—in the late summer of 1015, while hunting near Ostrovo, he was murdered by his cousin, Ivan Vladislav then seized the Bulgarian throne and took steps to ensure his position against potential rivals. After assuming the throne, Ivan Vladislav immediately sent a delegation to Basil II, Basil II soon understood that Ivan Vladislavs letter was a ruse and plotted a retaliatory action, bribing the kavkhan Theodore, who was in Byzantine captivity, to murder the Bulgarian ruler. Theodore in turn paid a man in Ivan Vladislavs employ to commit the murder. In the meantime Basil II continued his march, forcing the Bulgarian emperor to retreat to the Albanian mountains, with his supply routes cut, Basil II had to retreat back to Thessalonica leaving a small garrison in Ohrid, which was swiftly retaken by the Bulgarians. Back in his base at Mosynopolis, Basil divided the Byzantine army to harass the areas of Strumitsa, in January 1016 the Byzantine emperor returned to Constantinople. Meanwhile, Ivan Vladislav consolidated his positions in the mountains of Albania and Macedonia, as early as October 1015 he began the reconstruction of many strongholds destroyed during the war, including the fortress at Bitola. In 1016 he invited his vassal Prince Jovan Vladimir of Doclea, the emperor probably desired to seize the prince and so secure his western flank. The Prince was determined to attend the invitation of Tsar, but his wife Theodora Kosara did not trust the murderer of her brother, Ivan Vladislav however vowed not to threaten his vassals life, and sent him a golden cross as a proof of good will
Ivan Vladislav
–
A victory of the Byzantines over the Bulgarians, from the
Madrid Skylitzes. After 1001 Basil II launched annual campaigns on Bulgarian territory, reversing the odds of war into the Byzantines' favour. Many Bulgarian fortresses had been conquered by force or treason by the time Ivan Vladislav came to the throne.
Ivan Vladislav
–
The capture of Nikulitsa by the Byzantines. The death of Ivan Vladislav was a blow for the Bulgarian resistance. Only a few nobles continued the struggle with the Byzantines such as
Ibatzes and
Nikulitsa.
Ivan Vladislav
–
The sarkophaguses of Bulgarian Tsars Samuil,
Gavril Radomir and Ivan Vladislav in Agios Achilios, Greece.
Ivan Vladislav
–
The
Bitola inscription is a medieval stone inscription written in
Old Church Slavonic during the Ivan Vladislav's reign. He is titled "autocrat of the Bulgarians", "born Bulgarian" and notes that he renewed the fortress of
Bitola for "a salvation and sanctuary of the Bulgarians".
28.
Presian II of Bulgaria
–
Presian II was emperor of Bulgaria for a short time in 1018. The year of his birth may have been 996/997, he may have died in exile in 1060/1061, Presian II was the eldest son of Emperor Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria and his wife Maria. Although the capital Ohrid also surrendered, some of the nobility, the young emperor and his brothers, Aron and Alusian, headed a determined opposition to the Byzantine conquest in and around the Albanian mountain Tomorr during a long Byzantine blockade in 1018. Eventually Presian II and his brothers were forced to surrender and were integrated into the nobility in Constantinople. There Presian was granted the court title of magistros, mirroring the last Bulgarian ruler to be deposed by the Byzantines. About a decade later, in the late 1020s, Presian became involved in the conspiracy of his sisters husband, Romanos Kourkouas, returning from exile after the accession of Romanos III Argyros in 1029, Presian was once again implicated in a plot, together with Maria. This time Presian was planning to marry Theodora, a daughter of Constantine VIII, the plot was discovered, Presian was blinded and tonsured as a monk in 1030. The Early Medieval Balkans, Ann Arbor,1983, detailed List of Bulgarian Rulers Plamen Pavlov
Presian II of Bulgaria
–
Presian II
Presian II of Bulgaria
–
Tonsure of Presian, from the
Madrid Skylitzes, Fol. 203v
29.
Alusian of Bulgaria
–
Alusian was a Bulgarian and Byzantine noble who ruled as emperor of Bulgaria for a short time in 1041. Alusian was the son of Emperor Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria by his wife Maria. Together with his older brother Presian II he attempted to resist Bulgarias annexation by the Byzantine Empire in 1018, in the Byzantine Empire Alusian joined the ranks of the court aristocracy and was appointed governor of the theme of Theodosioupolis. Alusian was deprived of estates and fined a hefty amount for alleged misdeeds. Hearing of the uprising of his second cousin Peter Delyan against the emperor in 1040, Alusian fled the Byzantine court. Alusian was welcomed by Peter, who gave him an army with which to attack Thessalonica, the siege however was raised by the Byzantines, and the Bulgarian army was defeated. Alusian barely escaped and returned to Ostrovo, one night in 1041, during dinner, Alusian took advantage of Peters inebriation and cut off his nose and blinded him with a kitchen knife. Since Alusian was of the blood of Tsar Samuel, he was proclaimed emperor in Peters place by his troops. As the Bulgarian and Byzantine troops were preparing for battle, Alusian deserted to the enemy, as a reward, his possessions and lands were restored to him and he was given the high court rank of magistros. The same title had been granted earlier to other deposed emperors of Bulgaria, namely Boris II in 971, alusians subsequent fate is unknown, but his descendants, the Alousianoi, continued to prosper in the ranks of the Byzantine aristocracy until the 14th century. Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6
Alusian of Bulgaria
–
Alusian (centre) appears before
Peter Delyan and the Bulgarian camp. Miniature from the
Skylitzes Chronicle.
Alusian of Bulgaria
–
After its
unsuccessful attack on Thessalonica, the Bulgarian army under Alusian flees. Miniature from the
Skylitzes Chronicle.
Alusian of Bulgaria
–
Alusian invites Peter Delyan to a banquet and has him blinded. Miniature from the
Skylitzes Chronicle.
30.
Tomorr
–
Mount Tomorr is a large mountain located in modern-day southern Albania. Its highest peak, called Çuka e Partizanit, reaches a height of 2,416 m, the mountain is located east of the towns of Berat and Poliçan and the Osum river not far from the Osum Canyon. Mount Tomorr is a site to both Christians, who climb it on Assumption Day to honor the Virgin Mary, and the Bektashi. According to German folklorist Maximilian Lambertz, Baba Tomor is the remnant of an Illyrian deity, mount Tomorr offers many sports facilities such as skiing. For its importance and beauty, the Albanian government declared it a National Park, the Tomorr Mountain National Park covers an area of 24,723 hectares. Many endangered species are free to roam and live there, TMNP on Berat Guide TMNP on Albanian Tourist
Tomorr
–
Town of Berat and Mount Tomorr in the distance.
Tomorr
–
Mount Tomorr.
